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Support Vector Machines and Kernel Methods Machine Learning March 25, 2010 Last Time • Basics of the Support Vector Machines Review: Max Margin • How can we pick which is best? • Maximize the size of the margin. Small Margin Large Margin Are these really “equally valid”? 3 Review: Max Margin Optimization • The margin is the projection of x1 – x2 onto w, the normal of the hyperplane. Projection: Size of the Margin: 4 Review: Maximizing the margin • Goal: maximize the margin Linear Separability of the data by the decision boundary 5 Review: Max Margin Loss Function Primal Dual Review: Support Vector Expansion Independent of the Dimension of x! New decision Function • When αi is non-zero then xi is a support vector • When αi is zero xi is not a support vector 7 Review: Visualization of Support Vectors 8 Today • How support vector machines deal with data that are not linearly separable – Soft-margin – Kernels! Why we like SVMs • They work – Good generalization • Easily interpreted. – Decision boundary is based on the data in the form of the support vectors. • Not so in multilayer perceptron networks • Principled bounds on testing error from Learning Theory (VC dimension) 10 SVM vs. MLP • SVMs have many fewer parameters – SVM: Maybe just a kernel parameter – MLP: Number and arrangement of nodes and eta learning rate • SVM: Convex optimization task – MLP: likelihood is non-convex -- local minima 11 Linear Separability • So far, support vector machines can only handle linearly separable data • But most data isn’t. Soft margin example • Points are allowed within the margin, but cost is introduced. Hinge Loss 13 Soft margin classification • There can be outliers on the other side of the decision boundary, or leading to a small margin. • Solution: Introduce a penalty term to the constraint function 14 Soft Max Dual Still Quadratic Programming! 15 Probabilities from SVMs • Support Vector Machines are discriminant functions – Discriminant functions: f(x)=c – Discriminative models: f(x) = argmaxc p(c|x) – Generative Models: f(x) = argmaxc p(x|c)p(c)/p(x) • No (principled) probabilities from SVMs • SVMs are not based on probability distribution functions of class instances. 16 Efficiency of SVMs • Not especially fast. • Training – n^3 – Quadratic Programming efficiency • Evaluation – n – Need to evaluate against each support vector (potentially n) 17 Kernel Methods • Points that are not linearly separable in 2 dimension, might be linearly separable in 3. Kernel Methods • Points that are not linearly separable in 2 dimension, might be linearly separable in 3. Kernel Methods • We will look at a way to add dimensionality to the data in order to make it linearly separable. • In the extreme. we can construct a dimension for each data point • May lead to overfitting. Remember the Dual? Primal Dual 21 Basis of Kernel Methods • The decision process doesn’t depend on the dimensionality of the data. • We can map to a higher dimensionality of the data space. • Note: data points only appear within a dot product. • The objective function is based on the dot product of data points – not the data points themselves. 22 Basis of Kernel Methods • Since data points only appear within a dot product. • Thus we can map to another space through a replacement • The objective function is based on the dot product of data points – not the data points themselves. 23 Kernels • The objective function is based on a dot product of data points, rather than the data points themselves. • We can represent this dot product as a Kernel – Kernel Function, Kernel Matrix • Finite (if large) dimensionality of K(xi,xj) unrelated to dimensionality of x Kernels • Kernels are a mapping Kernels • Gram Matrix: Consider the following Kernel: Kernels • Gram Matrix: Consider the following Kernel: Kernels • In general we don’t need to know the form of ϕ. • Just specifying the kernel function is sufficient. • A good kernel: Computing K(xi,xj) is cheaper than ϕ(xi) Kernels • Valid Kernels: – Symmetric – Must be decomposable into ϕ functions • • • • Harder to show. Gram matrix is positive semi-definite (psd). Positive entries are definitely psd. Negative entries may still be psd Kernels • Given a valid kernels, K(x,z) and K’(x,z), more kernels can be made from them. – cK(x,z) – K(x,z)+K’(x,z) – K(x,z)K’(x,z) – exp(K(x,z)) – …and more Incorporating Kernels in SVMs • Optimize αi’s and bias w.r.t. kernel • Decision function: Some popular kernels • • • • Polynomial Kernel Radial Basis Functions String Kernels Graph Kernels Polynomial Kernels • The dot product is related to a polynomial power of the original dot product. • if c is large then focus on linear terms • if c is small focus on higher order terms • Very fast to calculate 33 Radial Basis Functions • The inner product of two points is related to the distance in space between the two points. • Placing a bump on each point. 34 String kernels • Not a gaussian, but still a legitimate Kernel – K(s,s’) = difference in length – K(s,s’) = count of different letters – K(s,s’) = minimum edit distance • Kernels allow for infinite dimensional inputs. – The Kernel is a FUNCTION defined over the input space. Don’t need to specify the input space exactly • We don’t need to manually encode the input. 35 Graph Kernels • Define the kernel function based on graph properties – These properties must be computable in poly-time • • • • Walks of length < k Paths Spanning trees Cycles • Kernels allow us to incorporate knowledge about the input without direct “feature extraction”. – Just similarity in some space. 36 Where else can we apply Kernels? • Anywhere that the dot product of x is used in an optimization. • Perceptron: Kernels in Clustering • In clustering, it’s very common to define cluster similarity by the distance between points – k-nn (k-means) • This distance can be replaced by a kernel. • We’ll return to this more in the section on unsupervised techniques Bye • Next time – Supervised Learning Review – Clustering