Download Mason Template 1: Title Slide

The Impact of Regional Development
on Symbioses From the Potomac
River Valley to the Chesapeake Bay
Maheen Aziz
Adam Carpenter
Eileen Flynn
Pete Goddard
Dana Griffith
Richard Groover
Damien Hammond
Laruen W. Kinne
Charles Milling
Dr. Dann Sklarew
Wendy Stickel
Julia Welch
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Tonight’s Agenda
• Introduction
• Stressors to the PRV
• Types and Causes
• Effects on Symbiosis
• Terrestrial, Freshwater, and Brackish Ecosystems
• Prospects for the Future
• Challenges and Remediation
• Conclusion
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I. Introduction
Potomac River Valley
Where Innovation Is TraditionPhoto:
http://tinyurl.com/sklarew2000
What is symbiosis?
• “Two or more forms of life that have a
relationship which may change over time
which influence each other. “ Jan. 21, 2010
• What is mutualism?
• “Interaction between species which benefits
both… a +/+ interaction” (Boucher et al. 1982)
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Thesis
• Development has begun to place stressors on
the symbioses in the PRV, thus creating the
potential for fundamentally altering the
ecosystem services of those symbioses.
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Ecosystem Services in the PRV
• Ecosystem Services: contribution of
ecosystems to the benefit of populations, to
both our physical and psychological wellbeing. Not defined separate from human
values (EPA, 2009).
• Provisioning Services-Oysters
• Regulating Services-Pollination
• Cultural Services-Aesthetics of the River
• Supporting Services-Mycorrhizae
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II. Environmental Stressors as a
Result of Development
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Habitat degradation/fragmentation
Sediment
Nutrients (phosphorous & nitrogen)
Endocrine disruptors (DDT, PCBs, etc.)
Toxics (heavy metals)
Organic pollutants (medicines, hormones)
Flow regimes
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II. Environmental Stressors as a
Result of Development
• Suburban sprawl increases habitat destruction
and fragmentation
•
•
•
•
Lots of clear-cutting
Lot sizes increased
Loss of contiguous forest
Loss of mycorrhizal associations
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II. Environmental Stressors as a
Result of Development
• Habitat alteration allows for multiple stressors
on ecosystem
• Higher salinity
• Changes in acidity/ alkalinity
• Removal or uptake of nutrients in soils and
watersheds
• Introduction of heavy metals into environment
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II. Environmental Stressors as a
Result of Development
• Pollution
• Nutrient runoff from the mainland can increase
nutrients in the water and cause algal blooms that
cover and destroy the existing underwater
vegetation.
• Pesticides, oil, and sediment can also be included
in runoff from the mainland.
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Emerging Contaminants & the PRV
• 2004 in West Virginia tributaries o
Potomac river
• USGS finds that 44 percent of
male Smallmouth bass produced
eggs and exhibited female
• “Intersex” fish, alligators, and
frogs
• Endocrine disrupting compounds
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Nonpoint Source Pollution
• Nonpoint source pollution generally results
from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric
deposition, drainage, seepage or hydrologic
modification.
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Nonpoint Source Pollution
• Excess fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides from
agricultural lands and residential areas
• Oil, grease and toxic chemicals from urban runoff
and energy production
• Sediment from construction sites, crop and forest
lands, and eroding stream banks
• Salt from irrigation practices and acid drainage
from abandoned mines
• Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes
and faulty septic systems
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II. Environmental Stressors as a
Result of Development
• Commerce
• Detrimental oyster collecting techniques and deep
water trawling
• Harvesting of different species for human
consumption
• Ships that come into port bringing invasive
species and diseases.
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II. Environmental Stressors as a
Result of Development
• Erosion:
• Loose silt, sand and clay released in the environment
as sediment (sedimentation)
• Nutrient run-off
• Increased turbidity
• Carried through streams and rivers the
Chesapeake Bay by surface run off.
• One of the leading causes of the Bay’s decline.1
• Symbiosis affected at all levels.
Chesapeake Bay Program. 2009. Sediments. http://www.chesapeakebay.net/sediments
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III. Impacts of Urbanization on
Symbioses in the PRV
• Terrestrial
– Mycorrhizae & Plants
– Pollinators & Plants
• Aquatic
• Freshwater
– Mussels & Fish
– Shrimp & SAV
• Brackish water
– Multiple Oyster Mutualisms
– SAV
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A. Terrestrial: Mycorrhizae Fungi
Mycorrhizae: form mutualisms
with plants
• Ectomycorrhizae-form
sheaths around the roots of
partner plants
• Endomycorrhizae-invade
interior root cells of host
plants
(Stamets,
2005)
(Margulis & Fester Eds.,
1991)
http://www.palaeos.com/Plants/Lists/Glossary/Images/Endom
ycorrhizae.gif
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Mycorrhizae and herbaceous plants:
• Wild leeks (also called ramps) form
mutualistic relationships with mycelium
which promotes leek health by:
– Bioremediation
– Increasing surface area for water uptake
– Changing physical and chemical properties of soil
(Leyval &
Binet,
1998)
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http://greayer.com/st
udiog/wpcontent/uploads/200
9/04/mosaic160223
9.jpg
Impact of fossil fuel emissions
• Fossil fuels release polyaromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs)
• Increasing amounts of PAHs in the soil decrease
mycorrhizal colonization of plant roots
• Plants with mycorrhizal associations are able to
survive and grow in soils with higher amounts of
PAH than plants without these associations
(Bouchez et. al,
1995)
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(Leyval & Binet,
1998)
Impact of Clear Cutting
• Removes Native Plant Species such as
Virginia Pine (Pinus virginiana)
Photo:
http://www.forestwander.co
m
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Impact of Clear Cutting
Study by Liu et al. (2001) found:
• Clear-cutting and burning led to deficiency in
available nitrogen
• Nitrogen fixation decreases for 18 months
• Overall soil degradation occurs due to erosion
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Impact of Clear cutting
Removes top soil and associated mychorrhizae
such as Thelephora terrestris
Photo:
http://aboutenvironment.com/
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Is Tradition
B. Terrestrial: Pollinators
>90 crops are benefited by
honey bee
Alfalfa leafcutter bee
pollinates alfalfa for seed
Alfalfa Leafcutter, Megachile rotundata
Bumblebees used for
pollination services in
greenhouses
(Sanford, 1998)
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Pollination Services in VA
$23 million added value
to apple industry
Major factors
Commercial honey bee hives scattered throughout holly
orchard - Appleton et al., 2009
threatening pollinators
Loss of habitat
Loss of symbiotic
partner
Use of pesticides
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C. Aquatic (freshwater): Mussels & fish
In the freshwater PRV:
•Historically the area supported 14 species of mussels
•Presently 7 species live in the PRV
-two of which are Yellow lamp mussel (Lampsilis
cariosa) and tidewater mucket (Leptodea ochracea)
-white perch is often a host along with other species
http://www.lsc.usgs.gov
/SPN.asp?StudyPlanNum
=02098
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bio.umass.edu
Symbiosis between mussels & fish
•Fish hosts are requirement for mussels to complete
their life cycle.
•Larvae attach to the gills or fins of the host and
remain attached for one to four weeks while
transforming into a juvenile mussel. As juveniles,
they drop off the fish and begin their free-living life.
•Mussels have adaptations that ensure host interest
such as mantles that resemble prey items (worms, etc)
or mating colors and body shape similar to the host
fish.
•Mussels lure the fish in and release the larvae into
the water column or grab the fish by the head and
inject the larvae into the gills or fins.
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Help save America's pearly mussels - Virginia cooperative extension
C. Aquatic (freshwater): Mussels & fish
Ecosystem function:
Mussels benefit the ecosystem by removing algae and
suspended particles in the water column, especially from
turbid and organically enriched waters near wastewater
facilities and in fish farm effluents. Mussels repackage
nutrients and mix the upper sediment layer.
*Evidence from cancer research suggests that some mussels may be resistant to
certain types of cancer and that the extraction of cancer-curing drugs from mollusks
may be feasible in the future.
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http://www.lsc.usgs.gov/SPN.asp?StudyPlanNum=02098
Impact of Sedimentation
•Sedimentation deeper than
2mm shown to cause 100%
mortality in white perch larvae
•Decrease in fish population
will decrease mussel
population, affecting rate of
filtration
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Help save America's pearly mussels - Virginia cooperative extension
D. Aquatic (freshwater): Shrimp & Wild celery
Freshwater grass shrimp Palaemonetes paludosus
&
Wild celery Vallisneria americana
Petshrimp.com
•Sherpaguides.com/chesapeake_bay/natural_history
(Lowe et. Al, 1990)
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www.mass.gov
D. Aquatic (freshwater): Shrimp & Wild celery
Relationship/Ecosystem Function:
•Grasses produce oxygen, hiding places and food
•Shrimp feed on algae, detritus, aquatic insects,
crustaceans, and meiofauna and, in turn, are eaten by fishes
and other predators
•Sherpaguides.com/chesapeake_bay/natural_history
•(Lowe et. al, 1990)
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Impact of Erosion and Nutrient Loading
•Nutrient loading (from development) can cause algal blooms
that cloud the water, blocking light to grasses
•Urban sprawl produces 5-7 times more sediment and
phosphorus than an old-growth forest
•Only 11% of the Bay’s historic SAV grasses remain
Thekrib.com
Pant, H and Reddy, K. Phosphorus Sorption
Characterizes
of
Where
Innovation
Estuarine Sediments under Different Redox Conditions
Is Tradition
www.sacramentoaquariumsociety.org
E. Aquatic (Brackish): Oyster Mutualisms
• Filter feeder
• Reef-builder
• Substrate for
invertebrates
• Nutrient-cycler
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Role of oysters in PRV
• Decades of over-harvesting have substantially reduced
role of oysterloss of crucial ecosystem services:
• Reduced grazing of phytoplankton has led to increased
turbidity and reduced photosynthesis by SAV
• Lower rate of filtration = less effective curb on pollution
• Reduced reefs, reduced refuge and limited substrate has led to
reduced species richness and fish abundance
• Fewer biodeposits to fertilize sea grasses
• Contributes to reduced resilience of entire estuarine
eco-system
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Impact of development on oysters & sea grass
• Excessive nutrient flows create algal blooms which
lead to hypoxia, limiting supply of oxygen to oysters
and other benthic fauna.
• Siltation increases turbidity, affecting density of sea
grass communities which offer refuge to oyster (and
other) larvae.
Photo: http://www.life.umd.edu
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Photo: http://www.chesapeake-bay.org
Impact of development on oysters & sea grass
• Hydrological flow regimes which limit flow of
freshwater in PRV increase salinity levels,
exacerbating population of protozoa that cause
Dermo disease
• Years of dredging have reduced height of oyster
reefs exposing surviving oysters to increased risks of
hypoxia, reducing further what is left of the oyster
population and creating barriers to restoration.
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Positive Feedback Loops
• Increased turbidity  decline of seagrasses no buffer for
wave action  increased re-suspension of sediment 
increased turbidity  decline of seagrasses (Newell and Koch
2004)
• Loss of reef substrate decline of sea-nettles increase in
comb jellies increased predation on oyster larvae reduced
oyster abundance loss of reef substrate (Goldman 2004)
• The “eutrophication cascade”: increased nutrient
loadingphytoplankton growth and sinkingincr benthic
respirationincr recycling of N and Pincr nutrient-fed
phytoplankton growth (Kemp 2005)
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F. Aquatic: Submerged Aquatic
Vegetation (SAV)
• A foundation species with
multiple roles:
• habitat and refuge
• flow management
• nutrient buffering
• Dramatic decline in SAV from 1950s
• Recent signs of recovery
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Causes of SAV Decline
• Primary cause is poor water quality from pollutants
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•
•
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SAV as “canary of coastal water”
Chlorine and other chemicals
Herbicides
Sediments and algal blooms affecting turbidity
• Other causes
-Over-grazing
-Warming of water temp
-Storm events
-Disease
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IV. Conservation
A. Human Land Use Changes (policy & action)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Strategic development
Treatment facilities
Cultural changes
Changes in Regulatory Structures
B. Bioremediation
1.
2.
Bioindicators
Symbioses as agents of bioremediation
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A. Human Land Use Changes
• Considerations of Land Use is Required to Address
Environmental Issues including Global Climate
Change1
• Development in theory is not that bad
– It is the WAY we develop
• Loss of forests and native species, as well as top soil
• Impervious surfaces
• Fragmentation of existing forestland
• Construction Areas
• Existing Roadways
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1Lecture: Lovejoy, April 8,
2010
1. Strategic Development
• Larger Environmental Easements and Buffers
• Remove Native Species Only Where Necessary
• Leave Layer of top soil and at least 30 percent of existing
plant species
– Mychorrhizae associations provide services
• Soil formation and retention
• Absorption of naturally occurring phosphorous
• Develop Fewer Impervious Surfaces
• Plan More Direct and Narrow Roadways
• Replant Native Species Along Roadways and Parking
Lots as Environmental Species
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Example of Strategic Development
Problems
Solutions
• Development & land use
• Increase in impervious
surfaces
• Loss of natural
percolation filtration
• Increase in runoff
velocity causes erosion
•Decrease impervious
surfaces
• Green roof
• Rain gardens
• Installing water
absorbing plants around
highways
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2. Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs)
• WWTPs minimize environmental contamination
from surface runoff, industrial, agriculture, &
residential sources
• Multiple WWTPs discharge into the PRV
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http://www.epa.gov/nps/whatis.html
2. Alexandria Sanitation Authority
• Tertiary treatment plant with UV & oxygen to
effluent processes over 54 million gal/day (12
billion)
• Filters 4.3 million lbs of N & 746,000 lbs of P per
year
• Minimize algae blooms that feed on nitrogen and create
oxygen dead zones
• Use methane gas to heat and cool plant (780 homes
annually)
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http://www.alexsan.com/how_does_asa_clean_dirty_water.asp
2. Wastewater Treatment Plants & the PRV
• Effluent from wastewater treatment plants is
currently the most notably identified point-source
contribution of endocrine disrupting contaminants
in the Potomac River.
• Emerging contaminants in the Potomac include
personal care products, pharmaceuticals and overthe-counter medications, agricultural pollution,
animal feedlots, and industrial byproducts.
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http://www.potomac.org/site/snapshot-watershed/index.php
3. Changes in Culture
• End the “Zero-Sum Game” mindset
• You can’t reach a “win-win” resolution if you’re not
looking for one
• Look at problems (and for solutions) holistically
• Myopic understanding of problems encourages
simplistic (not simple) solutions that tend to be ill-suited
to the complex reality... then no one wins
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3. Changes in Culture
• Enshrine the concept of the “Precautionary
Principle” at the same level as that of the
concept of “Progress”
• Neither is bad and neither is the enemy of the
other; they must be used in a complimentary
manner
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3. Changes in Culture (through education)
Conserve/Help/Protect Vulnerable Symbioses
•Better education for the offenders
•Better enforcement of the laws
•Strengthen environmental laws
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4. Changes in Regulatory Structure
•
Recognize and prioritize Ecosystem
Services
•
•
Neglecting or taking for granted what nature
provides tends to result in losing that value
Assigning economic value is one way to
handle this in a free-market system… this does
not necessarily mean buying and selling
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4. Changes in Regulatory Structure
• Require “Cradle-to-Grave” and/or “Cradle-toCradle” analysis for products and processes
• Often the most damaging things we do are
accidental/incidental, related to an aspect or feature we
overlooked or don’t understand; only by eliminating
those blind-spots can we make decisions that can even
ATTEMPT to be mutualistic
• Acknowledge that previous failures to understand
such complex systems could presage future failures
• “Measure twice, cut once” – learn from past mistakes
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B. Bioremediation
• How can we utilize local species and the
relationships between these species to help monitor,
conserve and rejuvenate the Potomac River Valley
for future generations?
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1. Bioindicators
• Use mycorrhizae and other mutualisms as
bioindicators of ecological system health
• Foraminifers as bioindicators of coral reefs
• Zooxanthellate and foraminifers have similar waterquality requirements
• Short life span provides differentiation between longterm water quality decline and episodic events
• Small and abundant
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Symbioses as Bioindicators
• Symbiosis degradation can be a measure of impact
• Monitoring the health of these relationships as a
measure of ecosystem health
• Symbiosis success can be a standard to achieve
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2. Bioremediation using symbioses
• Many mutualisms affect pollution
complex systems in wetlands filter water by:
• Removing metals, nutrients, silt, etc.
• Promoting new wetlands growth and biodiversity
which could help decrease pollutant levels
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Bioremediation using mycorrhizae
• Mycorrhizae bioremediate through bacterial
recruitment and improving soil conditions
• Bacteria that are recruited can use PAHs as a
source of carbon and thus break them down
and detoxify them
• Leeks (wild ramps in the PRV) could help
detoxify fossil fuel emissions from major
highways
(Leyval & Binet,
1998)
(Bouchez et. al,
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1995)
Soil Stabilization and Nutrient
Recruitment by Mycorrhizae
• Andersson et. al (1994) found that Paxillus
involutus, a mycelium associated with Picea
abies (Norway spruce) and (Betula pendula)
silver birch increased nitrate assimilation
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Bioremediation by Native Species
Mussels
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Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit 2010
Six Hours Later
• One mussel can filter ~0.5 gallon/hr
Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit 2010
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More Solutions/Symbioses
• Development of an intelligent robot to:
• To wander through the PRV waters
• To seek-out pollutants
• To process and eliminate pollutants
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Conclusions
•
•
•
•
Stressors play a defining role in symbioses
Environmental education and legislation is
essential for the protection of our ecosystems
Bioremediation is a powerful tool in protecting
and cleaning up ecosystems
Symbioses can play an integral role in the
process of bioremediation
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Floor is Open for
Questions
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Resources
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Adamson, N. (2009, April 18). Native Bee Pollinators for Crops. Retrieved April 16, 2010, from
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Andersson, S., Arnebrant, K., & Söderström, B. (1994). Growth and Assimilation of NH4 + and NO3 by Paxillus involutus in Association with Betula pendula and Picea abies as Affected by Substrate
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Appleton, B., Spivey, A., & French, S. (2009). Virginia Cut Holly Production: Holly Pollination and
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Cloern, J. E. (2001). Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrophication problem, Marine
Ecology Progress Series, Vol 210: 223-253.
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Resources
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Fulford, R. S., et al. (2007). Effects of oyster population restoration strategies on phytoplankton
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Resources
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Lenihan, H. S., and Peterson, C.H. (1998). How habitat degradation through fishery disturbance
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Where Innovation Is Tradition
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Villella, Rita. Impact of aluminum-laden sediment discharge on viability of native
freshwater mussels in the Potomac River; Detailed project information for study
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Service, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic
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Winegar, Deane. Longstreet highroad guide to the Chesapeake Bay. Retrieved from:
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Zahran, H. H. (1999). Rhizobium-Legume Symbiosis and Nitrogen Fixation under Severe
Conditions and in an Arid Climate. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev., 63(4), 968-989.
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