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CHAPTER 4 Classical Civilizations in the Mediterranean and Middle East Chapter Outline Summary Introduction Persian Defeat at Marathon and Thermopylae Legend of Pheidippides Persian defeat at Marathon 490 B.C.E. Ran 26 miles to bring news to Athens, dropped dead Modern Olympic Games race named for feat Commemorates military victory and civic love Persian king Xerxes amassed army 2-1 Athenians retreated to island, watched their city burn Themistocles, Athenian leader, tricks Persians to sea battle Battle at Thermopylae in narrow channel Persians defeated Defeat highlights two major civilizations in eastern Mediterranean and Middle East Persian Empire, durable presence in region around Iran Greek city-states culture spread in Hellenistic world Impact of classic civilizations of Mediterranean region between 800 B.C.E. and 476 C.E. Centered first in Greek peninsula, then Rome Limited control over Middle Eastern civilizations Westward push Institutions, values affect on Europe, later Middle East, Americans Challenge Discern leading features of Greco-Roman culture Compare with other classical civilizations Recognize western legacy without misapprehending world impact Distinguish between Greek and Roman legacies Romans preserved Greek achievements Not identical Greeks: interested in science Romans: interested in engineering Greeks: formed city-states, poor at empire Romans: excellent at empire Greeks: stronger impact in eastern Mediterranean Romans: law and language greater impact in Europe Shared Greco-Roman legacy: Political ideas Religion and artistic styles Economic structures Persian Empire surpassed Greece for several centuries Impact in Middle East, eastern Mediterranean Interaction with Greek culture a result of Hellenistic world I. The Persian Empire: A New Perspective in the Middle East 550 B.C.E., Cyrus the Great The Persian Empire: northern Middle East into northwest India Conquered peoples retained culture such as cuneiform Advanced iron technology Enormous impact A. Political Styles and Innovations Emphases Toleration of diversity Authoritarianism Little power sharing Darius (successor to Cyrus) Centralization of laws, tax collection Unified infrastructure Paved roads Connecting Indian border with Mediterranean and Egypt Movement for commerce and troops Regularly spaced inns, rest and change of horses Postal service Growth of new trans-regional trade Centralized bureaucracy Control of officials in distant regions of empire Oversight of tax collection Zoroasterianism Zoroaster (630—550 B.C.E. Revised Sumerian polytheism Introduced monotheism Banned intoxicants and animal sacrifice Doctrines Life a battle between two divine forces: good and evil Individual salvation a free choice of God over evil Last judgment The righteous gain heaven, “House of Song” The evil gain eternal pain Spread widely among emperors and population alike Enormous effect on Judaism, Christianity, Islam Small groups of Zoroastrians survive today Distinctive painting and architecture, spread beyond borders Durability Long period of peace, prosperity in Middle East Conquests included North Africa and Indian River valley At height, empire of 14 million people Persia proper (present day Iran) 4 million people Persian language and culture survived Hellenistic period Persian states persisted in east II. Patterns of Greek and Roman History River valley civilizations spread to Greek islands Greeks Indo-European people By 2000 B.C.E., Crete showed influence of Egypt By 1400 B.C.E., Mycenae on Greek peninsula Influenced by Crete Memorialized by Homer, Trojan War Waves of invaders Destroyed by 800 B.C.E. A. Stages of Greek Development 800 B.C.E.—600 B.C.E. Mountainous terrain Rapid rise of city-states Tyranny of one Aristocratic council Extensive trade Common cultural forms Common written language, derived from Phoenician alphabet Shared celebrations Olympic Games Two leading city-states Sparta: military aristocracy, slave population Athens: commercial, use of slaves, proud of artistic, intellectual leadership 500 and 449 B.C.E. Sparta, Athens, smaller states together defeated Persian invasion During and after this period, high point of Greek, especially Athenian, culture Period of colonization Eastern Mediterranean Southern Italy 5th Century B.C.E. Rule of Pericles in Athens Aristocrat Democratic political structure Citizens assemblies Elected officials Passed laws Pericles ruled by negotiation, influence Constrained further expansion Could not prevent war between Athens and Sparta 431–404 B.C.E. Peloponnesian Wars 338 B.C.E. Philip II of Macedon conquered Greek city-states Son, Alexander the Great extended Macedonian Empire Middle East, Persia, into India, through Egypt Alexander died at age 33 after 13 years of conquest Successor states ruled regionally Hellenistic period Extended, consolidated Greek art and culture Blended with Middle Eastern forms Trade flourished Scientific centers flourished like at Alexandria B. Rome Represents final stage of classical Mediterranean civilization 1st century C.E., Rome subjugated Greece and Hellenistic kingdoms Origin of Roman state Local monarchy in central Italy around 800 B.C.E. 509 B.C.E., aristocrats drove out monarchy Established Roman Republic Republic Regional conquests Expansion Punic Wars 264 to 146 B.C.E. Carthage Hannibal Rome seized western Mediterranean, including Greece and Egypt Political instability Ambitious generals Rebellion of the poor 45 B.C.E. Julius Caesar defeated adversaries in civil war, ends Republic 27 B.C.E. Augustus Caesar triumphed, instituted structure of Roman Empire 200 years of peace, prosperity to Mediterranean world and up into Europe 180 C.E. marks beginning of slow fall for next 250 years Invaders overturned the government in Rome in 476 C.E. Manifestation of decline Trade levels fell Birth rate fell Government less effective Two strong emperors: Diocletian and Constantine 313 C.E. Constantine tried to unite empire under Christianity In west government local Empire unable to supply order or justice Armies filled with non-Romans Inability to defend against influx of invaders Similar timing, experience as Gupta India and Han China Summary Mediterranean civilization built on earlier cultures Took firm shape in Greek city-states Introduced diverse political forms Commercially based economy Colonies Decline of city-states Macedonian conquest Formation of Hellenistic world from Middle East to Egypt Roman Republic Distinguished by political virtue, stability Embarked on conquests Replaced Republic with Empire Empire Controlled Mediterranean Western, southeastern Europe North Africa 200 years of peace, prosperity, glory III. Greek and Roman Political Institutions Politics extremely important “Politics” derived from “polis” the Greek word for city-state Athenian and Roman concept of “the good life” Political participation Discussing affairs of state Geo-political influence City-states surrounded by several hundred square miles Relatively small Intense local identification, sense of ownership Concern for rights and obligations Civic military duty Even under Empire Local city-states relatively autonomous Pride in Roman citizenship Concept of active citizenship unique to Mediterranean civilization No unifying set political institutions to rival imperial China Diverse political forms, comparatively more similar with India Later societies, reflected on diverse Mediterranean political forms Monarchy not preferred Rule by “tyrants” common “Tyranny” a Greek term Effective rulers Promoted public works Protected common people from abusive aristocracy Hellenistic kings adopted these attributes Roman generals adopted these attributes A. Greece Democracy (derived from Greek demos, “the people”) Alternative political form 5th century B.C.E. Athens Rejected aristocratic rule and tyrants Direct democracy General assemblies All citizens members Those present made all major decisions of state Met every 10 days Executive officers, judges Chosen for brief terms Subject to review by assembly Chosen by lot Women had no political rights Half of adult males not citizens Slaves Foreigners Not like today Did elicit widespread political participation and devotion Embodied democratic principles consistent with today Pericles led Athens during period of highest glory Weakness of direct democracy apparent during Peloponnesian Wars Majoritarian politics Pursuit of reckless policy for private ends Aristocratic assembly the most common political structure Deliberations established guidelines for state policy Check on executive power Sparta an example Military aristocracy Imposed rigorous military service on elites Power over large slave population Pericles in Athens was an aristocrat “Aristocracy” derives from Greek “rule of the best” Belief in class capable of political virtue B. Rome Roman Republic Constitutional attempt to reconcile political forms Reliance on principle of aristocracy Citizen assemblies Elect magistrates No legislative action Magistrates Represent interests of common people Senate Legislative body Composed mainly of aristocrats Executive offices Composed of senators Two Consuls Shared primary executive power Dictator Appointed during crises Ideal of public service Cultivated in Senate Eloquent public speaking Interest in the general good Classical Mediterranean political theory Aristocratic political culture Political participation Political ethics Duties of citizens Importance of incorruptible service Political skills like oratory Cicero, senator and author of political theory Contrast with Confucianism Greater emphasis on participation in deliberative bodies Greater emphasis on analysis of political forms Roman Empire Retained strong local autonomy Outright overthrow of distant rule, exceptional Example, dissolution of Jewish state in 63 C.E. Response to major local rebellion General tolerance for local customs and religions Preserved Senate, though more as form than content Strong, well-organized army Codified, equitable law Roman Law Greek precedent 8th century B.C.E. Athens Balance between property rights and needs of the poor Access to law courts, administered by fellow citizens Roman precedent 450 B.C.E., Twelve Tables Restraint on upper-class arbitrary action Shared legal principles between wealthy and commoners Roman Law of Roman Empire Principle of rule of law not of individuals Steadily took over role of fathers, landholders in some instances Principle that law should be flexible to circumstance without varying widely Principle that common sense should prevail Principle of law as primary regulator of social life Expansion of citizenship Roman-appointed judges Uniform laws Unified property and commercial law Principle that officials are subject to the law Principle that law should be fair and reasoned Government functions Concentration on system of courts and the military Securing supplies of grain Public works Roads, harbors for military transport and commerce Stadiums, public baths City of Rome Over 1 million inhabitants “Bread and circuses” policy Gladiators and other entertainments Cheap food Colonies of Romans also given theaters, stadiums, baths, etc. Particularly important for Romans stationed far away such as in England Official religion Religious festivals Reinforced loyalty to state Other religions tolerated as long as not in conflict with state loyalty Attacks on Christians Irregular Result of Christian refusal to pay respects to state Chief political legacies of Mediterranean world Localism Fervent political interests Intense loyalty to the state Diversity of political systems Preference for aristocratic rule Importance of law Unusually elaborate and uniform set of legal principles Sheer accomplishment of Roman Empire Unifying a region never before or since bound together There was attention to careful legal procedures There was no clear definition of individual rights With the exception of first 200 years of Roman Empire, war not uncommon Sometimes, emphasis on duty to state could lead to a totalitarian framework Sparta such an example IV. Religion and Culture Greeks and Romans did not create world religion India, Persia, some extent China, did Christianity developed arose during Roman Empire Spread eased by Roman infrastructure and peace Religion itself not a product of Greco-Roman culture Would become influenced by Greco-Roman world Of historical importance only after Empire began its decline Greco-Roman religion Spirits of nature as gods and goddesses involved in human affairs Greek and Roman pantheons differently named, but much the same Pantheon reflected natural phenomena, occupations, literature, history Political importance of ceremonies to the gods Foretelling future Bringing good harvests, etc. A. Religious Values Greco-Roman religion this-world, human orientation Stories like soap operas Engendered literary tradition Common heritage with India Gods and goddesses Expression of human passions and foibles Symbols of inquiry into human nature Focus on manipulating human affairs and meanings Different from Indian interest in higher planes of spirituality Lack of spirituality divided Greco-Roman population Ordinary people drawn to mystery religions coming out of Middle East Provided greater solace in times of difficulty Sense of contact with the divine Upper-classes dissatisfied with lack of ethical content Established moral philosophies Moral systems such as Aristotle’s in Greece, Cicero’s in Rome Focus on personal moderation, balance in human behavior Stoics emphasized inner moral independence, discipline, and bravery Various moral systems were major contributions Developed independently from religion Later blended with Christianity B. Philosophy and Science Classical philosophy and political theory Emphasized powers of human thought Socrates in Athens (b. 469 B.C.E.) Question conventional wisdom Chief duty: improvement of the soul Athenian government thought he was undermining loyalty Gave Socrates choice of suicide or exile Socrates chose suicide Legacy: rational inquiry demands skeptical questioning Greek interest in rationality Some similarity with Confucianism Greater emphasis on questioning and abstract speculations Carry over into inquiry concerning physical nature No radically new scientific findings from Greece or Rome Focus on rational order Speculations concerning universal structure Mathematical constructs Greek, Hellenistic work in geometry impressive Theorems of Pythagoras Hellenistic scientific advancement, especially from Middle East and Egypt Anatomy Galen on medical treatment Euclid on geometry Ptolemy on sun’s rotation around the earth Contradicted Middle Eastern knowledge Became standard Western belief for extended period Roman science Taught Greek and Hellenistic science at school Roman engineering unique achievements Roads Aqueducts Arches Art and literature conveyors of Greco-Roman values Religion inspired art Human-centered qualities themes Realistic portrayals Beauty of the human form Gods as foils for explorations into human nature Sappho, female Greek poet around 600 B.C.E. Dance and music vital to festivals but precise styles not well preserved Drama central role in culture Comedies and tragedies Emphasis on tragedies Human reason, balance precarious virtues Humans easily ensnared in emotion and uncontrollable consequences Sophocles’ Oedipus, term still used as a psychological condition Epic tradition Iliad, Odyssey attributed to Homer in the 8th century B.C.E. Virgil used epic form to link Roman and Greek histories and myths Rome contributed to poetic form Demonstration of richness of Latin language Dramas performed for thousands of people Visual arts Sculpture Example: Phidias in 5th century B.C.E. Athens Romans continued heroic-realist tradition Architecture Greeks invented “classical” architecture Monumental construction Square or rectangular Columned porticos Doric, Ionic, Corinthian columns Filled with sculptures Roman engineering Grander scale Domes Uses in Rome: Public everyday spaces: temples, baths, marketplaces Private homes: villas around courtyards Structures for popular entertainments: chariot races, gladiators Roman style blended with Christianity during the later empire Greeks also pursued ceramics Romans also pursued painting V. Economy and Society in the Mediterranean Politics and formal culture urban phenomena Majority of Greeks and Romans were farmers Local rituals and festivals Tied to concerns like harvest Concerns for an afterlife Free farmers owned their land Substantial population in Greece and Rome Constant tension with large landholders Attempts to appropriate land Force free farmers into tenancy Issue of free farming Shaped politics between tyrants and aristocrats Shaped politics between democrats and aristocrats Decline of Roman Republic Result of too many farmers’ dependency on large landowners Lost ability to vote freely A. Agriculture and Trade Greek and much Italian soil unsuitable for grain though grain necessary Shifted production to olives and grapes For cooking and wine Forced conversion to market economy Capital investment needed Adequate sales needed to purchase life’s necessities Reason so many farmers went into debt Gave advantage to large landholders Production to scale Greater access to capital Commercial agriculture chief reason to establish empire Greeks, especially Athens, established colonies to gain access to grain production Traded olive oil, wine, manufactured products, silver Rome, sought its granary in Sicily and then North Africa Heavy grain cultivation in North Africa led to soil depletion Accounts for later reduced agricultural fertility Trade key concern Private merchants transported goods Governments invested in regulatory practices and infrastructure Luxury items from craftsworkers embellished upper-class lifestyles Desired luxury items from India and China Western disadvantage as their products were cruder Exported animal skins, exotic African animals, precious metals Status of merchants Higher than China Less than India In Greece, merchants usually foreign In Rome, clearly recognized but not fully accepted as patricians B. Slavery Slaves key ingredient of classical economy Athens Justified in Aristotle’s philosophy Households Silver mines, especially brutal condition Sparta Agricultural work Rome Households Tutoring children of elites Cultured Greeks highly valued Mines Agricultural work Steady spread from final years of Republic Theme Slaves necessary Slaves come from conquered territories Increased need for military expansion Technology Greek improvements Shipbuilding Navigation Roman improvements Engineering urban living, troop movements, etc. Little interest in agricultural or manufacture improvements Upper-class interests in politics and art Slave labor inhibited need for efficiency Family Tight patriarchal family structure Women had vital economic functions in farming and agricultural households Upper class Roman women influential in housholds In law and culture, women inferior Female infanticide practiced Potential drain on family economy Husbands had considerable rights over wives Roman law modified traditional family controls Many Greek and Roman women active in business Women could control urban property, even if only a minority share Generalizations Few can be made as the classical Mediterranean world was diverse Many people lived as farmers in the manner of their ancestors Tempting to remember only urban achievements These exerted the greatest influence on later ages Ordinary life had its own influence Posed own challenge, opportunity for new movements like Christianity VI. Toward the Fall of Rome Fall not like Han China No disruption, revival pattern of civilization Fall not like Gupta India No central religion to link civilizations Further complications Collapse not uniform across territory No single civilization rose to claim mantle of Greco-Roman world No across-the-board maintenance of institutions or values Greco-Roman world would live on but selectively A. A Complex Legacy 600 years of Persia, Greece, Hellenistic period 600 years of Rome Greek legacy Political ideas Art and philosophy Not polities Not religion Complication in North American appropriation of Greco-Roman world Self-conscious roots in US Constitution and theory of framers Public buildings copied from classical models Western education steeped in Greco-Roman history However no straight line between worlds Greater direct line with Middle Eastern legacy Many revivals and modifications before Greek science impacted Europe Democracy did not spread out of Greece Complication regarding Persia Hellenistic conquest mutual cultural exchange Greek forms introduced in Persia Persian bureaucracy, centralization copied by Hellenistic kings Zoroastrianism gained wider range of influence Judaism, Christianity, Islam influenced No tidy homogenization Later Persian kings reasserted Persian ways Middle East point of exchange between merchants and cultures Global Connections A. Persia, Greece, Rome, and the World Persia Fostered trade Roads facilitated commerce Greeks Developed contacts more slowly, with more prejudices Similar to China in attitude to non-Greeks Non-Greeks “barbarians” Sparta closed to foreigners Greeks traders, colonists Traveled to Egypt to learn science Herodotus (484—425 B.C.E.) widely traveled historian Alexander the Great extended Greek culture and contacts Empire not lasting but interest in contacts remained Rome Varied world connections beyond borders Germanic and Celtic peoples introduced to Roman styles Trade with Africa in northeast Expeditions to India for commercial outreach Most ties within vast empire but not exclusively Outreach affected trading patterns and missionary work even in decline Chapter Summary The First Marathon. In 490 B.C.E. a Greek soldier named Pheidippides ran to bring the Athenians the news of the defeat of the Persian army at Greek hands, at Marathon. This was the first “marathon,” later to become a lasting feature of the modern Olympics. The Persian attack on Greece followed a revolt of the Greek city-states on the western edge of the Persian Empire. Xerxes, the Persian king, assembled an army and fleet that should have made his victory sure. However, Themistocles, leading the Athenian forces, used his knowledge of the coastline to lure the Persians into the narrow waters off Thermopylae. The Persian fleet was defeated and Xerxes took flight. The two civilizations that confronted each other at Thermopylae developed along different lines. The Greek civilization, initially covering an area dwarfed by the Persian Empire, was later spread by the conquests of Alexander to western Asia and the eastern Mediterranean. This Hellenistic culture was to have an enduring influence. Chapter Summary. The classical civilizations that sprang up on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea from about 800 B.C.E. until the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 C.E. rivaled their counterparts in India and China in richness and impact. Centered first in the peninsula of Greece, then in Rome, the new Mediterranean culture did not merely constitute a westward push of civilization from its earlier bases in the Middle East and along the Nile. They also represent the formation of new institutions and values that would reverberate in the later history of the Middle East and Europe alike. For most Americans, classical Mediterranean culture constitutes “our own” classical past. We can clearly recognize the connections and our own debt without adhering to the notion that the Mediterranean world somehow dominated the classical period. Greco-Roman history is one of the three major classical civilizations, more dynamic than its Chinese and Indian counterparts in some respects but noticeably less successful in others. Classical Mediterranean civilization is complicated by the fact that it passed through two centers during its centuries of vigor. Roman interests were not identical to those of Greece, although the Romans carefully preserved most Greek achievements. For several centuries, the Persian Empire far surpassed Greece in significance, certainly in the Middle East but also in the eastern Mediterranean more generally. The Empire established significant traditions still visible in present day Iran and generated one of the significant religions in world history, in Zoroastrianism. The Persian Empire: A New Perspective in the Middle East. The Persians developed different political and cultural values than the Greeks. They influenced many historical currents, including modern Iran. About 550 B.C.E., Cyrus the Great established a Persian empire as successor to the Mesopotamian states of the past. The Persians allowed traditional cultures to continue, and advanced iron technology. Political Styles and Innovations. Persian politics featured several emphases. The first was wide tolerance. The Persian Empire embraced a host of languages and cultures, and the early Persian rulers were careful to grant considerable latitude for this diversity. Second, however, was a strong authoritarian streak aimed at centralizing law, and tax collection. Third, Persian rulers invested in infrastructure to facilitate communication, commerce, and the movement of troops. They built expansive roads dotted with inns, and established the first postal system. These achievements would help connect the Middle East to trade routes coming from central and eastern Asia, a vital step in the growth of new trans-regional commercial connections. The religious leader Zoroaster introduced a religion emphasizing the importance of choosing between the divine forces of good and evil; a last judgment decided whether one deserved eternal heaven or eternal pain. The religion retained a wide hold for a considerable period of time and its ideas and beliefs strongly affected Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Persian rulers expanded the empire and provided much of the Middle East with a long period of peace and prosperity. Although ultimately conquered by Alexander, Persian language and culture remained influential. After the Hellenistic period, a series of Persian empires arose in the northeastern part of the Middle East, competing with Roman holdings and later states. Persian art would affect not only the region, but also India and the wider Middle East. Patterns of Greek and Roman History. Even as Persia developed, a new civilization took shape to the west, building on a number of earlier precedents. The island of Crete showed the results of Egyptian influence by 2000 B.C.E. An early kingdom in southern Greece, strongly influenced by Crete, developed by 1400 B.C.E. around the city of Mycenae. This was the kingdom later memorialized in Homer’s epics about the Trojan War. Mycenae was then toppled by a subsequent wave of Indo-European invaders, whose incursions destroyed civilization on the peninsula until about 800 B.C.E. Stages in Greek Development. The rapid rise of civilization in Greece was based on the creation of strong city-states ruled by either a tyranny of one ruler or an aristocratic council. Trade developed rapidly, as did common cultural forms, shared festivals such as the Olympic Games, and a written language derived from the Phoenician alphabet. Sparta and Athens came to be the two leading city-states. The first represented a strong military aristocracy; the other was a more diverse commercial state, justly proud of its artistic and intellectual leadership. Between 500 and 449 B.C.E., the two states cooperated, along with smaller states, to defeat the huge Persian invasion. It was during and immediately after this period that Greek and particularly Athenian culture reached its highest point. The addition of colonies in the eastern Mediterranean and southern Italy, created a larger zone of Greek civilization. Political decline soon set in, as Athens and Sparta vied for control of Greece during the bitter Peloponnesian Wars (431–404 B.C.E.). Ambitious kings from Macedonia, soon conquered the cities. Philip II of Macedon and then his son Alexander extended the Macedonian Empire through the Middle East, across Persia to the border of India, and southward through Egypt. Although Alexander the Great’s empire was short-lived, successor regional kingdoms oversaw the consolidation of Greek civilization over much of the eastern Mediterranean in what became known as the Hellenistic period, named as such because of the influence of the Hellenes, as the Greeks were known. Rome. The rise of Rome formed the final phase of classical Mediterranean civilization, for by the first century B.C.E. Rome had subjugated Greece and the Hellenistic kingdoms alike. Originating in central Italy around 800 B.C.E., Roman aristocrats drove out the monarchy around 509 B.C.E., and established a republic. Gradually the republic extended its influence. During the three Punic Wars, from 264 to 146 B.C.E., Rome defeated Hannibal and destroyed the Phoenician city of Carthage. The Romans proceeded to seize the entire western Mediterranean along with Greece and Egypt. The politics of the Roman republic grew increasingly unstable. Civil wars between two generals led to a victory by Julius Caesar, in 45 B.C.E., and the effective end of the traditional institutions of the Roman state. Augustus Caesar, seized power in 27 B.C.E. and established the basic structures of the Roman Empire. For 200 years, the empire brought peace and prosperity to virtually the entire Mediterranean world. The emperors also moved northward, conquering France and southern Britain and pushing into Germany. Then the empire suffered a slow but decisive fall that lasted over 250 years, until invading peoples from the north finally overturned the government in Rome in 476 C.E. Economic deterioration, population loss, the need for non-Roman troops, less effective emperors, and the inability of the state to provide protection and justice all contributed to Rome’s decline. Some strong later emperors, particularly Diocletian and Constantine, attempted to reverse the tide. Constantine, in 313, adopted Christianity in an attempt to unite the empire in new ways. However, particularly in the west, most effective government became local. The invasion of nomadic peoples from the north marked the end of the classical period of Mediterranean civilization—a civilization that, like its counterparts in Gupta India and Han China during the same approximate period, could no longer defend itself. In sum, the Mediterranean civilization was built on earlier cultures along the eastern Mediterranean and within the Greek islands, taking firm shape with the rise of the Greek city-states after 800 B.C.E. These states began as monarchies but then evolved into more complex and diverse political forms. They also developed a more varied commercial economy, moving away from a purely graingrowing agriculture; this spurred the formation of a number of colonial outposts around the eastern Mediterranean and in Italy. The decline of the city-states ushered in the Macedonian conquest and the formation of a wider Hellenistic culture that established deep roots in the Middle East and Egypt. Then Rome, initially a minor regional state distinguished by political virtue and stability, embarked on its great conquests, which would bring it control of the Mediterranean with important extensions into western and southeastern Europe plus the whole of north Africa. Rome’s expansion ultimately overwhelmed its own republic, but the successor empire developed important political institutions of its own and resulted in two centuries of peace and glory. Greek and Roman Political Institutions. Politics were very important from the Greek city-states through the early part of the Roman Empire. Indeed, our word politics comes from the Greek word for city-state, polis. Mediterranean civilization developed a distinctive concept of active citizenship. Even under the Roman Empire, political engagement remained strong, whether expressed in local city-states or as Roman citizens. While Confucian China shared an intense interest in politics, Greece and Rome did not develop a cohesive set of political institutions like China’s. The great diversity of political forms in Mediterranean civilization is more in keeping with India, where various political forms—including participation in governing councils—ran strong. Later societies, in reflecting on classical Mediterranean civilization, selected from a number of political precedents. Monarchy was not a preferred form; rule by individual strongmen advocating public benefits was more common. Our word tyranny comes from this experience in classical Greece. Some of the Roman generals who seized power in the later days of the republic had similar characteristics, as did the Hellenistic kings who succeeded Alexander. Greece. Democracy (the word is derived from the Greek demos, “the people”) was another important political alternative in classical Mediterranean society. Athens took the lead in democratic development, depending upon a popular assembly of citizens as sovereign authority. The assembly met every 10 days and, those who showed up, voted on important matters of state. Most officials were chosen by lot and were responsible to the assembly. Athenian direct democracy was both more extensive and less inclusive by modern standards. Many adults—women, slaves, and foreigners—were excluded from political rights. One drawback to direct democracy became evident during the Peloponnesian Wars: lower-class citizens, eager for government jobs and the spoils of war, often encouraged actions that weakened the state. The most widely preferred political framework centered on the existence of aristocratic assemblies. Even in Athens, aristocrats like Pericles had excessive importance. The word aristocracy, which comes from Greek terms meaning “rule of the best,” suggests where many Greeks—particularly, of course, aristocrats themselves—thought real political virtue lay. Rome. The constitution of the Roman republic tried to reconcile the various elements suggested by the Greek political experience, with primary reliance on the principle of aristocracy. Citizen assemblies elected magistrates to represent the interests of the common people. Aristocrats held most executive offices and comprised the Senate, Rome’s primary legislative body. Two consuls shared primary executive power; and in times of crisis, the Senate could choose a dictator to hold temporary emergency powers. The Roman Senate came closest to realizing the aristocratic ideal of public service. Classical Mediterranean political theorists examined various political forms as well as public virtues. Some of this political writing resembled Confucianism, although there was less emphasis on hierarchy and obedience or bureaucratic virtues, and more on participation in deliberative bodies that would make laws and judge the actions of executive officers. The Roman Empire developed organizational capacities to scale, including its vast hierarchy of the Roman army. That said, considerable local autonomy of custom, authority, and religion prevailed in many regions. Only in rare cases, such as the forced dissolution of the independent Jewish state in 63 C.E. after a major local rebellion, did the Romans take over distant areas completely. Greek and Roman republican leaders had already developed an understanding of the importance of codified, equitable law, however, the idea of fair and reasoned law, to which officers of the state should themselves be subject, was a key political achievement of the Roman Empire. Greeks and Romans were less innovative in the functions they ascribed to government, concentrating primarily on their law courts and military forces. The Roman Empire also pursued a policy of “bread and circuses” designed to prevent popular disorder. They secured vital supplies of grain and undertook vast public works to make cities livable. Even Roman colonies were given theaters, public baths, and stadiums, providing solace in strange lands like England or Palestine. Rome had an official religion and festivals but other religious practices were tolerated so long as they did not conflict with loyalty to the state. Even the later Roman emperors only attacked Christianity, and then irregularly, because of the Christians’ refusal to place the state first in their devotion. It is true that the emphasis on duties to the state could, as with Sparta, lead to a totalitarian framework, and that, with the exception of the first 200 years of the Roman Empire, warfare was more the rule than the exception. Neither the Greek nor the Roman concept of citizenship involved a clear definition of individual rights. The chief political legacies of the classical Mediterranean world include: localism, fervent political interests, an intense loyalty to the state, a diversity of political systems, a preference for aristocratic rule, and the importance of law. The sheer accomplishment of the Roman Empire, which united a region never before or since brought together, still stands as one of the great political monuments of world history. Religion and Culture. The Greeks and Romans did not create a significant, world-class religion; in this they differed from India and Persia and to some extent from China. Christianity, which was to become one of the major world religions, arose during— but was not the product of— the Roman Empire. The characteristic Greco-Roman religion was derived from a belief in the spirits of nature elevated into a complex set of gods and goddesses who were seen as regulating human life. Greeks and Romans had different names for their pantheon, but the objects of worship were essentially the same. Regular ceremonies to the gods had real political importance, and many individuals sought the gods’ aid in foretelling the future or in ensuring a good harvest or good health. Religious Values. The classical Mediterranean religion of human-like gods engendered an important literary tradition, as was the case in India. Tales of the gods’ foibles and passions provoked a serious inquiry into human nature. Unlike the Indians, the Greeks and Romans were less interested in how their gods could elevate them toward higher planes of spirituality. Lacking spiritual passion, the dominant religion failed to satisfy many ordinary workers and peasants, who, gravitated to “mystery” religions, often imported from the Middle East. The lack of ethical content in the Greco-Roman religion left many upper-class people dissatisfied too. Thinkers, such as Aristotle and Cicero, developed independent moral philosophies stressing moderation and balance in human behavior. Other ethical systems were devised, particularly during the Hellenistic period. Stoics emphasized an inner moral independence. These ethical systems were major contributions in their own right; they would also be blended with later religious thought, under Christianity. Philosophy and Science. Mediterranean philosophy emphasized the powers of human thought. In Athens, Socrates (born in 469 B.C.E.) encouraged his pupils to question conventional wisdom; the Athenian government, thinking that he was undermining political loyalty, gave him the choice of suicide or exile; Socrates chose the former. The Socratic principle of rational inquiry by means of skeptical questioning became a recurrent strand in classical Greek thinking and in its heritage to later societies. The Greeks were not outstanding empirical scientists, but their interest in rationality carried over to an inquiry into the underlying order of physical nature. Pythagoras and Euclid contributed major achievements to geometry, while Galen’s contributions to anatomy were a standard for centuries. Less fortunately Ptolemy, contradicting much earlier Middle Eastern astronomy, produced an elaborate theory of the sun’s motion around a stationary earth that was long taken as fixed wisdom in Western thought. Roman intellectuals added little to Greek and Hellenistic science, preferring to preserve it as school curriculum. The Romans expressed their genius in their engineering achievements such as great roads, harbors, aqueducts, and elaborate arches. The gods and goddesses of Greece and Rome inspired all manner of artistic expression, but drama had a central role in Greek culture. The Greek division of drama into comedy and tragedy remains a Western tradition. The Athenian dramatist Sophocles used tragedy to demonstrate the fragility of human virtues. Greek literature included a strong epic tradition, beginning with the Iliad and the Odyssey, attributed to Homer. Roman authors, particularly the poet Vergil, also worked in the epic form, seeking to link Roman history and mythology with the Greek forerunner. Roman definitions of the poetic form that would long be used in Western literature. In the visual arts, the emphasis of classical Mediterranean civilization was sculpture and architecture. The Greeks also excelled at ceramics whereas the Romans were skilled painters. Greek sculptors like Phidias developed unprecedented skill rendering simultaneously realistic yet beautiful images of the human form; Roman sculptors continued the Greek heroic-realistic tradition. Greek and Roman architects emphasized monumental construction of public buildings—temples, baths, marketplaces, theaters—in three building styles devised by the Greeks: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Roman engineering allowed greater size, as well as new forms such as the freestanding stadium. Under the empire, the Romans learned how to add domes. All art was public: temples and markets were for daily use; dramas were public rituals for all citizens; Romans enjoyed monumental athletic performances such as chariot races. The elements of classical art—the great monuments if nothing more—were part of daily urban life and the pursuit of pleasure. Roman styles were also blended with Christianity during the later empire providing another lasting expression. Economy and Society in the Mediterranean. Politics and formal culture in Greece and Rome were mainly affairs of the cities—meaning that they were of intense concern only to a minority of the population. Most people were farmers, tied to the soil and often to local rituals and festivals that were different from urban forms. Political tensions between tyrants and aristocrats or democrats and aristocrats in Greece were largely due to the conflicts between large estate holders and debt-ridden small free farmers trying to maintain their independence. The Roman republic declined in part because too many farmers became dependent on the protection of large landlords, and so no longer could vote freely. Agriculture and Trade. Both Greece and Rome suffered from the fact that their soil was poor for grain cultivation. The turn to commercial farming of olives and grapes, led to a substantial market basis and territorial expansion. Both developments exacerbated the tensions at home between landowners and small farmers. The estate holders were better equipped to invest the capital needed for production and distribution to grain-growing areas. In both cases, empire became the obvious answer to feeding a growing population. Roman heavy cultivation of grain in north Africa resulted in a soil depletion that helps account for the region’s reduced agricultural fertility in later centuries. Extensive trade developed, with the state supervising grain trade. There was some trade also beyond the borders of Mediterranean civilization itself, for goods from India and China. In this trade, the Mediterranean peoples found themselves at some disadvantage as they did not produce goods of equal value. Merchants remained in an ambiguous position; their status was higher than in Confucian China, but less firm than in India. Slavery. Slavery was of major importance. Aristotle justified it; Greeks depended on it in their silver mines, commercial operations, and households. Spartans used slave labor for agricultural production. The need for slaves was intimately connected with imperial pursuits as slaves were among the spoils of war. The spread of slavery in the Roman Empire contributed to the decline of free farmers and to Roman militarism. Commercialized agriculture required the influx of labor and independent farmers could not compete with free labor. For both Greece and Rome, the dominance of slavery led to stagnant technology in manufacturing and agriculture. Upper-class intellectual and political pursuits further dissuaded attention to technology. The Greeks did, however, advance shipbuilding and navigation, and the Romans were consummate engineers. Tight patriarchal families were the norm in both cultures. However, women had a vital function in farming and artisan economies and, among the upper classes in Rome, women could command considerable authority in their households. Legally, women were held inferior. This was mitigated somewhat by the developments of Roman law under the Empire. If divorced because of adultery, a Roman woman lost a third of her property and had to wear a special garment that set her apart like a prostitute. On the other hand, the oppression of women was probably less severe in this civilization than in China. Many Greek and Roman women were active in business and controlled a portion, even if only the minority, of all urban property. Most people in Greece and Rome continued to work largely as their ancestors had done, untouched by the doings of the great or the bustle of the cities except when wars engulfed their lands. We are tempted exclusively to remember the urban achievements, for they exerted the greatest influence on later ages that recalled the glories of Greece and Rome. However, the habits and attitudes of ordinary farmers and artisans developed during the great days of the Greek and Roman empires, should not be overlooked; their separation from much of the official culture posed both a challenge and opportunity for new cultural movements such as Christianity. Toward the Fall of Rome. The fragmentary collapse of Rome left its own impact on world civilization. Unlike China, classical civilization in the Mediterranean region was not simply disrupted only to revive. Unlike India, there was no central religion, to serve as a link between the classical period and what followed. The fall of Rome was not uniform and no single civilization ultimately rose to claim the mantle of Greece and Rome. At the same time, there was no across-the-board maintenance of the classical Mediterranean institutions and values in any of the civilizations that later claimed a relationship to the Greek and Roman past. Greece and Rome would live on, in more than idle memory, but their heritage was unquestionably more complex and more selective than proved to be the case for India or China. A Complex Legacy. The classical Greek and Hellenistic political legacy was in the form of ideas; unlike the Chinese, they did not develop enduring political institutions, although Rome copies some Greek structures. The most enduring legacy came in art and philosophy. Partly because they did not generate a major religion, Greek and Roman contributions to a durable popular culture were more limited than was true in China or India. Although the Western educational tradition long focused on the legacy of GrecoRoman civilization, they were inferior to China and India in many political and scientific achievements. Their legacy is not only a result of their achievement, but also because the West consciously adopted many of its features. Moreover, Alexander’s conquest of Persia brought a complex mixture of reciprocal influences, blurring the line between Greek and Middle Eastern culture. Hellenistic kings imitated Persian centralization and bureaucracy. Cultural exchange also gave Zoroastrian influences a wider range. This furthered the influence these religious ideas would have on Mediterranean religions, including Judaism, and later, Christianity and Islam. Later, more purely Persian kingdoms arose as the Hellenistic states declined. Under Hellenism and Persia alike, the Middle East enhanced its role as a point of exchange among many different merchants and cultures. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS: Persia, Greece, Rome, and the World. Persian roads and institutions facilitated commerce and cultural exchange from Asia to the Mediterranean. Like the Chinese, the Greeks thought other peoples were inferior barbarians. But, although city-states like Sparta rejected outside influences, most Greeks were a trading and expansionist people. Some, like Herodotus, studied other cultures. Alexander extended Greek outreach beyond the Mediterranean world to as far as western India. Though his system did not last, the interest in setting up stronger links between the eastern Mediterranean and Asia remained an important concern. Most Roman attention, in trade as well as politics, focused on creating ties within the vast territories of the empire, but significant influence extended outside its borders into Europe, Africa, and India. Some of these connections would affect trading patterns and missionary religious outreach even as the empire began to decline. KEY TERMS Cyrus the Great: (c. 576 or 590–529 B.C.E.); founded Persian Empire by 550 B.C.E.; successor state to Mesopotamian empires. Zoroastrianism: Persian religion that saw material existence as a battle between the forces of good and evil; stressed the importance of moral choice; a last judgment decided the eternal fate of each person. Hellenism: culture derived from the Greek civilization that flourished between 800 and 400 B.C.E. Hellenistic culture: culture associated with the spread of Greek influence and intermixture with other cultures as a result of Macedonian conquests. Iliad and Odyssey: Greek epic poems attributed to Homer; defined relations of gods and humans that shaped Greek mythology. Polis: city-state form of government typical of Greek political organization from 800 to 400 B.C.E. Socrates: Athenian philosopher of late 5th century B.C.E.; condemned to death for “corrupting” minds of Athenian young; usually seen as the father of western philosophy. Direct democracy: literally, rule of the people—in Athens it meant all free male citizens; all decisions emanated from the popular assembly without intermediation of elected representatives. Pericles: Athenian political leader during 5th century B.C.E.; guided development of Athenian Empire. Olympic games: one of the pan-Hellenic rituals observed by all Greek city-states; involved athletic competitions and ritual celebrations. Persian Wars: 5th century B.C.E. wars between the Persian Empire and Greek city-states; Greek victories allowed Greek civilization to define identity. Peloponnesian War: war from 431 to 404 B.C.E. between Athens and Sparta for domination in Greece; the Spartans won but failed to achieve political unification in Greece. Macedon: kingdom of northern Greece; originally loosely organized under kings; became centralized under Philip II; conquered Greek city-states. Philip II: ruled Macedon from 359 to 336 B.C.E.; founder of centralized kingdom; conquered Greece. Alexander the Great: (r. 336–323 B.C.E.); son and successor of Philip II; conquered Persian Empire and advanced to borders of India; attempted to combine Greek and Persian culture. Alexandria: Egyptian city; founded 334 B.C.E.; one of many “Alexandrias” founded by Alexander the Great. Socrates: (b. 465 B.C.E.); Athenian philosopher; usually seen as the father of western philosophy. Aristotle: Greek philosopher; teacher of Alexander; taught that knowledge was based upon observation of phenomena in material world. Stoics: Hellenistic philosophers; they emphasized inner moral independence cultivated by strict discipline of the body and personal bravery. Sophocles: Greek writer of tragedies; author of Oedipus Rex. Doric, Ionic, Corinthian: three distinct styles of Hellenic architecture; listed in order of increasing ornate quality. Consuls: two chief executives of the Roman republic; elected annually by the assembly dominated by the aristocracy. Carthage: founded by the Phoenicians in Tunisia; became a major empire in the western Mediterranean; fought the Punic wars with Rome for Mediterranean dominance; defeated and destroyed by the Romans. Punic Wars: three wars (264–146 B.C.E.) between Rome and the Carthaginians; saw the transformation of Rome from a land to a sea power. Hannibal: Carthaginian general during the second Punic War; invaded Italy but failed to conquer Rome. Republic: the balanced political system of Rome from circa 510 to 47 B.C.E.; featured an aristocratic senate, a panel of magistrates, and popular assemblies. Julius Caesar: general responsible for the conquest of Gaul; brought army back to Rome and overthrew republic; assassinated in B.C.E.by conservative senators. Octavian: later took name of Augustus; Julius Caesar’s grandnephew and adopted son; defeated conservative senators after Caesar’s assassination; became first Roman emperor. Cicero: conservative senator and Stoic philosopher; one of the great orators of his day. Vergil: a great Roman epic poet during the Golden Age of Latin literature; author of the Aeneid.
