Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Lecture 19 Homework Review Apoptosis and Cancer Office Hours This Week: Today ~ 5:30- 7:30pm Next Two Lectures: Cell-Cell Interactions/Tissues Early Development and Stem Cells For Exam III- You are not responsible for any material in assigned chapters relating to Plants! Apoptosis: Regulated Cell Death Role in Killing of Unneeded, Damaged, or Potentially Deleterious Cells Occurs in Embryonic and Adult Tissues Proteins Involved are Always Present in Cells- Needs to Be Activated by Stimuli Can Result From: Developmental Cues Withdrawl of Essential Growth Factors DNA Damage Various Cell Stresses Programmed Cell Death • Cell Death Occurring at a Defined Point in Development • Usually proceeds by Apoptosis Mouse Paws Not All Cell Death is Apoptotic Oncosis and Necrosis: Apoptosis: Unregulated Cell Death Due to Injury An Active Regulated Process Cell Swells (Oncosis) DNA Fragmentation Chromatin Condensation Nucleus Swells Disruption of Organelles and Rupture/Release of Contents Contents Released into Extracellular Space Fragmentation of Nucleus Cell Shrinks Formation of Membrane Enclosed Fragments called Apoptotic Bodies Recognition and Engulfment by Phagocytic Cells or Neighboring Cells The Morphological Changes of Apoptosis Are Orchestrated by Caspases Cysteine Proteases that cleave at Aspartic Acid Residues Activate Apoptosis by Cleaving Specific Substrates Present but inactive in cells Two Main Types of Caspases: 1) Initiators- Need to dimerize to become active “induced proximity” 2) Executioner (Effector) - Need to be proteolytically cleaved to become active - Cleavage is usually Mediated by Initiator Caspases Zymogens Caspase Activation Amplification Cascade Once Executioners are Activated their Key Targets of Proteolysis Include: 1)An Inhibitor of a DNAseLeads to Fragmentation of DNA 2)Nuclear LaminsLeads to Fragmentation of Nucleus 3)Other Cytoskeletal Associated ProteinsLeads to Disruption of Cytoskeleton and Cell Fragmentation 4)Additional Caspases Main Pathways Regulating Caspase Activation During Apoptosis Intrinsic Pathway- Mitochondrial Mediated Major Pathway in Mammalian Cells – Outer Mitochondrial Membrane Permeabilization (MOMP) – Release of Cytochrome C from Mitochondrial Intermembrane Space into Cytosol – Apoptosome Formation- Activation of Initiator Caspase – Effector Caspases Activated Extrinsic Pathway- Signaling through Death Receptors – – – – Ligand Bound Death Receptors Adaptor Protein Association Initiator Caspase Recruitment and Activation Effector Caspases Activated Intrinsic Pathway of Apoptosis Activation MOMPs cytochrome c Release Apoptosome Formation: Adaptor (Apaf1), dATP cytochrome c and procaspase complex Association of Adaptor with Procaspase allows Procaspase self cleavage Active Initiator Caspase Cleaves Effector Caspases Which now Cleave Targets Critical Regulators of Cell Death Bcl-2 Family – Regulate whether MOMPs Occurs Anti-Apoptotic Factors - Death Inhibitors A) Function to Inhibit MOMPs by Pro Apoptotic Factors Pro-Apoptotic Factors- Death Activators A) Bind and inhibit Death Inhibitors B) Directly cause Permeabilization of MOM to Stimulate Release of Cytochrome C ( BAX AND BAK) IAP Family (Inhibitor of Apoptosis) Bind Procaspases prevent activation Bind Caspases and inhibit Activity Survival Factor Signaling is Required to Prevent Apoptosis Programmed Cell Death in Neuronal Development Survival Factors Signaling Can Function to Keep Anti-Apoptotic Factor Bcl-2 Active No Survival Signal Bcl-2 Complexes with Bad Can’t prevent BAK and BAX Mediated MOMPs Extrinsic Pathway of Apoptosis Activation: Signaling through the Death Receptors Ligand Bound Death Receptors Target cells : Adaptor Protein and Procaspase Recruitment Viral Infected Cells or Cancer Cells Initiator Caspase Activation Removal of Excess Lymphocytes after Infection Effector Caspases Activated Cancer Cancer is a Disease of Cells that Proliferate at Inappropriate Times and Locations in the Body. Tumors (Neoplasms) - Masses of cells derived from a single abnormally proliferating cell. Tumors are Clonal 1. Benign- Noninvasive, Do not affect other tissues 2. Malignant- Cancerous, Locally Invasive and May Spread Tumors are classified by cell type from which they arise. 1. Carcinoma- 90% of human cancers- Malignacy of Epithelial Cells 2. Sarcomas – Rare, Solid tumors of connective tissue, such as bone, muscle, cartilage, and fibrous tissue. 3. Leukemias and Lymphomas- 7% of cancers, Blood forming cells and cells of immune system 4. Neuroectodermal- Cells of central or peripheral nervous system The Development of Cancer is a Multistep Process Initial Cell Proliferating Abnormally Tumorigenesis Occurs by Clonal Expansion: Yields Population of Cells More Abnormal and More Adapted Proliferate, Survive, Invade and Metastasize Intravasation: Malignant cells gain access blood vessels and lymphati system and spread Typically requires four to six different mutations Metastasis: Malignant cells Establish in distant organs Cancer Cells are Characterized by Several Distinct Properties when Grown in vitro Key Characteristic Contact Inhibition of Growth Growth Factor Requirements Anchorage Dependence Cell Cycle Checkpoints Karyotypic Profile Proliferative Life Span Normal Cell Cancer Cell Present Absent High Low Present Absent Intact Absent Normal Abnormal Finite Indefinite Cancer cells are also: Defective in Differentiation Fail to Undergo Apoptosis Cancer Cells Are Created when Certain Genes are Mutated Mutations can be Inherited, Introduced by Viruses, or Result of DNA Damage (exposure to a mutagen) 1. Oncogenes - Gene whose presence can trigger inappropriate cell proliferation. Example: ras, bcl-2 (Normal version of gene: Proto-oncogene) 2. Tumor Suppressors- Gene whose absence or inactivation can lead to cancer Usually Function to Block Cell Cycle Progression Example: p53, Rb DNA Repair Genes- Increase Rate of Mutation, provide opportunity for mutation in growth controlling genes, increase rate of tumor progression Cancer Cells Are Created When Certain Genes are Mutated Activation of Oncogene Can Also Occur By: Overexpression of Protooncogene Inhibition of Tumor Suppressor Genes Translocations that create hybrid proteins Oncogenes are Found in Mitogen and Growth Factor Signal Transduction Pathways Mutation of Proto-oncogeneConstitutively Active Downstream Signal Transduction Pathway Inactivation of Tumor Suppressor Rb Common Target for Viruses that Cause Tumors (along with p53) Cancer Cells Exhibit Unlimited Proliferative Ability Cancer cells avoid senescence by inactivating tumor suppressor genes, p53 and Rb. Cancer Cells will continue to divide for a period of time Crisis Point – Large number of Cancer Cells Die- Result of catastrophic rearrangements- due to lack of telomerase Rare Occasion A Cell Survives- It is Immortalized. At some point- derepressed telomerase expression ~ 90% of cancer cells express significant levels of telomerase