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PROFESSIONAL ETHICS IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING CDT409 LECTURE 3 Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic Department of Computer Science and Engineering Mälardalen University 2007 1 Generic Paper Skeleton Title, author and affiliations Abstract Introduction Background information Problem definition Related work Method Results Summary and conclusions [Acknowledgements] References [Appendix] Based on: http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/ct3340/ht03/slidespdf.pdf 2 The Title Must be informative, clear, and meaningful. Don’t be clever or cryptic. Get the attention of your readers immediately. Bad: The effects of stress Good: Is stress killing you? Or: Stress: Is it killing you? Imagine someone searching for your paper. 3 The Abstract (read by 87%) Summarizes problem, result, and uses. Between 100–250 words. Avoid references and acronyms. Try to “sell” the paper! 4 Introduction (read by 43%) Explains the background/significance of the paper. The opening paragraph should be your best paragraph. Ended by a summary of the organization of the paper. 5 Problem Definition A concise statement of the problem you are discussing Why it is important to address the problem? Justify and argue for your view/solution to this problem 6 Related Work Identify relevant related work (with references) References must bepossible to find Avoid “personal communication”. Compare your work with previous work. You must convince the reader that your work is original! Examples and case studies are good to have here. 7 Summary and Conclusion (read by 55%) Interpretation of your findings: pros & cons. Limitations of your findings Suggestions for future work Experiences. Don’t just re-word the abstract!! 8 References Make sure all references are refered to. Format of the reference depends on the type of publication. – Books: author, title, publisher, ISBN, year. – Journal: author, title, journal, volume, month, pages. – Report: author, title, source, year. 9 The Ethics of Character, Virtues and Vices Moral Reasoning and Gender Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D. Director, The Values Institute University of San Diego lectures 10 The Ethics of Character: Virtues and Vices 11 Introduction Concern for character has flourished in the West since the time of Plato, whose early dialogues explored such virtues as courage and piety*. Plato (by Michaelangelo) * fromhet * dutiful respect or regard 12 Two Moral Questions The Question of Action: – How ought I to act? The Question of Character – What kind of person ought I to be? Our concern here is with the question of character. 13 An Analogy from the Criminal Justice System As a country, we place our trust for just decisions in the legal arena in two places: – Laws, which provide the necessary rules – People, who (as judge and jury) apply rules judiciously (reasonably) Similarly, ethics places its trust in: – General theories, which provide rules for conduct – Virtue, which provides the wisdom necessary for applying rules in particular instances 14 Virtue Strength of character (habit) Involving both feeling, knowing and action Seeks the mean between excess and deficiency relative to us Dynamic balance Secure desirable behavior Aristotle (by Michaelangelo) 15 Virtues and Spheres of Existence (1) Attitude toward /Degree Self Deficiency Mean Excess Servility Self-deprecation Proper Self-Love Proper Pride Self-Respect Arrogance Conceit (inbilskhet) Egoism Narcissism Vanity (fåfänga) Revenge (hämnd) Grudge (avund, agg, ovilja, groll) Resentment (servilitet, kryperi brist på självaktning) Offenses of others Ignoring them Being a Doormat (dörrmatta, strykpojke) Good deeds of others Our own offenses Our friends Suspicion (misstro) Envy (avund) Ignoring Indifference Remorselessnes s Downplaying Indifference Remorseless - merciless; pitiless; relentless (motiverad egenkärlek självkänsla; självaktning) Anger Forgiveness Understanding Gratitude Admiration (beundran) (förtrytelse, harm, förbittring) Overindebtedness (overdriven tacksamhetsskuld) Regret, Remorse Making Amends Self-Forgiveness Toxic Guilt Scrupulosity Shame Loyalty Obsequiousness Servility, (inställsamhet) Obediency 16 Virtues and Spheres of Existence (2) Sphere of Existence Attitude toward our own good deeds Attitude toward the suffering of others Attitude toward the achievements of others Attitude toward death and danger Attitude toward our own desires Attitude toward other people Deficiency Mean Excess Belittling Disappointment Sense of Accomplishment Humility Selfrighteousness känslolös, okänslig, känslokall Compassion Pity “Bleeding Heart” Self-satisfaction Complacency Admiration Emulation Callousness självbelåtenhet, egenkärlek Competition Cowardice feghet, rädsla Anhedonia Exploitation [ädel]tävlan; efterliknande, Envy efterbildande Courage Foolhardiness Temperance Moderation Lust Gluttony Respect Deferentiality undfallande dumdristighet frosseri 17 Two Conceptions of Morality In a simplified scheme, we can contrast two approaches to the morality. – Restrictive conception: • Child vs. adult • Comes from outside (usually parents). • “Don’t touch that stove burner!” • Rules and habit formation are central. – Affirmative conception: • • • • Adult vs. adult Comes from within (self-directed). “This is the kind of person I want to be” Virtue-centered, often modeled on ideals. 18 The Purpose of Morality Both of these conceptions of morality are appropriate at different times in life. Teenage years are the time when people make the transition from the adolescent conception of morality to the adult conception. 19 Rightly-ordered Desires and the Goals of Moral Education Moral education may initially seek to control unruly desires through rules, the formation of habits, etc. Ultimately, moral education aims at forming and cultivating virtuous conduct. 20 Virtue As the Golden Mean Strength of character (virtue), Aristotle suggests, involves finding the proper balance between two extremes. – Excess: having too much of something. – Deficiency: having too little of something. Not mediocrity, but harmony and balance. 21 Virtue and Habit For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and thereby learned—it is habit (hexis). This has clear implications for moral education, for Aristotle obviously thinks that you can teach people to be virtuous. 22 Courage The strength of character necessary to continue in the face of our fears – Deficiency: • Cowardice*, the inability to do what is necessary to have those things in life which we need in order to flourish • Too much fear • Too little confidence – Excess • Too little fear • Too much confidence • Poor judgment about ends worth achieving *feghet, rädsla 23 Nichomachean Ethics, 3.7 What is terrible is not the same for all men; but we say there are things terrible even beyond human strength. These, then, are terrible to every one- at least to every sensible man; but the terrible things that are not beyond human strength differ in magnitude and degree, and so too do the things that inspire confidence. Now the brave man is as dauntless* as man may be. *oförfärad 24 Nichomachean Ethics, 3.7 Therefore, while he will fear even the things that are not beyond human strength, he will face them as he ought and as the rule directs, for honor's sake; for this is the end of virtue. But it is possible to fear these more, or less, and again to fear things that are not terrible as if they were. 25 EN, 2 Of the faults that are committed one consists in fearing what one should not, another in fearing as we should not, another in fearing when we should not, and so on; and so too with respect to the things that inspire confidence. 26 EN, 3 Of those who go to excess he who exceeds in fearlessness has no name (we have said previously that many states of character have no names), but he would be a sort of madman or insensible person if he feared nothing, neither earthquakes nor the waves, as they say the Celts do not.. 27 EN, 3 … while the man who exceeds in confidence about what really is terrible is rash. The rash* man, however, is also thought to be boastful** and only a pretender to courage. At all events, as the brave man is with regard to what is terrible, so the rash man wishes to appear; and so he imitates him in situations where he can. *överilad, obetänksam, förhastad , överdådig, dumdristig **skrytsam 28 EN, 5 The brave man, on the other hand, has the opposite disposition; for confidence is the mark of a hopeful disposition. The coward, the rash man, and the brave man, then, are concerned with the same objects but are differently disposed towards them; for the first two exceed and fall short, … *överilad, förhastad 29 EN, 5 …while the third holds the middle, which is the right, position; and rash men are precipitate*, and wish for dangers beforehand but draw back when they are in them, while brave men are keen in the moment of action, but quiet beforehand. *överilad, förhastad 30 Hercules (Heracles) – A Role Model Heracles in Greek mythology, was a hero known for his strength and courage The son of the god Zeus and a human mother Alcmene Hera, Zeus’ jealous wife, was determined to kill Hercules, and after Hercules was born, she sent two great serpents to kill him. Hercules, while he was still a baby, strangled the snakes. 31 Hercules (Heracles) – A Role Model Hercules conquered a tribe that had been demanding money from Thebes. As a reward, he was given the hand in marriage of the Theben princess Megara and they had three children. Hera, still filled hatred of Hercules, sent him into madness, which made him kill his wife and children. 32 Hercules (Heracles) – A Role Model In horror and remorse at what he did, Hercules was about to kill himself. But he was told by the oracle at Delphi that he should purge himself by becoming the servant of his cousin Eurystheus, king of Mycenae. Eurystheus, urged by Hera, planned as a punishment the 12 impossible tasks, the “Labors of Hercules.” 33 Hercules (Heracles) – A Role Model The first task was to kill the lion of Nemea, a lion that could not be hurt by any weapon. Hercules knocked out the lion with his club first, then he strangled it to death. He wore the skin of the lion as a cloak and the head of the lion as a helmet, a trophy of his adventure. The second task was to kill the Hydra that lived in a swamp in Lerna. The Hydra had nine heads. One head was immortal and when one of the others was chopped off, two grew back in its place. .. 34 Hercules (Heracles) – What can we learn? The impossible deeds were defined by gods. Gods define “the rules of the game” Gods show both virtues and vices. Hera is jealous in a typical human way. Gods do not hesitate to use intrigue to fight humans 35 Hercules (Heracles) – What can we learn? Great hero Heracles could go mad at times He was however forgiven for his good deeds sake (justice of compensation) Heroic deeds were both to help other people or to overcome ones own fear and weakness Courage was a typical male virtue 36 Courage as a contemporary virtue Both children and adults need courage. Without courage, we are unable to take the risks necessary to achieve some of the things we most value in life. – Risk to ask someone out on a date. – Risk to show genuine vulnerability. – Risk to try an academically challenging program. 37 Courage and the Unity of the Virtues To have any single strength of character in full measure, a person must have the other ones as well. – Courage without good judgment is blind, risking without knowing what is worth the risk. – Courage without perseverance* is short-lived, etc. – Courage without a clear sense of your own abilities is foolhardy. *ihärdighet, uthållighet, ståndaktighet 38 Courage Excess Mean Deficiency Underestimates actual danger Correctly estimates actual danger Overestimates actual danger Overestimates own ability Correctly estimates own ability Underestimates own ability Undervalues means, what is being placed at risk Properly values means that are being put at risk Overvalues the means, what is being placed at risk Overvalues goal, what the risk is being taken for Properly values goal that is being sought Undervalues goal, what the risk would be taken for 39 Issues of Courage Fears, dangers, and rightly-ordered fears Seeking out danger: mountain climbing Courage and nonviolence: Gandhi Courage and gender – Women’s courage is often undervalued – Men’s courage is tied to their gender identity 40 Compassion and Pity Pity* looks down on the other. – Consequently, no one wants to be the object of pity. Compassion** sees the suffering of the other as something that could have happened to us. – Consequently, we welcome the compassion of others when we are suffering. * ömkan **medlidande 41 Compassion Etymology: to feel or suffer with… Both cognitive and emotional Leads to action Contrast with pity 42 Compassion Emotion is often necessary: – to recognize the suffering of others • emotional attunement – part of the response to that suffering • others often need to feel that you care Compassion and gender – Men’s compassion is often suppressed – Women’s compassion is tied to their gender identity 43 Cleverness and Wisdom The clever person knows the best means to any possible end. The wise person knows which ends are worth striving for. Wisdom and gender – Equally distributed – Often expected from old men and women 44 Self-Love Principal Characteristics Characteristics of self-love – Valuing yourself – from feelings of self-love – Knowing yourself – a long, often arduous, and never completed task – Acting in ways that promote your genuine flourishing – Having feelings of care, appreciation, and respect for others 45 Self-Love: Deficiency Deficiency – Too little feeling: self-loathing – Too little self-valuing: self-deprecating – Too little self-knowledge: unwilling or unable to look at one’s own motivations, feelings, etc. – Too little acting: not taking steps to insure one’s own well-being 46 Self-Love: Excess Excesses of self-love take many forms: arrogance, conceit, egoism, vanity, and narcissism are but a few of the ways in which we can err in this direction. Too much caring: self-centeredness Too much self-valuing: arrogance, conceit Too much self-knowledge: narcissistic Too much acting for self: selfishness 47 Forgiveness This, too, is a virtue indispensable for human flourishing – In any long-term relationship (friendship, marriage, etc.), each party will do things that must be forgiven by the other. – Long term relationships are necessary to human flourishing. – If we cannot forgive, we cannot have continuing long term relationships 48 Forgiveness: Excess and Deficiency Excess: the person who forgives too easily and too quickly – may undervalue self – may underestimate offense Deficiency: the person who can never forgive – may overestimate his or her own importance – usually lives a life of bitterness and anger 49 Concluding Evaluation Virtues are those strengths of character that enable us to act according to ideals of good and right The virtuous person has practical wisdom, the ability to know when and how best to apply these various moral perspectives. 50 Footnotes to Plato (and Aristotle) "The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." Alfred North Whitehead, the great 20th-century British philosopher 51 Moral Reasoning and Gender The Kohlberg-Gilligan Debate and Beyond 52 An Introduction Virtue Ethics: Freud on Femininity “Thus, we attribute a larger amount of narcissism to femininity, which also affects women's choice of object, so that to be loved is a stronger motive for them than to love. The effect of penis-envy has a share, further, in the physical vanity of women, since they are bound to value their charms more highly as a late compensation for their original sexual inferiority.” 53 Virtue Ethics: Freud on Femininity “It seems that women have made few contributions to the discoveries and inventions in the history of civilization; there is, however, one technique which they may have invented – that of plaiting* and weaving.” Freud, S. (1933). New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. Lecture 33: Femininity. Standard Edition, v. 22. pp. 136-157. *fläta 54 Le Deuxième Sexe - The Second Sex Simone de Beauvoir 1949 Woman as Other – “For a long time I have hesitated to write a book on woman. The subject is irritating, especially to women; and it is not new. Enough ink has been spilled in quarrelling …” Simone de Beauvoir http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/beav.htm 55 Lawrence Kohlberg American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (Harvard) studied under Swiss psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget (1965), who had developmental approach to learning. Kohlberg extended the approach to stages of moral reasoning. Using surveys, Kohlberg presented his subjects with moral dilemmas and asked them to evaluate the moral conflict. He was able to prove that youth at various ages, as youth proceed to adulthood, they are able to progress up the moral development stages presented, Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 - 1987) 56 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development LEVEL STAGE 1 Obedience and Punishment 2 Individualism, Instrumentalism, and Exchange 3 "Good boy/girl" 4 Law and Order 5 Social Contract 6 Principled Conscience Pre-conventional Conventional Post-conventional SOCIAL ORIENTATION 57 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one stage at a time. That is, they could not "jump" stages. Kohlberg's ideas of moral development are based on the premise that at birth, all humans are void of morals, ethics, and honesty. He identified the family as the first source of values and moral development for an individual. He believed that as one's intelligence and ability to interact with others matures, so does one's patterns of moral behavior. 58 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Preconventional Morality – Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation • Avoid (physical) punishment • High school example: One middle school teacher has latecomers do pushups (50 of them) in front of the class. 59 Kohlberg’s Stages: Preconventional Morality – Stage 2: Personal Reward Orientation • “You scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours” • High school example: A group of high school students involved in a cooperative learning activity get upset because one of their group members is repeatedly absent and did not do any work. 60 Kohlberg’s Stages: Conventional Morality – Stage 3: The “good boy/nice girl” Orientation • "I am going to work harder in school so I won't let you down because if you think I can make it then I can make it" – Stage 4: A “Law and Order” Orientation • "Move carefully in the halls". This rule reinforces the fundamental purpose of government to protect the health and welfare of its citizens 61 Kohlberg’s Stages: Post-conventional Morality – Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation • "Please remember that this is your room and your class. The behavior and participation of each person will shape the type of learning that will occur. Since one person's behavior affects everyone else, I request that everyone in the class be responsible for classroom management. To ensure that our rights are protected and upheld, the following laws have been established for this classroom..." 62 Kohlberg’s Stages: Post-conventional Morality – Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation • An orientation toward universal ethical principles of justice, reciprocity, equality, and respect • Examples: Gandhi, Mother Theresa, Martin Luther King, Jr. • "I will not tolerate any racial, ethnic, or sexual slurs* in this classroom. In this room, everyone is entitled to equal dignity as a human being.” *nedsättande anmärkning 63 Kohlberg’s Method Initially, Kohlberg administered his test to people all over the world, being careful to include all races, to include rural as well as urban dwellers, etc. – a Malaysian aboriginal village, – villages in Turkey and the Yucatan, and – urban populations in Mexico and the United States There was only one thing he forgot: – He only administered his dilemmas to males! 64 Gender and Kohlberg’s scale When Kohlberg’s instrument was administered on a large scale, it was discovered that females often scored a full stage below their male counterparts. 65 Gender and Kohlberg’s scale Women are more likely to base their explanations for moral dilemmas on concepts such as caring and personal relationships. These concepts are likely to be scored at the stage three level. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to base their decisions for moral dilemmas on social contract or justice and equity. Those concepts are likely to be scored at stage five or six. 66 Carol Gilligan University Professor of Gender Studies, Harvard University (1997present) In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, book 1982. Carol Gilligan, 1936 - present 67 Gilligan’s Initial Research Gilligan began with an interest in moral development as a teaching assistant for Erik Erikson. She was particularly interested in the issue Kohlberg raised: why do some individuals recognize a higher moral law, while others simply are content to obey the rules without question? 68 Gilligan’s Initial Research Here initial research project was directed toward draft resisters during the Vietnam war. Nixon cancelled the draft just as her project was getting started. She switched to study women who had made difficult moral choices about abortion. Not originally concerned about gender issue. 69 Gilligan’s Critique Introduction In light of the differences between the scores of males and females on the Kohlberg scale, one could draw either of two conclusions: – females are less morally developed than males, or – Kohlberg’s framework is biased against women. 70 Gilligan’s Critique Introduction Gilligan began to look more closely at the responses she was receiving in her work, and began to suspect that Kohlberg’s framework did not illuminate the responses she was encountering. It was like trying to put round pegs* into square holes. * pinne; sprint, tapp, plugg 71 Gilligan’s Concept of Voice The metaphor of “voice” in her book In a Different Voice – – – – – Concrete and specific Allows harmony without imposing sameness Not competitive or combative but collaborative Combines both emotion and content Voices may be described in a wide vocabulary that has nothing to do with right or wrong, true or false – Voices may be different without excluding one another. 72 Differences between Men’s Moral Voices and Women’s Moral Voices Men Women Justice Care Rights Responsibility Treating everyone fairly and the same Sensitive for everyone’s suffering Apply rules impartially to everyone Preserve specific emotional relation Responsibility toward abstract codes of conduct Responsibility toward real individuals 73 Differences between Men’s and Women’s View of the Self Men Women Autonomy Relatedness Freedom Interdependence Independence Emotional connectedness Separateness Responsiveness to needs of others Hierarchy Web of relationships Rules guide interactions Empathy and connectedness guide interactions Roles establish places in the hierarchy Roles are secondary to connections 74 Differences between Men’s and Women’s View of Moral Safety Men Women Sense of gender identity grounded in initial act of separation from mother Sense of gender identity grounded in initial act of identification with mother Threatened by anything that threatens sense of separation Threatened by anything that undermines sense of identification Being at the top of the hierarchy is appealing Experience top of hierarchy as isolated and detached 75 Stages of Women’s Moral Development Concern for individual survival – Transition from selfishness to responsibility Goodness equated with self-sacrifice – Transition from self-sacrifice to giving themselves permission to take care of themselves 76 Stages of Women’s Moral Development Goodness seen as caring for both self and others – Inclusive, nonviolent – Condemns exploitation and hurt 77 How do we understand Gilligan’s claims? First of all there are historical differences in the roles of females and males. – Females give birth to children – Females traditionally take care of family – Females traditionally dominate the private sphere with close (short-range) relationships – Females have developed perseverance and patience 78 How do we understand Gilligan’s claims? Traditionally – Males take care of the “foreign affairs” – Males protect family from the outside threat – Protective function is realized through groups of males – military and other societal organizations – Males dominate official (public) sphere – Males as a group have developed strength 79 How do we understand Gilligan’s claims? Plato: Meno SOCRATES: (…) By the gods, Meno, be generous, and tell me what you say that virtue is; (…) MENO: (…) Let us take first the virtue of a man--he should know how to administer the state, and in the administration of it to benefit his friends and harm his enemies; and he must also be careful not to suffer harm himself. A woman's virtue, if you wish to know about that, may also be easily described: her duty is to order her house, and keep what is indoors, and obey her husband. Every age, every condition of life, young or old, male or female, bond or free, has a different virtue (…) 80 How do we understand Gilligan’s claims? With the advent of industrial revolution, and welfare state where all children are given education, and physical strength has no dominant role, women have entered the public sphere traditionally dominated by males. Female professionals have encountered a culture that was historically male territory. It caused cultural shock. 81 How do we interpret Gilligan’s claims? Four possible positions about female vs. male moral voices: Separate but equal Superiority thesis Integrationist thesis Diversity thesis 82 The Separate but Equal Thesis Separate but equal: Men and women have different but equally valuable moral voices Criticisms: – Reinforces traditional stereotypes – Hard to retain the “...but equal” part – Suggests that men and women have nothing to learn from one another, since each has its own exclusive moral voice – Devalues men with a “female voice” and women with a “male voice” 83 The Superiority Thesis Superiority thesis – Women’s moral voices are superior Criticisms – – – – Equal rights for men and women? Inversion of traditional claims of male superiority Exclusionary Demands that one side of the comparison be the loser 84 The Integrationist Thesis Integrationist thesis – Only one moral voice, same for both men and women – Morality is androgynous Criticisms – Loses richness of diversity – Tends to assimilation in practice, reducing other voices to the voice of the powerful majority 85 The Diversity Thesis – Suggests that there are different moral voices – Sees this as a source of richness and growth in the moral life – External diversity • Different individuals have different, sex-based moral voices • Males with female voices and females with male voices are admitted – Internal diversity • Each of us have both masculine and feminine moral voices within us • Minimizes gender stereotyping 86 Exclusive Models of Internal Gender Diversity Traditionally, we have thought of gender in exclusionary terms – The more masculine a person is, the less feminine that person is – The more feminine a person is, the less masculine that person is 87 Exclusive Models of Internal Gender Diversity In this model, which is the most common traditional model, an increase in masculinity is bought at the price of a decrease in femininity, and vice versa. 88 Sandra Bem Scale 89 Conclusion “The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury) Kohlberg – Gilligan controversy is but a beginning of a long process of rethinking position of women in a postmodern society. The end of industrialist era and the emergency of new information technology results in conditions that even more favor female professionals. 90 Conclusion “The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury) Two processes go on concurrently – Females being a part of the public world for almost a century gradually win strong positions and take part in defining of the “rules of the game”. That improves the conditions for new generations of women professionals to come. – Female as a part of scientific establishment contribute with new insights in classical scholarship that will in the long term radically change our ideas (a critical mass of women is far from achieved yet) 91 Conclusion Contemporary Research http://www.hope.edu/academic/psychology/33 5/webrep/moraldev.html Moral Development's Development: Recent Research http://www.duke.edu/jscope/paplutz.htm Rival Traditions of Character Development: Classical Moral Philosophy and Contemporary Empirical Science 92