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Introduction
•The earth began as a physiosphere; a
collection of chemicals and compounds
interacting with one another in continuous
Motion.
•Somewhere, in the last 4.5 billion years,
the Earth gave birth to a biosphere; giving
life to tens of billions of species of plants
and animals.
•Then, sometime in the last quarter million
years the Earth embarked on a new
journey. Mind evolved, and the Noosphere
emerged, peaking in the form of human
beings.
•We have yet to see where the journey will
lead.
Life proliferates.
It diversifies at an
estimated annual
rate of 0.00025%,
or about
2.5 species/million
per year…
Tree of Life
At the same time,
Biologists estimate
that the normal rate
of extinction is
about 0.0001%,
or about
1.0 species/million
per year…
A minimum ecosystem consists of a producer (a foundation species
which produces food from environmental nutrients), a consumer (a
keystone species to control population of foundation), and a
decomposer (an indicator species to recycle nutrients to the
producer). Each of these species is said to hold an ecological niche.
Foundation Species —the primary
autotroph (producer) in an
ecosystem, both in terms of number
& influence.
ECOSYSTEM
1
Keytone Species –the primary
heterotroph (consumer) in an
ecosystem who controls the
population of foundation species
from becoming too numerous.
Indicator Species –species whose
presence indicates the health of an
ecosystem
Heterotroph
Autotroph
Sapratroph
As new species enter the community, they must establish
relationships with the existing species. They must find an
ecological niches.
Autotrophs
Photosynthetic
Chemosynthetic
Heterotrophs
Herbivore
Carnivore
Omnivore
Saprotrophs
Herbivorous
Carnivorous
Ominovorous
ECOSYSTEM2
Heterotroph
Autotroph
Saprotroph
Niches
The niches each species holds, and its relationship to
other species in the community can be symbiotic,
competitive or neutral. No two species within a single
ecosystem can occupy the same niche.
Autotroph
Autotroph
Heterotroph
Necrotroph
Competitive
Heterotroph
Saprotroph
Neutral
Symbiotic
Competitive
Neutral
Competitive
Autotrophs
Amenalism –an association neutral to one species, but of
disadvantage to another.
Commensalism –an association advantageous to one species,
without harming the other.
Mutualism –an association advantageous to both species
Heterotrophs
Commensalism –an association advantageous to one species,
without harming the other (herbivores eating plants).
Mutualism –an association advantageous to both species
(bacteria in the intestines of herbivores that assist with digestion).
Parasitism –an association advantageous to one species, at the
expense and harm of another (parasites).
Predation –an act whereby one species hunts and kills another for
food (the drama of carnivorous predators vs. prey).
Saprotrophs
Commensalism –an association advantageous to one species,
without harming the other (scavengers and decomposing bacteria
have no serious impact on the living).
The Law of the Minimum
For a species to survive there must be a minimum of life
essentials—a.k.a. air, water, food and shelter. An over abundance
of one cannot replace the absence of another (e.g., an abundance
of food cannot replace the absence of any shelter).
Climate
Temperature
Moisture (water)
Nutrient Base
Soil conditions
Water conditions
Habitat
Shelter
Territory
Health of Ecosystem
MEASURING THE HEALTH OF AN ECOSYSTEMS
Compare ecosystems
w/in Biomes to one
another…
Biome 1
Biome 2
Biome 3
Biome 4
Biome 5
Biome 6
Biome n
Species
/Acre
Genera
/Acre
Populat’ns Biomass
/Acre
/Acre
Biomes
The collection of all ecosystems within a common
climate zone is called a Biome. Biomes are
generally named according to their fundamental or
dominant species. With that is the prevailing
climate which is based:
Latitude (prevailing temperatures variations)
Elevation & Landform
Precipitation (prevailing moisture variations)
Along with these are special considerations, such
as the water salinity, and soil type.
Biogeography
North
Polar
M
O
I
S
T
U
R
E
North
Sub-Polar
North
Temp
LATITUDE
North
Equatorial
South
Sub-Tropic
Sub-Tropic
South
South
Temp Sub-Polar
South
Polar
Dry
Moist
Wet
Other
(salinity)
ECOSYSTEM
LANDFORM
Heterotroph
Necrotroph
Autotroph
Mountain
Slope
Coastal
Fluvial
Volcanic
Erosive
BIOME GROUPS
Aquatic
Desert
Shrublands
Grasslands
Forests
Terrestrial Biomes
It has not always
been a smooth
road. Within the
Phanerozoic Era
of the last 540
million years, we
know of ten (10)
global scale
extinctions, five
(5) of which are
labeled as
massive
extinctions. Each
of these
extinctions has
been connected
to rapid climate
change brought
on by some
catastrophic
event (comet,
asteroid or mass
volcano activity.
Estimated total 60 billion species
Extinctions Over 540 my
In spite of ten (10)
extinction die-offs,
life has increased to
over 5000 different
genera, holding
over 12 million
different species.
Estimated total 60 billion species
How has this been
possible? It is
possible because of
life is extremely
adaptable to finding
ecological niches in
which to live.
An ecological niche
is a term describing
the relational
position of a
species in an
ecosystem.
Recoveries Over 540 my
Human Caused
Extinctions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Historical rate of extinction is
0.0001% per year or about 1
species/million per year…
Historical rate of diversification is
0.00025% per year or about 2.5
species/million per year…
Historical rates provide a surplus
of 1.5 species/million per year.
Present rate of extinction is 0.1%
per year or about 1000 species/
million per year
Present rates create a depletion of
999 species/million per year…
This is cumulative
a. Over 25 years, nearly 25,000
species per million will be lost
b. Over 100 years, nearly 100,000
species per million (10% of all
living things) will be lost
Human Causes for Extinction
HABITAT STRESS & DESTRUCTION
1. Habitat Fragmentation
2. Habitat Degradation
3. Habitat Elimination
4. Habitat Disruption
a. Introduction of nonnative species
b. Introduction of Pollution Agents
c. Climate disruption
5. Habitat Encroachment
a. Commercial hunting & poaching
b. Commercially induced over production (plantations)
Who Will Be Lost?
Species within the following groups are listed as
threatened or endangered and could become extinct
before the end of this century
Freshwater Fish
Ocean Fish
Amphibians
Mammals
Reptiles
Plants
Birds
51%
34%
25%
24%
20%
14%
12%
For all species
20-30%
What Can Be Done?
TOOLS AT OUR
DISPOSAL …
• Educate
• Legislate
• Regulate
• Innovate
SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM
1. Local
2. Regional
3. National
4. International
APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM
1. Species
2. Ecosystem
Habitat Management
LAND ZONING & DESIGNATED PRESERVATION
1. Urban
2. Agricultural
3. Park & Recreation
4. Natural Resource Preserves
5. Wildlife Preserves
6. Wilderness Preserves
ENDANGERED SPECIES ACTS OF PROTECTION
1. Required registration and licensing
2. Prevention against over commercialization
3. Protection from hunting and poaching