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Genotypes and Phenotypes Genotype Phenotype Genetic make-up of an individual Observable characteristics of an individual Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Genetic Foundations Chromosomes – store and transmit genetic information Genes – segments of DNA located along the chromosomes DNA – substance of which genes and chromosomes are made. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 DNA and Mitosis Mitosis-duplicate DNA with a slight change Meiosis- duplicate is exactly the same-helps create genetic diversity Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chromosomes, Cells, and Sex: Terminology-which person determines the sex of a baby? Autosomes The 22 pairs of chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes • 23rd pair of chromosomes Sex • Determines sex Chromosomes • XX = female, XY = male Gametes Zygote Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sex cells: Sperm and ova Sperm and ovum united Twins Fraternal/Dizygotic Two zygotes, or fertilized ova Identical/Monozygotic One zygote that divides into two individuals Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Alleles Two forms of the same gene Appear at the same place on both chromosomes in a pair One inherited from each parent Homozygous - the two alleles are alike Heterozygous - the alleles differ Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Dominant-Recessive Inheritance Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 X-Linked Inheritance Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Incomplete Dominance and Polygenetic Inheritance Incomplete Dominance Both alleles of a single gene are expressed Results in combined trait or intermediate between the two Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Polygenic Inheritance Many genes combine to influence a trait Genetic Imprinting and Mutation Imprinting Mutation Chemical marker that activates either father’s or mother’s gene Often temporary Sudden, permanent change in a DNA segment Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Chromosomal Abnormalities Down Syndrome Problems with the 21st chromosome Sex Chromosome Abnormalities Problems with the X or Y chromosomes Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reproductive Choices Genetic counseling Prenatal diagnosis and fetal medicine Genetic testing Adoption Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Reproductive Technologies Donor Insemination In Vitro Fertilization Surrogate Mother New Technologies Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Genetic Counseling Helps couples: Assess chances of hereditary disorders Choose best course of action Risks Family goals Recommended when: Couple has had difficulties Aware of genetic problems Woman is over 35 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Prenatal Diagnostic Methods Amniocentesis Chorionic Villus Sampling Fetoscopy Ultrasound Maternal Blood Analysis Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Amniocentesis and Chorionic Villus Sampling Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Adoption and Adjustment Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Environmental Contexts for Development Family Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning Affluence Poverty Neighborhoods, Towns and Cities Cultural Context Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Family Influences on Development Direct Two-person relationships Indirect Third Parties Adapting to Change Changes from within and outside the family Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Socioeconomic Status (SES) Social Status Years of education Job prestige and skill required Economic Status Income Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning Timing and duration of family life cycle Values and expectations Father’s involvement Communication and discipline styles Children’s cognitive development Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Risks of Affluence Alcohol and drug use Anxiety Depression Unavailable parents Overscheduled Demanding Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Importance of Regularly Eating Dinner as a Family Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Who is Poor? 12% in U.S. and Canada Parents under age 25 with young children Elderly living alone, especially women Ethnic Minorities Women Children Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Children in Poverty: U.S. and Canada 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 All Children Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Native American African American Latino Native Canadian Benefits of Strong Community Ties for Children and Adults Social interaction, activities Cooperation to provide clean, safe environment Participation in important tasks Mutual assistance Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Extended Families Three or more generations living together More common in many minority cultures Benefits Reduces stress of poverty Assistance for all generations Emotional bonds, support Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Individualist and Collectivist Societies Individualist Collectivist People define People define themselves as themselves as part separate from of a group other people Stress group goals Largely concerned over individual with personal goals needs and goals Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Poverty in Late Adulthood Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Indicators of Children’s Health and Well-Being U.S. Rank Childhood Poverty 23 Canadian Rank 16 Infant Death 26 16 Teen Pregnancy 28 21 Education Spending 10 6 Health Spending 16 4 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 How Much Does Heredity Contribute to Behavior? Heritability Estimates Portion of individual differences attributable to genetics Ranges from 0 to 1.00 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Concordance What percent of the time do twins both show a trait? Ranges from 0 to 100% Range of Reaction Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Genetic-Environment Correlation Passive Correlation Evocative Correlation Active Correlation Niche-picking Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 The Epigenetic Framework Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007