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Diagram carbon: Because of it’s structure, carbon generally makes ____________ bonds CARBON Carbon can make __SINGLE_ bonds, where _1__ electron pair is shared CARBON BONDING Single bond __DOUBLE_ bonds, where __2__ electron pairs are shared, Double bond or __TRIPLE___ bonds, where _3__ electron pairs are shared. Triple bond Chemicals containing carbon – carbon bonds are called __ORGANIC MOLECULES____ Not the organic that you think of ORGANIC MOLECULES Once you have C-C bonds, different __FUNCTIONAL _ groups can be added. These function groups give the molecule it’s _PROPERTIES__ and effect the __REACTIONS__ it undergoes There are 4 types of organic molecules (made by adding functional groups to C-C bonds) that are especially important to living things: __CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, PROTEINS, AND NUCLEIC ACIDS__ Carbon can form straight or branched chains, and rings ARRANGEMENT Organic molecules are made up of __MONOMERS__ which are building blocks These monomers link together to form bigger molecules called _POLYMERS____________ BUILDING BLOCKS These polymers combine to form _MACROMOLECULES___, literally meaning _LARGE MOLECULE__. _MONOMERS__ => _POLYMERS___ => _MACROMOLECULES___ Carbohydrates add _WATER_ (H2O) as the functional group, hence “hydrate” Therefore the general formula for a carbohydrate is _1_ carbon : _2_ hydrogen : _1_ oxygen (although there are no carbohydrates with that EXACT formula) ◦ Saccharides have the general shape of a _RING_ CARBOHYDRATES Monomer of the carbohydrate is called a __SACCHARIDE____ Carbohydrates are used in the body for _QUICK_ _ENERGY_ The simplest type of carbohydrate is a building block called a __MONOSACCHARIDE_ (remember, mono- means __ONE______) Saccharide shape Monosaccharide are called "__SIMPLE SUGARS__" MONOSACCHARIDES Monosaccharides have between 3 and 9 sugars, with the most common being _5_ and _6__ 2 important monosaccharides with 5 carbons are _RIBOSE_ and _DEOXYRIBOSE_ ◦ These sugars are components of _NUCLEIC___ _ACID_ which are molecules involved in every aspect of cellular life 3 CARBON SUGARS There are 3 common monosaccharide that all have the chemical formula ___C6H12O6___ This makes them ____ISOMERS______ chemicals with the same formula but different 3 –D structure Because they have different structures, they also have different _PROPERTIES_ FORMULA __GLUCOSE__________________ is manufactured by plants and is the main source of energy for _LIFE_ GLUCOSE _FRUCTOSE__________________ is the sweetest and is found in fruits FRUCTOSE ___GALACTOSE_____________________ ____ is not very sweet and is found in dairy products and sugar beets GALACTOSE Comparison When you take 2 monosaccharides and put them together, you get a __DISACCHARIDE__ To combine monosaccharides, you use a _DEHYDRATION SYNETHESIS_ reaction, in which you get a larger molecule and WATER Disaccharide Formation Disaccharide are also called "__SIMPLE SUGARS__" DISACCHARIDES Glucose and fructose together form __SUCROSE_______, table sugar SUCROSE Lactose is found in __DAIRY____ products, and is formed by combining _GALACTOSE_________ and __GLUCOSE______________ Disaccharides are also called "_SIMPLE SUGARS___" LACTOSE ◦ People who are _LACTOSE___ _INTOLERANT_ lack an enzyme (a chemical that speeds up reactions) to break lactose into it’s individual components ◦ This causes the molecule to pass through the digestive system in a large piece and causes symptoms such as _FLATULANCE, PAIN, CRAMPING, DIARRHEA__ LACTOSE INTOLEANCE Many saccharides together are a __POLYSACCHARIDE_________ These are " __COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES_" Unlike monosacchardies, polysacchardies can have many different __SHAPES__ POLYSACCHARIDES Though still considered short term energy, complex carbohydrates are harder to break down in the body. __STARCH_ is the most common storage molecule in plants ◦ Humans consume starch for energy, especially found in _POTATOES__ and other _ROOT_ vegetables STARCH Animals use _GLYCOGEN__ for storage Found generally in the __LIVER_ AND MUSCLES GLYCOGEN Polysaccharides can also be used for _STRUCTURE_ in the body ◦ __CELLULOSE__ is the polysaccharide that makes up the cell wall in plants Simple sugars are the main _ENERGY___ source for the cell In fact your brain uses at least twice as much glucose as the rest of the body, about 125 – 150 grams However, if you eat too much sugar at one time, your body delivers a lot of _INSULIN_ to break it down quickly This causes too much of the sugar to be consumed and your blood sugar number drops very low This often times can make you _HUNGRY_, __JITTERY_, _LIGHTHEADED, etc The danger of simple sugars There is a slight difference, however, between _UNREFINED_ and _REFINED_ sugars ◦ Unrefined sugars are those that are closer to their natural state – they contain _MINERALS_ in addition to the sugars ◦ Examples of unrefined sugars include _HONEY, MOLASSES, ETC ◦ The most common example of refined sugars is _WHITE SUGAR____ Diets high in refined sugars lead to _OBESITY, CANCER, WRINKLES, ETC_ Complex carbohydrates are _BETTER_ for you. Because they are polysaccharides, they are _LARGER__ molecules. Therefore, they must first be broken to be used as _GLUCOSE_. ◦ This allows insulin to be released SLOWER Keep in mind, however, that some complex carbs are more refined than others too - _WHOLE WHEATS_ are more healthy than _WHITE FLOURS__ because they need more work in the body to break down Complex carbs can be obtained from _FRUITS, _VEGETABLES__, and _WHOLE GRAINS___ COMPLEX CARBS Cellulose is insoluble (meaning _DOES NOT DISSOLVE IN WATER__) and is called _FIBER_ when we talk about it as a human nutrient In addition, cellulose is important to the digestive system, as it causes _WATER__ to be absorbed in the small intestine and causes smooth muscle contractions, which causes _FECES__ to be moved along This has been shown to help fight, _HUNGER__, __OBESITY___ and cancers, such as _COLON__ HEALTH BENEFITS You should eat _25 - 30__ grams of fiber a days. This will help keep you “__REGULAR___” along with other health benefits FOOD LABEL Forms of Carbohydrate Sugars can be divided into several categories: * Simple sugars are usually thought of as unhealthy foods—for example, white sugar (sucrose) or high-fructose corn syrup. But simple sugars are also plentiful in sweettasting fruits—an important part of a healthy diet. * Complex carbohydrates are long branching chains of simple sugars connected together—the proper name for this form of carbohydrate is starch. These sugars are abundant in common plant foods, like corn, potatoes, rice, whole wheat flours, and beans. Green and yellow vegetables also synthesize and store complex carbohydrates, but in lesser amounts. * Dietary Fiber is another chain form of complex carbohydrate, but its structures are not digested by the human intestine. Although providing no calories, fiber is important for proper bowel and other metabolic functions. * Glycogen is a form of complex sugar made of branching chains of glucose. It is synthesized in the body and then stored in the muscles and liver for future activities. * Non-absorbable sugars (also called sugar alcohols) are sweet-tasting but are not readily absorbed from the intestine into the body. Although many are found in small amounts naturally, they are manufactured for commercial use. Examples are non-caloric sweeteners, like sorbitol and mannitol, used in candies and gums. Because they are poorly absorbed they have a laxative effect—lactulose is prescribed for this purpose Forms of carbohydrates