Download Ch. 2 Chemistry

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prepared by Vince Austin,
Bluegrass Technical
and Community College
CHAPTER
Elaine N. Marieb
Katja Hoehn
Human
Anatomy
& Physiology
SEVENTH EDITION
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
2
PART A
Chemistry
Comes Alive
Human Blood Collection Bellringer – NOT to turn in

Blood is collected from your patient and treated so it will not clot.
This blood is placed in a long narrow tube that is placed vertically on a
laboratory bench. In an hour, all the blood cells have settled to the
bottom of the tube, leaving the rest of the tube filled with a clear,
yellowish liquid called plasma. Why did the blood cells settle out of
the blood?

A. blood is an acidic solution of cells and plasma that sticks to the tube

B. blood is a mixture of solids and gases that react with the air


C. blood is a solution of Na+ and CL– ions that react to form a
precipitate
D. blood is a suspension of cells in plasma that settles by gravity
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Human Blood Collection Bellringer – NOT to turn in

Blood is collected from your patient and treated so it will not clot.
This blood is placed in a long narrow tube that is placed vertically on a
laboratory bench. In an hour, all the blood cells have settled to the
bottom of the tube, leaving the rest of the tube filled with a clear,
yellowish liquid called plasma. Why did the blood cells settle out of
the blood?

A. blood is an acidic solution of cells and plasma that sticks to the tube

B. blood is a mixture of solids and gases that react with the air


C. blood is a solution of Na+ and CL– ions that react to form a
precipitate
D. blood is a suspension of cells in plasma that settles by gravity
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Matter

Anything that has mass and takes up space

States of matter

Solid – has definite shape and volume

Liquid – has definite volume, changeable shape

Gas – has changeable shape and volume

All are important in Anatomy & Physiology
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Composition of Matter


Elements – unique substances that cannot be
broken down by ordinary chemical means
Atoms –building blocks for each element
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Major Elements of the Human Body

Oxygen (O)

Carbon (C)

Hydrogen (H)

Nitrogen (N)
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Lesser and Trace Elements of the Human Body

Lesser elements make up 3.9% of the body and
include: Calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), potassium
(K), sulfur (S), sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl),
magnesium (Mg), iodine (I), and iron (Fe)

Trace elements make up less than 0.01% of the
body
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
If given an element, identify if it is…

A major element of the body

A lesser element of the body

A trace element of the body

Vitamin Labels
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Molecules and Compounds


Molecule – two or more atoms held together by
chemical bonds
Compound – two or more different kinds of atoms
chemically bonded together (water or H2O is an
example)
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Mixtures and Solutions

Mixtures – two or more components physically
intermixed (not chemically bonded)

Example: blood cells in blood

Most mixtures can be separated by physical means

Solutions – homogeneous mixtures of components

Example: electrolytes such as Na+Cl-, K+CL-, etc.

Solvent – substance present in greatest amount

Solute – substance(s) present in smaller amounts
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic

Covalent

Hydrogen

Importance of polar and nonpolar molecules
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Factors Influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions

Catalysts – increase the rate of a reaction without
being chemically changed

Enzymes = biological catalysts
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Biochemistry

Organic compounds


Contain carbon, are covalently bonded, and are
often large
Inorganic compounds

Do not contain carbon

Water, salts, and many acids and bases
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Salts (NaCL, KCL, Na2SO4, etc.)

Inorganic compounds

Contain cations other than H+ and anions other
than OH–

Are electrolytes; they conduct electrical currents
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Acids and Bases

Acids release H+ and are therefore proton donors
HCl  H+ + Cl –

Bases release OH– and are proton acceptors
NaOH  Na+ + OH–
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Acid-Base Concentration (pH)

Acidic solutions have higher H+ concentration and
therefore a lower pH

Alkaline solutions have lower H+ concentration
and therefore a higher pH

Neutral solutions have equal H+ and OH–
concentrations
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Acid-Base Concentration (pH)

Acidic: pH 0–6.99

Basic: pH 7.01–14

Neutral: pH 7.00

Blood has pH ~ 7.4

Most body fluids pH 7.2 – 7.6
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Buffers

Chemical systems that resist abrupt and large
swings in the pH of body fluids

Example: Carbonic acid-bicarbonate system in
blood

Carbonic acid dissociates, reversibly releasing
bicarbonate ions and protons

The chemical equilibrium between carbonic acid
and bicarbonate resists pH changes in the blood
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Bicarbonate Buffer System Removes Acid

If blood is too acidic:

HLac(aq) + HCO3-(aq) ↔ Lac-(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

Lactic Acid + Bicarbonate

If blood is too basic (alkaline):

H2CO3(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)
Carbonic Acid
Lactate + Carbonic Acid
Protons + Bicarbonate
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Organic Compounds

Molecules unique to living systems contain carbon and
hence are organic compounds

They include 4 important macromolecular biochemical
polymers:

Carbohydrates

Lipids

Proteins

Nucleic Acids
}
Be able to identify from
descriptions or pictures
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Carbohydrates

Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

Their major function is to supply a source of
cellular food

Examples:

Monosaccharides or simple sugars
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Figure 2.14a
Carbohydrates

Polysaccharides or polymers of simple sugars
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Figure 2.14c
Lipids

Contain C, H, and O, but the proportion of oxygen
in lipids is less than in carbohydrates

Examples:

Neutral fats or triglycerides

Phospholipids

Steroids

Eicosanoids
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Neutral Fats (Triglycerides)

Composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol
molecule
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Figure 2.15a
Other Lipids

Steroids – flat molecules with four interlocking
hydrocarbon rings
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Figure 2.15c
Representative Lipids Found in the Body




Neutral fats – found in subcutaneous tissue and
around organs
Phospholipids – chief component of cell
membranes
Steroids – cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin D, sex
hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
Fat-soluble vitamins – vitamins A, E, and K
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Amino Acids

Building blocks of protein, containing an amino
group and a carboxyl group

Amino group NH2

Carboxyl groups COOH
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Amino Acids
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Figure 2.16a–c
Examples of proteins
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Protein

Macromolecules composed of combinations of 20
types of amino acids bound together with peptide
bonds
Peptide bond
H
H
R
O
N
C
C
OH
H
Amino acid
+
H
H
R
O
N
C
C
OH
H
Amino acid
Dehydration H O
2
synthesis
Hydrolysis
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H
H2O
H
R
O
H
R
O
N
C
C
N
C
C
H
H
OH
Dipeptide
Figure 2.17
Fibrous and Globular Proteins

Fibrous proteins

Extended and strand-like proteins

Examples: keratin, elastin, collagen, and certain
contractile fibers
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Fibrous and Globular Proteins

Globular proteins

Compact, spherical proteins with tertiary and
quaternary structures

Examples: antibodies, hormones, and enzymes
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Characteristics of Enzymes

Frequently named for the type of reaction they
catalyze

Enzyme names usually end in -ase

Lower activation energy of a reaction
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Nucleic Acids

Composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
and phosphorus

Their structural unit, the nucleotide, is composed
of N-containing base, a pentose sugar, and a
phosphate group
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Nucleic Acids


Five nitrogen bases contribute to nucleotide
structure – adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C),
thymine (T), and uracil (U)
Two major classes – DNA and RNA
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Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Double-stranded helical molecule found in the
nucleus of the cell

Replicates itself before the cell divides, ensuring
genetic continuity

Provides instructions for protein synthesis
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Structure of DNA
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Figure 2.22b
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Source of immediately usable energy for the cell

Adenine-containing RNA nucleotide with three
phosphate groups
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings