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Biological Species: populations where individuals are able to interbreed to produce viable offspring. Speciation occurs when there is a dramatic change and the population of species are no longer able to interbreed. Thus resulting in the formation of a new species. Two populations of species that are reproductively isolated have little to no gene flow in between them. There are two main types of mechanisms that reproductively isolate two groups of species. 1) Pre-zygotic 2) Post-zygotic When species are not able to mate or when eggs cannot be fertilized. There are a total of 5 different forms of prezygotic isolating mechanisms When species have a specific signal or behaviour it prevents closely related species from interbreeding. Both birds are very similar in appearance. Due to the differences in their song, these birds do not interbreed. Western Meadowhalk Eastern Meadowhalk When two species live in the same area but have different habitats, they rarely interact with one another. Garter snake (thamnophis sirtalis) prefers open areas. Garter snake (thamnophis ordinoides) commonly found near water. Temporal conditions refers to time of day, year and seasons. Some organisms mate at different times which limits their interaction. This is very common in flower species. Some species that are closely related do not have compatible genital anatomy. This incompatibility prevents them from mating. This is very common in insects, for it behaves as a lock-and-key system. Plants also have different structures that prevent the pollen from fertilizing the flower. This occurs when a species’ gametes are not able to meet. The gametes are not able to survive within the female’s reproductive tract which prevents the gametes from interacting. There are times when the sperm and egg meet, however the zygote cannot develop into a viable offpsring. As a result, species still remain distinct from one another because their genetic information does not combine. There are 3 different post-zygotic mechanisms. When the genetic information is not compatible between species. This prevents the zygote from undergoing mitotic division, and the zygote cannot develop further. When two species can mate and produce viable offspring. The hybrid offspring cannot undergo regular meiosis and cannot produce eggs or sperm. The hybrid offspring is thus sterile and cannot propagate its genes into the population. Two organisms are able to mate and produce viable and fertile offspring. When the hybrid species mate, their offspring are weak and sterile. This limits the amount of generations in which genes can propagate within the population. In order for speciation to occur, populations of organisms need to be genetically isolated from one another. Speciation can happen in two main ways depending on the gene flow between the populations. 1) Sympatric Speciation 2) Allopatric Speciation Occurs when the gene flow is interrupted due to the divison of the population into subpopulations. Separation can occur due to river, water level change, geological remodeling etc. The separated gene pools evolve due to different selective pressures in their environment. Because the population is small, allopatric speciation is more likely to occur over a shorter period of time. Occurs when populations live in the same geographical area and become reproductively isolated. Because these species live in the same geographical area, there needs to be a change in their genetic information. Most of sympatric speciation is due to chromosomal changes and non-random mating. Example 1: Polyploidy Causes Error a reproductive barrier in cell division resulting in an extra set of chromosomes. During meiosis, if the cells fail to separate properly, cells become diploid instead of haploid. Their ability to self-fertilize enables these diploid cells to fuse with one another to produce tetraploid species. These polyploid cells cannot be crossed with a haploid or else it would form triploid cells which are infertile. When two species interbreed they produce a sterile offspring. However, the sterile offspring is able to reproduce asexually, thus creating a new population of species. Eventually this polyploid population grows because of self-fertilisation. Divergent Evolution: Species that were similar to the ancestral species diverge and become increasingly distinct. Convergent Evolution: Similar traits arise because different species have independently adapted to similar envrionmental conditions. Gradualism: views evolution as a slow and steady pace before divergence. Big changes occur due to an accumulation of small changes. This pattern of evolution is very rare within the fossil record. Views evolution as long periods of stasis where no change occurs, which are later interrupted by periods of divergence. Species usually undergo a dramatic change when they are first isolated and then stabilize. This is the most common pattern shown in the fossil history. Allopatric speciation may occur when humans perform the following activities Convert large stretches of wilderness into croplands Develop wilderness areas for recreation or tourism Build roads Build urban subdivisions The following human activities cause a bottleneck effect within the population. Unregulated hunting Habitat removal