Download The Late Roman Army - Nipissing University Word

The World of the Late Roman
Empire and
The Late Roman Army
1.
2.
3.
The Historical Context
The most important Changes to the Army
The End of the Roman Army
The Roman Empire Under Trajan
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The Context
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Empire reached greatest territorial extent under Trajan (AD 98-117)
Successive emperors Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138161) – only made adjustments to frontier, any territorial additions
only to facilitate frontier defences
Brief period of peace
Marcus Aurelius (161-180) first signs of strains on military resources
in his reign
Responded with important changes: creation of field armies as
distinct from provincial armies already stationed in region: brought
together army units from different parts of Empire = vexillation;
Promotion of military commanders based on suitability not on class
or progressive stages of traditional cursus honorum
By end of 2nd century the rudiments of the two important changes
in army organization apparent.
Trajan annexes Dacia
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“After spending some time in Rome, Trajan made a campaign
against the Dacians; for he took into account their past deeds
and was grieved at the amount of money they were receiving
annually, and he also observed that their power and their
arrogance were increasing…Trajan constructed over the
Danube a stone bridge for which I cannot sufficiently admire
him…Trajan, having crossed the Danube by means of this
bridge, conducted the war with safe prudence rather than
with haste; and eventually, after a hard struggle, vanquished
the Dacians…Decabulus, when his capital and all his territory
had been occupied and he was himself in danger of being
captured, committed suicide; and his head was brought to
Rome. In this way Dacia became subject to the Romans and
Trajan founded cities there.” (Cassius Dio, 68.6.1-13.1-4.)
The Political Context at end of 2nd
century AD
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Rome still capital of undivided Empire and seat of
Emperor
Senate somewhat curtailed, but still exercised auctoritas
Political and military advancement went hand in hand,
following stages of cursus honorum (civilian and military
posts)
Legionary legates, most provincial governors were
senators
Equites had limited opportunities to rise to high posts;
but avenues to rise to power: governors of Egypt were
equestrian prefects (Imperial provinces)
The Frontiers
Variety of different frontier types: some were open
roads; some followed lines of rivers; some had physical
barriers: ditches, Hadrian’s Wall in England (overkill) –
consisted of ditch to north, wide stone wall with turrets,
mile-castles and forts, larger ditch to south (vallum)
 Germany –the limen (palisade fronted by a ditch) built
by Hadrian, later replaced by bank of earth
 In Raetia – a stone wall; Africa – stretches of stone
walls; most frontier provinces had legionary fortresses in
interior; Rhine and Danube – rivers formed boundaries –
legions stationed at strategic points close to river banks
 Auxiliary troops stationed in forts on frontier lines; most
frontiers had small fortlets, with watchtowers in between
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The Army
Size of Legions about 5500 – 6000 Roman
citizens
 Auxiliary units: 3 types – alae (cavalry); cohortes
peditatae (infantry); mixed units of both foot
and horsement (cohortes equitatae); 500 strong
or 1000;
 Citizenship granted after 25 years of service
 Recruitment of legions and auxiliary units mostly
from local population living around forts
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Army Reforms of Septimius Severus
(Emperor AD 193-211)
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probably as an attempt to make service more attractive
Privileges: 1. gave legal sanction to soldiers’ marriage; 2. increase in
pay
Cash always most effective way to coerce army; military revolts put
down or deflected by large donatives.
Now large part of Empire’s resources went to army
Both Cassius Dio and Herodian accused Severus of bleeding the
Empire dry.
Easier Promotions: possible to rise from ranks to officer status, from
there to Praetorian Guard, even to equestrian posts of civil service
and even further.
Appointed equestrians to command three new legions he raised;
installed equestrian prefect as governor of Mesopotamia
Advancement of non-senators not Severus’ innovation, influence of
Senate gradually weaker; made appointment of equestrians only
more formal
Cassius Dio 79.13:
the example of Agrippa and Triccianus
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“he sent Agrippa to Dacia and Decius Triccianus to
Pannonia. The former had been a slave acting as
tireman for some woman and had stood trial before
Severus for that very reason, though he had been
counsel for the imperial treasury; banished later to an
island for the betrayal of some cause, he had
subsequently been recalled, along with the others, by
Tarautas, had had charge of his judicial decisions and
correspondence, and finally had been relegated to the
position of senator with the rank of ex-praetor, because
he had admitted immature lads into the army. Triccianus
had served as a private soldier in the contingent from
Pannonia, had once been doorkeeper to the governor of
that province, and was at this time commanding the
Alban legion. “
Cassius Dio on Septimius Severus
75.2.
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“There were many things Severus did that
were not to our liking, 3 and he was
blamed for making the city turbulent
through the presence of so many troops
and for burdening the State by his
excessive expenditures of money, and
most of all, for placing his hope of safety
in the strength of his army rather than in
the good will of his associates in the
government”
Cassius Dio 77.15
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“ At all events, before Severus died, he is
reported to have spoken thus to his sons
(I give his exact words without
embellishment): "Be harmonious, enrich
the soldiers, and ignore all other men."
Reforms of Septimius Severus
continued
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Most important reform: increase in size of army
Marcus Aurelius had recruited two new legions;
Severus raised extra auxiliary units
Raised 3 new legions; 2 left in garrison in new
province of Mesopotamia; 1 garrisoned in Alba
ca. 20 miles outside Rome
Increased numbers of Praetorian Guard and
Urban Cohorts
Estimated he had 30,000 men in Italy at his
disposal
The Field Army vexillum
in the 3rd century
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Origins of 4th century field army found in Septimius Severus’ new legions
Severus did not intend legion as mobile reserve but as support for his throne when
away from Italy
troops mobile but slow – took 60 days to march from Rome to Cologne – better to
call them reserve for the II Parthica – used this army in this capacity by successors:
was with Caracalla when he was murdered, then at Apamaea with Emperor Macrinus,
then in Germany under Severus Alexander, then at siege of Emona with Maximus, at
Milan in 258 with Emperor Gallienus
Emperors commanded armies composed of vexillations from different legions, alae
and cohortes of provincial armies; expeditionary armies –
3rd and 4th centuries presence of Emperor necessary at place of fighting – emperor at
different bases: Cologne, Trier, Milan, Verona, and others became headquarters of
Imperial armies at different times
Mobility extremely important – Cavalry more important to defend against rebels and
usurpers
Met requirements of time: no conquest but to counter sudden attacks on Roman high
command by barbarians or usurpers, often by both at same time.
The Third Century Crises
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Empire confronted by several crises at same time.
Usurpers: Power struggle between commanders of provincial legions.
Barbarian Attacks across the Rhine and Danube by increasingly organized
and effective German confederacies (i.e. Goths, Franks, Alemanni etc.) and
across the Euphrates from invigorated Persian Empire (Sassanid Persia);
Repeated simultaneous invasions on two fronts.
Several devastating plagues.
Massive economic failure.
Power struggles required loyalty of troops; Raises in pay; devastation of
land and disruption of trade caused by internal and external invaders
reduced available resources; debasement of coinage and hyperinflation –
increases in pay for the troops.
One brief period of stability – 253-268 (Age of Gallienus)
Generally – shift in leadership towards the military aspect
Emperor Gallienus 253 - 268
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AD 255 created cavalry army when defending Rhine
frontier and in need for rapid movement; assembled
from legionaries from Rhine, Pannonia and Noricum,
brought II Parthica and Praetorians from Rome perhaps
into one standing force.
From 259 this cavalry was based at Milan under
commander Aureolus who was in charge to prevent
Gallic usurper Postumus from invading Italy
Danger to have a single person in command; Aureolus
could not resist temptation – rebelled against Gallienus,
did not gain throne but was murdered, cleared path,
however, for Claudius II Gothicus (268-70)
Reforms of Diocletian
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Placed detachments along frontiers; strengthened
defenses, rebuilt forts and garrisoned them
Division of Empire into short-lived 4 parts (Tetrarchy)
under its own Augustus or Caesar chosen by Diocletian;
in attempt to prevent civil war
Creation of comitatus (field army)?
In Republic and early Empire – comites were members
of entourage of magistrates, provincial governors
More official under Marcus Aurelius and the Severans,
body of officers accompanying emperor on campaign;
not purely military but also administrative
Probably made up of different troops
Creation of protectores?
Constantine AD 307-337
When aming at throne was in similar position as
Gallienus – facing multiple and hostile opposition
forces
 Assembled army of troops from Britain, added
Gauls and Germans from Rhine; but could not
strip north-western frontier of all its troops would open himself up to attack.
 Defeated Maxentius at Milvian bridge
 Zosimus 2.15 claims he was outnumbered by
100,000 - - his defeat of Maxentius termed
miraculous
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Reforms of Constantine
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After victory at Milvian Bridge, was left with remnants of Maxentius’
armies, and his own assembled field army. Could not disband it –
until position secured
Made distinctions between mobile units of comitatenses and
Imperial bodyguard – the scholae palatinae under direct command
of Emperor; preventing power praetorian prefects had in past
Comitatenses divided into cavalry – commanded by new posts
magister equitum
and infantry, commanded by magister peditum
single mobile army centered around Emperor unable to keep peace
in all parts of Empire
Creation of regional field armies in different areas, especially in
Germany, Illyricum and east, each with own commander: magister
Separation of ripenses (field army) and limitanei (frontier army)
The Roman Army in the 4th Century
By 4th century the Imperial Roman Army
was the Army of the Late Empire
 Successful until the two great disasters:
Adrianople AD 378 – destroyed the
eastern army
 Frigidus AD 394 - destroyed western
army
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