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Typical Counterweight-Operated Wing Change
In the seventeenth century anew technique
for changing the scenery on the illusionistic
stage evolved and became the standard on the
European stage for over two hundred years.
This new system, which mechanized the change of flat
wings, developed in Italy in the early to mid seventeenth
century. Giacomo Torelli is generally given credit for this
innovation, but some scholars credit others such as
Bernardo Buontalenti and Giovanni Battista AleottL I Although a number of references and a few drawings exist
describing the machinel)' used for this type of scene
change, the earliest extant theatres with their machinel)'
intact were built in 1766,1 over one hundred years after
the invention of the basic technology. Only three court
theatres from the mid to late eighteenth centUl)' still contain their original machinel)' in operating condition: the
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of the
figure I
court theatres at CeskY KrumJov (1766), Drottningholm
(1766), and Gripsholm (I 782).
Each of these theatres includes machinel)' necessal)' for the creation of the basic elements of late seventeenth centul)' and eighteenth century illusionistic scenic
spectacle:
1. flat wing change
2. border change
3. rear closure change (backdrops)
4. front curtain mechanism
5. fl)~ng machines
6. lighting devices
The theatres at Drottningholm and Cesk)/ Krullliov also
include traps, elevators, and additional stage machinery.
The Mechanized Flat Wing Scene Change
The flat wing stage probably emerged in the early
seventeenth century eventually replacing earlier, less
effective techniques that utilized periactoi, cloth cov-
mechanized
flat wing
SCenechange:
thcourt theatres
of
Gripsholm, Cesky- Krumlov, and Drottningholm
by
ers, and sliding Serlian-style wings. Although there are
no detailed illustrations or descriptions of the earliest
flat wing stages, by at least the middle of the seventeenth century the stages had become mechanized to
enable fast coordinated wing changes. The typical seventeenth century mechanized flat wing scene change
is shown in figure 1. It consisted of a series of trolleys
rolling on tracks in the substage area. Wing frames or
poles (hence the name "pole and chariot") extended
from the trolleys through slots in the stage floor to
support scenic flats. The scenic flats rested in hooks
attached to the wing frames. The onstage ends of the
trolleys to be moved onstage were attached with ropes
to a central shaft' and the offstage ends of the trolleys,
operating in pairs, were connected to each other via
direction-changing pulleys.
When the central shaft was revolved (often by use of
a falling counterweight) the trolley ropes were wrapped
around the shaft and as one trolley of each pair was
pulled onstage, the other trolley was pulled offstage. This
type of mechanism is shown in a number of seventeenth
and eighteenth cennlry drawings.'
No seventeenth century theatre exists with its stage
machinelY intact. Of the extant eighteenth centllly theatres, only the three theatres discussed in this article still
retain their oliginal stage machinely. Although each of
these theatres accomplished the same end-mO\~ng scenic \\wgs on and off stage-there are Significant differences in their details and operation.
TIle unique elements related to the wing change include:
The number of wings. Figure 2 shows that number of banks of \\~ngs in the three extant theatres varies
Frank Mohler
from four to sb:: banks. Each bank contains from two to
four wings:
o.ofbanks No. of wingslbarik
2
Gripsholm
4
CeskY Krumlov
3-4
5
Drottningholm
2-4
6
It should be noted that CeskY Krumlov has more
wings in the upstage banks and Drottningholm has more
wings in the downstage banks.
The type of drive. The most Significant difference
between the machinely in these theatres is the type of
de~ce used to pro~de the motivation for the change.
The drive pro~des the mechanical advantage for moving
the wing trolleys. Although many seventeenth and eighteenth century theatres utilized counterweights to move
scenery, the extant machinely at CeskY Krumlov,
Drottningholm, and Gripsholm do not utilize counterweights to assist the wing change.
The width of the slot. The flat wing change required slots in the stage floor for the passage of each
pole or \\wg ladder. The \\~dth of the slot was a function
of the type of removable \~g ladder.; It should be noted
that each of these extant theatres used wing frames
rather than poles to support the \~ngs.
The Scenery Guide. The wing frames in the
Swedish theatres included a guide at the top of the wing
frames to prevent adjacent wings from interfering with
each other.
The Type of Wheel. The wheels of the trolleys
supporting the wing franles are either grooved wheels
riding on rails or flat wheels mo~ng between tracks. 6
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Gripsholm
CeskY Krumlov
.
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)
CeskY Krumlov
,• , '
",/"
Wing Trolley Detail
figure 3
Gripsholm Wing Change
figure 4
Gripsholm
--Drottningholm
figure 2
Wing Arrangements
The two photos below show details of the substage
machinery in the Court Theatre at Gripsholm Castle.
On the left is the central shaft and drum, and on the
right is one of the trolleys.
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Gripsholm theatre is the
most recent and the smallest
ofthe three extant theatres;
its wing change mechanism
is also the simplest.
The Court Theatre at Gripsholm Castle
Although this Swedish castle dates from the sixteenth century, its importance to theatre history began in 1777, when King Gustavus III bought tlle castle from his
mother, Queen Louisa Ulrika, and instructed architect Carl Fredrik Adelcrantz to
build a small tlJeatre in tlJe top of a tower which had a diameter of about 45 feet.
This tiny theatre with an illusionistic stage proved to be inadequate for the "theatre
king" and he ordered tlJe construction of a larger theatre. Architect Erik Palmstedt
increased the size of tlJe tlleatre by incorporating part of an adjacent wing of the palace. The auditorium was remodeled again in 1785, but the theatre fell into disuse
shortly tllereafter. The castle is now a museum featuring a collection of paintings of
Swedish monarchs. '2
The Court Theatre at Gripsholm Castle.
Photo by Eric Cornelius; courtesy of the
National Swedish Art Museums.
Gripsholm Theatre Wing Change
Gripsholm theatre is the most recent and the smallest of
the three extant theatres (see sidebar); its wing change
mechanism is also the simplest. This theatre uses the
typical central shaft and drum. With only two wings in
each of the four banks the mechanism is reversible since
the stage technicians do not have to connect a different
set of wing trolleys to the central shaft for each change.
Each wing unit consists of a trolley with two grooved
wheels, which ride on rails, located on raised platforms
in the sub-stage area and a wing ladder, which can be removed from the trolley for maintenance. The \\~ng frame
passes through the stage floor and requires a relatively
wide slot for its movement as shown in figure 3. Each
trolley has hooks mounted on both its onstage and offstage ends. Aring in the end of a rope connected to the
central shaft is connected to the onstage trolley hook. A
rope with rings on both ends connects the offstage ends
of the trolleys in each bank; tllis rope passes around a
horizontal pulley offstage of the trolleys allOWing one unit
to be pulled offstage as the other is pulled onstage. All of
the hooks and rings are bound with leather to eliminate
the metal-to-metal noise.
Arope loop attached to the large drum on the central shaft allows a stagehand to rotate the drum and shaft,
thus pulling one set of wings onslage and the other set
offstage as shown in figure 4. The mechanical advantage
of this system is the ratio of the diameter of the shaft to
the diameter of the drum. AQuickTime movie of the \~ng
change at the Gripsholm Theatre may be seen on the
World Wide Web at: http://wwwl.appstate.edu/orgsl
spectacle/animalions/gripsholmwing.mov.
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The downstage banks of wings,
each with three trolleys, at the
Ceskjt Krumlov theatre. Photo
by the author.
Section drawing of the
Drottningholm Theatre
circa 1754. Courtesy of
CeskY Krumlov Wing Change
figure 5
Nordiska museet,
1
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The Cesk)r Krumlov Theatre Wing Change
The Court Theatre at Cesk)r Krumlov Castle
The theatre at Cesk)r Krumlov, the least known of the
three extant theatres, has five banks of wing trolleys on
each side of the stage as shown in figure 2. The first three
banks of wings each contain three trolleys; the fourth and
fifth banks of wings each contain four trolleys. Since each
bank contains more than two trolleys, additional scenic
flats can be preset on the wing franles. However, the scenic change requires that technicians move the ropes attached to the central shaft and the ropes attached to the
hooks on the offstage ends of the trolleys from one set of
wings to another.
The wing frames at Cesk)r Krumlov are unique
among the extant theatres since they allow a velY narrow
slot in the stage floor. The wing frames are joined to the
trolleys by a metal plate using a slot in the floor only
slightly wider than the piece of steel as shown in figure 3.
The mechanism is also unique since it provides a large
central shaft with a winch handle for control of the first
four sets of wings and a separate winch for the last set of
wings. i Once the appropriate set of wings was connected
to the central shaft (or upstage winch) and the wings
moving onstage and offstage were connected via the direction-changing pulleys offstage of the wings, the operator merely rotated the central shaft (or winch) using the
winch handles as shown in figure 5. The mechanical advantage of this system is based upon ratio of the winch
handle length to the dianleter of the shaft. AQuickTime
movie of the wing change at the Cesk)r KrumJov may be
seen at: http://wwwl.appstate.edulorgslspectaclelanirnationslceskykrumlovwing.mov.
The town and castle of Cesk)r Krumlov are located in rural southern Bohemia in what
is now tlle Czech Republic. In the seventeenth century the Eggenberg family owned
the castle. Theallical performances in the castle began as early as 1666 on temporary stages in the ball-court and, later, in the Deer Hall. Apermanent company was
formed in the 1670s and after 1686 performances shifted from the temporary theatre to a permanent theatre in an adjacent building. The number of performances
fell off by the end of the seventeenth centmy and in 1719 the castle passed to the
Schwarzenberg family who seldom used it due to its poor condition. The condition of
the theatre deteriorated further to the point that a major reconstruction began in
1766. Although tlle inventor of the stage machinely is not known, the machinery was
built and installed by a stage carpenter, Lorenzo Mak, who apparently modeled it on
the machinery in a larger theatre in Vienna.
The theatre reopened in its present form in July 1768 to provide entertainment
as part of a wedding celebration. As the Schwarzenbergers began to stay at the castle
less frequently the theatre again fell into disuse except for a few amateur productions
and it finally was closed in 1897 for safety reasons. Beginning in 1958 the South
Bohemia Theatre used the theatre for festival productions for a short period of time
each year, but without the use of the stage machinely. The stage machinery was repaired and began to be used in 1961. FoLlo\\~ng a performance for the Prague Quadrennial in 1967, the theatre was again closed for a planned reconstruction of the
entire building. This work lasted on and off until 1993 when the tlleatre was reopened.
nfortunately some of the dismantling and reconstruction was poorly done resulting in the destruction or loss of important elements of the theatre, which had to
be reconstructed from photographs. In addition a number of changes had to be
made to the theatre to correct problems such as tlle destructively high humidity. On
several occasions chemical pesticides had been used to eliminate the insects that
were destroying wooden elements of the building. The use of chemicals eventually
resulted in an unhealthy atmosphere inside the building, which is now being
corrected. 13
The stage of the Court
Theatre at Cesky
Krumlov Castle. Photo
by the author.
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.to.
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1755 sketch by George Froman of the wing change
Vertical capstan, installed at the Drottningholm theatre
mechanism at Dresden Opera House. Courtesy
following the 1766 fire. Photo courtesy Drottningholms
Universitetsbiblioteket, Uppsala, Sweden.
teatermuseum.
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The stage of the Court
Theatre at Drottningholm
Palace. Photo by Bengt
Wanselius; courtesy
Drottningholms
teatermuseum.
The Drottningholm Theatre Wing Change
The Court Theatre at Drottningholm Palace
The best known and most frequently used wing changing
machinery is that at the Drottningholm Theatre, since it is
still used for opera production during the summer
months. Tltis machinel)' is also the most unique, bearing
little resemblance to the other extant Baroque wing
changing machinel)'. This was not always the case. A
I 54 dra\\~ng of an earlier theatre at Drottningholm Palaces (see photo print on page 50) shows a \\~nch-oper­
ated central shaft wing changing mechanism very sintilar
to the one used at CeskY Krumlov. When the
Drottningholm Theatre was rebuilt after being destroyed
by a fire, the current machinel)' was installed. The 1766
machinel)' at Drottningholm uses a vertical capstan located far downstage, thus keeping the central portion of
the substage area free from obstructions (see photo on
page 52). Other examples of the
use of a vertical capstan for wing
changes exist in manuscripts and
publications from the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries 9
Traditionally Donato Stopani,
an Italian machinist, has been
given credi t for the installation of
the stage machinel)' in the 1766
Drottningholm Theatre. The only known use of or reference to the vertical capstan for a flat wing change in Italy
is by lotta but its use was to pro~de the force to turn a
central shaft. It should be noted that Motta describes a
number of different types of de\~ces to change the scenic
wings, few of which are knO\m to have been used in actual theatres.
Per Edstrom of the Arena Theatre Institute in Sweden has pointed out to me that there is a stronger candidate than Stopani for the creation of the Drottningholm
stage macltinel)'. In 1755 George Froman, master builder
Drottningholm, the best documented of the three extant theatres, was the second theatre built on the site. The palace was built as a summer residence from 1662-86 on
tlle outskirts of Stockholm. Queen Louisa lrika built the first theatre at the palace in
1754. This theatre burned down in 1762 and two years later architect Fredrik
Adelcrantz began tlle construction of a new theatre on tlle same foundations. The
new theatre was inaugurated before it was finished in 1766.
King Gustavus III succeeded to the tllrone and in 17 7 he bought Drottningholm
Palace from his mother. Known as the "theatre king," he wrote for and performed in
his court tlleatres. FolJo\\IDg his assassination in 1 92, interest in theatre declined at
court and \~tll tlle exception of a few performances in the eighteen fifties, the theatre
was used for otller purposes. In 1921 Agne Beijer discovered the still intact scenery
and macltinery and received perntission to restore the tlleatre. It reopened in August
1922. During the summer months the theatre is used for opera productions using its
original SCenel)' and machinel)' and has become a major tourist attraction. 14
When the Drottningholm Theatre was
rebuilt after being destroyed by a fire,
the current machinery was installed.
for the Swedish court, visited theatres in northern Europe
and sketched a variety of stage machinel)'.IO One of these
drawings shows the wing changing mechanism at the
Dresden Opera House (see photo pl;nt on page 52). Tltis
machinery is vel)' similar to that at Drottningholm. Avertical capstan is used to \\~nd up a rope that turns a vertical shaft consisting of a drum for the rope and a
lantern-style pinion gear uni!." The pinion gear meshes
with teeth of a spur gear on a second vertical shaft providing an additional mechanical advantage for the system. This second vertical shaft also has a drum to wind
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http://wwwl.appstate.edu/orgs/spectacle/
The Development of Scenic Spectacle Web Site. Animations of the wing changes described in this article are available for viewing or downloading at the Development of Scenic
Spectacle web site. The site also includes a catalog of drawings and descriptions of sL\1eenth,
seventeenth and eighteenth century theatrical machinery. Computer animations showing overhead and audience views of several periactoi-based scene changes including those described
by Ignazio Danti, Nicola Sabbattini and Josef Furttenbach are also available on the web site.
Much of the material on the site was made available by grants from the New Initiatives
Fund of the United States Institute for Theatre Technology and the Cratis D. Williams Graduate
School of Appalachian State niversity.
Drottningholm Wing Change
Drottningholm Wing Change Rigging Detail
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figure 6
figure 7
up the ropes connected to the first wing trolley.
Froman's drawing shows further rigging very
similar to that at Drottningholm; the ropes
leading to the first wing trolleys are spliced
to the ropes leading to the other wing trolleys. It seems highly likely that Froman's
drawings of the Dresden Opera House machinery served as the source for the wing
changing machinel)' installed in the 1 66
Drottningholm Theatre. The only significant
difference is that the Drottningholm machinery omitted the transfer of power by the
gear arrangement.
The Drottningholm Theatre has sLx banks
of wings on each side of the stage: the first four
banks each contain four wings, the fifth bank
contains three wings and the sixth bank contains two wings. The wing-changing mechanism consists of a large vertical capstan
controlling ropes leading to each bank of
wingsS as shown in figure 6. Since tlle ropes are
controlled by a capstan instead of a hOlizontaJ
shaft e.xtending tlle deptll of tlle stage, the ropes
leading to the wing trolleys are spliced together
as shown in figure 7. like tlle trolleys at Cesk)r
Knmllov, tlle ropes at Drottningholm must be reconnected to the appropliate trolleys in each
bank for each scene change.
In addition, instead of connecting tlle offstage ends of each trolley via a directionchanging pulley to pull the previously used
wing trolley offstage, the mechanism at
Drottningholm pulls the \ving trolley offstage
directly willl a second rope leading to the capstan. The mechanical advantage of tlle system
is the ratio of the length of the capstan handles
to the diameter of the capstan shaft. Since this
system requires more pulleys than do those at
CeskS' Krunllov or Gripsholm, the potential for
friction is greater. The increased friction is offset, however, by tlle possibility of using more
stagehands to turn the capstan.
AQuickTime mo\~e of the wing change at
tlle Drottningholm Theatre may be seen at
http://wwwl.appstate.edu/orgs/spectaclelanimationsldrottningholmwing.mov.
Although each of the extant theatres uses
a different type of machinery to operate the
\\~ng change, each type of machinel)' had been
desClibed or used in the seventeenth cennny
Seventeenth centul)' designers such as Motta
and eyewitnesses to seventeenth centlll)' productions such as Skippon and Tessin describe
the use of counterweights to move the SCenel)',
but none of the extant theatres use counterweights for that purpose. The survival of the
theatres at Drottningholm, Gripsholm, and
Cesk)r Krunllov is even more important because of the diversity of devices that have Slll~
vived from the eighteentll cent1ll)' to the
twentieth cennny. .:.
D,: Frank Moblel; a professor and designer
at Appalacbian State University, bas
studied tbe macbinelJl lIsed on tbe
illusionistic stage for many years.
Acknowledgments
Research for this article was made possible,
in part, by research grants from The 1\ew
Initiatives Fund of SITT and the Gratis Williams Graduate School of Appalachian State
University. The author would like to thank
the following individuals for their assistance: Drs. Pavel Slavko and Katerina
Gichrova at Cesky Krumlov, Mr. Von Platen at
Gripsholm and Ms. Garin Andersson at
Drotlningholm.
End notes are on the following page.
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END NOTES to flat wing scene change article:
I. Asummary of tlle vatious tlleoties of tlle
Otigin of tlle mechanized wing change is provided
by Orville Lll"Son in "Giacomo Torelli, Sir Philip
Skippon, and Stage Machinety for tlle Venetian
Opera," Theatrejoul'llal3214 (Dec, 1980) 448455,
2, A1tllOUgh most of tlle Otiginal machinery
still exists at Cesk)r Kl1Imlov, replicas of some of
tlle machinery have been installed in tlle tlleatre,
3, A1tllOUgh tlle central shaft was probably
tlle most conunon metllOd of coordinating tlle
movement of tlle wings, drawings indicate otller
de\~ces such as \\wches which at'e shown for tlle
tlleatre in tlle Collegio Romano as illustrated in
Dumont's Paralele deplans desplus belles salles
d'ltalie avec des details de macbines
th8ritrales, PaIis, 1774. See Mohler, "Analysis of
tlle Plans for tlle Theatre in tlle Seminaty of tlle
Collegio Romano," The Ohio State UniversifJ'
Theatre Collection Bulletin, 1969,39-53,
4, The eat'liest illustration of such a system
is probably in Sir Philip Skippon's 1665 travel
joumal published inA Collection ofVoyages and
Travels, (ed, Awnshan Churchill), London, 1732,
TIle system is also illustrated in Palatina MS 3708,
Biblioteca Palatina, PaIma (1675); dra\vings of
tlle Hannover Opera (1688) and Tessin's DiaIy
(1688), Fablizio Catini Motta's Construzione de
teaM e macbine teatrali (1688), Atranslation
of Motta's work by C, TIlOmas Ault and Orville K.
Lat"Son has been published as The Theatrical
Writings ofFabrizio Carini Motta,
5, Mona, who provides tlle eat'liest \\'1itten
details of tlle operations of tlle mechanized flat
\ving stage included a number of different machines for \\wg changing in his Construzione,
He observed tllat tlle conUTIon practice was to
make tlle trolley and \ving ladder as a single unit,
but he suggested it was better to make tllem as
sepaI-ale units, Mona 77.
6, Jacobo Fablis illuslI-ates bOtll twes of
wheels in his Instruction de teatralishen
Arcbitectur und Afecbanique, Copenllagen,
1760, A lI'anslation by C, TIlOmas Ault is published in PBI:ftmning AI1s Resources, Vol. II,
7, Mona desclibes \\wg changing machinelY using a cenlIw shaft \\~th \\wch handles,
Motta 81.
8, "Plan and elevation of tlle recently built
Playhouse at Drottninghohll," George GreggenholIer 1754 delineavit. Nordiska Museet,
SlOckllOh1l,
9, Fablis shows tlle use of a capstan to conlI'ol tlle \\wgs in Folio 3 and 4, The capstan conlI'ols tlle rotation of a latelw hOtizontal drum
located upstage of tlle \vings, The rest of the ma-
chinely for tlle \ving change, however, is typical,
Mona includes a capstan located under tlle
stage on stage left in Plate 4, TIle capstan controls
tlle rotation of an axial hOlizontal ruUl1l located
on tlle centerline, The remainder of tlle machinelY for this \\wg change is also typical, Mona illustrates sevelw otller unique machines for a
\\wg change including one using multiple capstans, but few of tlle machinely systems at-e
known to have been used in actual tlleatres,
Aplan of tlle Palais Royal, Patis, c. 1673,
shows a capstan under tlle stage, but no details
at-e shown to indicate its use, Nationalmuseum,
StockllOh1l,
10, Fant. Bibliografiska anteckningar,
Univel"Sitatsbibliotllek ppsala, Agne Beijer discussed tlle lI-avel diaty in "TIleaterzeichnungen
inl Reisejoumal des Schlossbaumeistel"S Georg
Froman von seiner Reise nach Dresden und Wien
inl Jalue 1755," AC1ft Bibliothecae R, Universitatis Upsaliensis, Vol. XX" 1977,77-107,
11. The use of tlleallical machinery using
geat- an-angements is very rare, altllough machinelY using gears at-e atllong tlle most common
types of machines illuslI-ated in tlle genelw works
on machinely dUling tlle peliod,
12, This bliefhistOlyoftlle Gripsholm Court
ThealI'e is SUnilllaIized from Gripshol1l1 Castle
by If G, Johnsson, StOCkllOh11, 1994,
13, This brief histOlY of tlle Cesk)r KlUmlov
Court Theatre is summatized from "The Chateau
Theatre in Cesk)/ Krumloy" byJill ZaJoha, "Some
Notes on My Work in tlle Chateau Theatre" by
Joan Brelillls, and "TIle ReconslIuction of tlle Baroque Chateau Theatre in Cesk)r KlUl11lov', by
Vaclav Gil"Sa published in The Baroque Theatre
in the Chateau of Ceskjl Krumlov, Cesk)r
Budejovice, 1993,
14, This blief histOly of tlle Drottrtinghoh11
Court TIlealI-e is sunilllatized from Drottningholm Court Theatre by Philip 1. Lon-aine,
StOCkllOh1l, 1964,
15, TIle at-chitect was Nicodemus Tessin tlle
Elder, Tessill's diaty of his lI-avels to Italy ill 1688
prO\~des one of tlle eat'liest descliptions of illusionistic stage machinely. His son, Nicodemus
Tessin tlle Younger succeeded hinl as com1 at'chitect and was a collector of tllealI-e dl-a\\wgs, His
collection, enlaI'ged by his son, Cat-I Gustaf
Tessin, formed tlle basis of tlle Tessin Collection
of the Nationahnuseum in StOCkllOh1l, tlle world's
lat'gest collection of illusionistic tllealI-e d.t-a\\wgs,