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Second Exam: Thursday 29 October 2015 Covers Chapters 5, 8, 9, 10, and 11 Lectures 10 to 19 plus Agriculture Global Warming The Vanishing Book of Life on Earth Plastics Intelligent Design? The Weakest Link Lecture # 18 Technology 27 October 2015 Economics 200 mph winds -- Strongest hurricane in 50 years Intersexual vs. intrasexual (epigamic) sexual selection Mating preferences in Drosophila and pigeons Certainty of Maternity, Uncertainty of Paternity “Battle of the sexes” Cuckoldry —> jealousy Desertion —> Mating Rituals, Complex Courtship Sex that invests most is most choosy about mates Natural selection produces a correlation between male genetic quality and female preference “Sexy son” phenomenon (females cannot afford to mate with males that are not attractive to other females) Male Reproductive Success in Sage Grouse Game Theoretic Approaches Prisoner's dilemma: Two suspects, A and B, are arrested by the police. The police have insufficient evidence for a conviction, and, having separated both prisoners, each of them is offered the same deal: if one testifies for the prosecution against the other and the other remains silent, the betrayer goes free and the silent accomplice receives the full 10-year sentence. If both stay silent, the police can sentence both prisoners to only six months in jail for a minor charge. If each betrays the other, each will receive a two-year sentence. Each prisoner must make the choice of whether to betray the other or to remain silent. But neither prisoner knows for sure what choice the other prisoner will make. So the question this dilemma poses is: What will happen? How will the prisoners act? Prisoner's Dilemma Prisoner B Stays Silent Prisoner A Stays Silent Both serve 6 months Prisoner A Prisoner A goes free Betrays Prisoner B serves 10 years Prisoner B Betrays Prisoner A serves 10 years Prisoner B goes free Both serve two years http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/prisoner-dilemma/ Game Theoretic Approaches Costs versus benefits of behaviors “tit for tat” strategy can lead to cooperation (“the future casts a long shadow back on the present” -- Axelrod) Evolutionarily stable strategies = ESS (a tactic that when present in a population, cannot be beaten) John Maynard Smith Evolution of Self Deceit Subconscious mind Polygraph playback experiments Evolution of Self Deceit Subconscious mind Polygraph playback experiments Evolution of Self Deceit Subconscious mind Polygraph playback experiments Evolution of Self Deceit Subconscious mind Polygraph playback experiments Fool Yourself The Better to Fool Others Summary of Direct Pairwise Interactions Between Two Populations __________________________________________________________________________ Species Type of Interaction A B Nature of Interaction __________________________________________________________________________ Competition – – Each population inhibits the other Predation, parasitism, and Batesian mimicry + – Population A, the predator, parasite, or mimic, kills or exploits members of population B, the prey, host, or model Mutualism, Müllerian mimicry + + Interaction is favorable to both (can be obligatory or facultative) Commensalism + 0 Population A, the commensal, benefits whereas B, the host, is not affected Amensalism – 0 Population A is inhibited, but B is unaffected Neutralism 0 0 Neither party affects the other __________________________________________________________________ Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages bees —> clover Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages bees ——> clover Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages mice ——o bees ——> clover Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages cats —o mice ——o bees ——> clover Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors —> naval prowess Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages —————————————————> spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors —> naval prowess Path length of seven! Longer paths take longer (delay) Longer paths are also weaker, but there are more of them Indirect Interactions Trophic “Cascades” Top-down, Bottom-up Competitive Mutualism Complex Population Interactions Rob Colwell Mutualistic Interactions and Symbiotic Relationships Mutualism (obligate and facultative) Termite endosymbionts Commensalisms (Cattle Egrets) Examples: Bullhorn Acacia ant colonies (Beltian bodies) Caterpillars “sing” to ants (protection) Ants tend aphids for their honeydew, termites cultivate fungi Bacteria and fungi in roots provide nutrients (carbon reward) Bioluminescence (bacteria) Endozoic algae (Hydra), “kidnapped” chloroplasts Endosymbiosis (Margulis) mitochondria & chloroplasts Birds on water buffalo backs, picking crocodile teeth Figs and fig wasps (pollinate, lay eggs, larvae develop) Brown Hydra Green Hydra Nudibranchs Green sea slug Hydra Runaway Sexual Selection (Fisher) Handicap Hypothesis (Zahavi) Leks Sensory Exploitation Hypothesis Internal versus External Fertilization Alternative mating tactics Satellite males Ecological Sexual Dimorphisms Ratites (bushland tinamou) Bower birds Spiteful behavior Summary of Direct Pairwise Interactions Between Two Populations __________________________________________________________________________ Species Type of Interaction A B Nature of Interaction __________________________________________________________________________ Competition – – Each population inhibits the other Predation, parasitism, and Batesian mimicry + – Population A, the predator, parasite, or mimic, kills or exploits members of population B, the prey, host, or model Mutualism, Müllerian mimicry + + Interaction is favorable to both (can be obligatory or facultative) Commensalism + 0 Population A, the commensal, benefits whereas B, the host, is not affected Amensalism – 0 Population A is inhibited, but B is unaffected Neutralism 0 0 Neither party affects the other __________________________________________________________________ Intraspecific competition (between individuals within spp.) Interspecific competition (between members of different spp.) Exploitation competition (resource depression) Interference competition (direct antagonistic encounters) Indirect Interactions Darwin — Lots of “Humblebees” around villages —————————————————> spinsters —> cats —o mice —o bees —> clover —> beef —> sailors —> naval prowess Path length of seven! Longer paths take longer (delay) Longer paths are also weaker, but there are more of them Dan Janzen Euglossine bees Orchid fragrances (epiphytes) Male bees use orchid chemicals as base for production of pheromones to attract female bees (travel up to 23 km) pollinate rare and diverse orchids, allowing sparsely distributed plants to occur at astonishing low densities Heliconius tropical butterflies get amino acids from pollen Larry Gilbert Various Aspects of the Association of Cattle Egrets with Cattle ________________________________________________________ Number of Number Percent Associated Egrets Category of Cattle Cattle Expected Observed ___________________________________________________________________ Grazing in sun 735 Grazing in shade 55 Standing in sun 146 Standing in shade257 Lying in sun 503 Lying in shade 143 Walking 39 Total 1878 39.1 2.9 7.8 13.7 26.8 7.6 2.1 100.0 239 439 18 21 48 46 84 17 164 69 47 17 13 3 ______________________ 612 ________________________________________________________ Various Aspects of the Association of Cattle Egrets with Cattle ______________________________________________________________________ Mean Number Per Minute Number of Times Count Was Higher Than for Opposite Egret Number of Associated Egrets ______________________________________________________________________ Feedings, N = 84 Associated 2.34 58 69 Nonassociated 1.71 26 31 Steps, N = 62 Associated Nonassociated 20.1 32.1 7 55 Feeding/step, N = 59 Associated Nonassociated 0.129 0.051 52 7 11 89 Harold Heatwole 88 12 __________________________________________________________ Interspecific Competition leads to Niche Diversification Two types of Interspecific Competition: Exploitation competition is indirect, occurs when a resource is in short supply by resource depression Interference competition is direct and occurs via antagonistic encounters such as interspecific territoriality or production of toxins Direct versus Indirect Interactions Exploitation vs. Interference competition Apparent Competition Competitive Mutualism Facilitation Food Chain Mutualism Trophic Cascades (top-down, bottom up) Complex Population Interactions (Colwell’s Plant-Pollinator System) Mutualisms Euglossine bees and orchids Heliconius butterflies (larval nitrogen reserves) Cattle Egret Commensalism Gause’s competition lab experiments Competitive Exclusion Georgii F. Gause Coexistence of two species of Paramecium G. F. Gause Outcome of Competition Between Two Species of Flour Beetles _______________________________________________________________________________ Temp. (°C) Relative Humidity (%) Climate Single Species Numbers Mixed Species (% wins) confusum castaneum _______________________________________________________________________________ 34 70 Hot-Moist confusum = castaneum 0 100 34 30 Hot-Dry confusum > castaneum 90 10 29 70 Warm-Moist confusum < castaneum 14 86 29 30 Warm-Dry confusum > castaneum 87 13 24 70 Cold-Moist confusum <castaneum 71 29 24 30 Cold-Dry confusum >castaneum 100 0 _______________________________________________________________________________ Recall the Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Equation dN/dt = rN [(K – N)/K] = rN {1– (N/K)} dN/dt = rN – rN (N/K) = rN – {(rN2)/K} dN/dt = 0 when [(K – N)/K] = 0 [(K – N)/K] = 0 when N = K dN/dt = rN – (r/K)N2 Inhibitory effect of each individual On its own population growth is 1/K Assumes linear response to crowding, instant response (no lag), r and K are fixed constants S - shaped sigmoidal population growth Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Lotka-Volterra Competition Equations competition coefficient aij = per capita competitive effect of one individual of species j on the rate of increase of species i Alfred Lotka Vito Volterra dN1 /dt = r1 N1 ({K1 – N1 – a12 N2 }/K1) dN2 /dt = r2 N2 ({K2 – N2 – a21 N1 }/K2) Isoclines: (K1 – N1 – a12 N2 )/K1 = 0 when N1 = K1 – a12 N2 (K2 – N2 – a21 N1 )/K2 = 0 when N2 = K2 – a21 N1