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Endangered species: Southern Sea Otter MILLER/SPOOLMAN ESSENTIALS OF ECOLOGY 6TH Chapter 5 Biodiversity, Species Interactions, and Population Control Fig. 5-1a, p. 104 Species Interact in Five Major Ways Most Species Compete with One Another for Certain Resources • Interspecific competition • For limited resources • Predation • Ecological niche for exploiting resources • Parasitism • Some niches overlap • Mutualism • Commensalism Some Species Evolve Ways to Share Resources Resource Partitioning Among Warblers • Resource partitioning • Using only parts of resource g • Using at different times • Using in different ways Fig. 5-2, p. 106 1 Predator‐Prey Relationships Specialist Species of Honeycreepers Fig. 5-3, p. 107 Fig. 5-4, p. 107 Most Consumer Species Feed on Live Organisms of Other Species (2) • Prey may avoid capture by 1. Run, swim, fly 2. Protection: shells, bark, thorns 3 Camouflage 3. 4. Chemical warfare 5. Warning coloration 6. Mimicry 7. Deceptive looks 8. Deceptive behavior (a) Span worm Fig. 5-5a, p. 109 (b) Wandering leaf insect (c) Bombardier beetle Fig. 5-5b, p. 109 Fig. 5-5c, p. 109 2 (d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly (e) Poison dart frog Fig. 5-5d, p. 109 Fig. 5-5e, p. 109 (g) Hind wings of Io moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal. (f) Viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly Fig. 5-5f, p. 109 Fig. 5-5g, p. 109 Science Focus: Threats to Kelp Forests • Kelp forests: biologically diverse marine habitat • Major threats to kelp forests 1 Sea urchins 1. Sea urchins 2. Pollution from water run‐off 3. Global warming (h) When touched, snake caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake. Fig. 5-5h, p. 109 3 Purple Sea Urchin Predator and Prey Interactions Can Drive Each Other’s Evolution • Intense natural selection pressures between predator and prey populations • Coevolution • Interact over a long period of time • Bats and moths: echolocation of bats and sensitive hearing of moths Fig. 5-A, p. 108 Coevolution: A Langohrfledermaus Bat Hunting a Moth Parasitism: Trout with Blood‐Sucking Sea Lamprey Fig. 5-6, p. 110 Fig. 5-7, p. 110 Mutualism: Oxpeckers Clean Rhinoceros; Anemones Protect and Feed Clownfish Mutualism: Hummingbird and Flower Fig. 5-8, p. 110 Fig. 5-9, p. 111 4 Commensalism: Bromiliad Roots on Tree Trunk Without Harming Tree Most Populations Live Together in Clumps or Patches (1) • Population distribution 1. Clumping 2. Uniform dispersion 3. Random dispersion p Fig. 5-10, p. 111 Population of Snow Geese Generalized Dispersion Patterns Fig. 5-11, p. 112 Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain Stable (1) • Population size governed by • • • • Births Deaths Immigration g Emigration Fig. 5-12, p. 112 Populations Can Grow, Shrink, or Remain Stable (2) • Age structure • Pre‐reproductive age • Reproductive age • Post‐reproductive age p g • Population change = (births + immigration) – (deaths + emigration) 5 Trout Tolerance of Temperature No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J‐Curves and S‐Curves (1) • Size of populations controlled by limiting factors: • • • • • Light Water Space Nutrients Exposure to too many competitors, predators or infectious diseases Fig. 5-13, p. 113 No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J‐Curves and S‐Curves (2) • Environmental resistance No Population Can Grow Indefinitely: J‐Curves and S‐Curves (3) • Exponential growth • All factors that act to limit the growth of a population • Carrying capacity (K) Carrying capacity (K) • Starts slowly, then accelerates to carrying capacity when meets environmental resistance • Logistic growth • Maximum population a given habitat can sustain • Decreased population growth rate as population size reaches carrying capacity Logistic Growth of Sheep in Tasmania Science Focus: Why Do California’s Sea Otters Face an Uncertain Future? • Low biotic potential • Prey for orcas • Cat parasites • Thorny‐headed worms • Toxic algae blooms • PCBs and other toxins • Oil spills Fig. 5-15, p. 115 6 Population Size of Southern Sea Otters Off the Coast of So. California (U.S.) Case Study: Exploding White‐Tailed Deer Population in the U.S. • 1900: deer habitat destruction and uncontrolled hunting • 1920s–1930s: laws to protect the deer • Current population explosion for deer • Spread Lyme disease • Deer‐vehicle accidents • Eating garden plants and shrubs • Ways to control the deer population Fig. 5-B, p. 114 Mature Male White‐Tailed Deer When a Population Exceeds Its Habitat’s Carrying Capacity, Its Population Can Crash • A population exceeds the area’s carrying capacity • Reproductive time lag may lead to overshoot • Population crash Population crash • Damage may reduce area’s carrying capacity Fig. 5-16, p. 115 Exponential Growth, Overshoot, and Population Crash of a Reindeer Species Have Different Reproductive Patterns (2) • Other species • • • • • • • Reproduce later in life Small number of offspring with long life spans Young offspring grow inside mother g p gg Long time to maturity Protected by parents, and potentially groups Humans Elephants Fig. 5-17, p. 116 7 Under Some Circumstances Population Density Affects Population Size • Stable • Density‐dependent population controls • • • • Several Different Types of Population Change Occur in Nature Predation Parasitism Infectious disease Competition for resources • Irruptive • Population surge, followed by crash • Cyclic fluctuations, boom‐and‐bust cycles • Top‐down population regulation • Bottom‐up population regulation • Irregular Population Cycles for the Snowshoe Hare and Canada Lynx Communities and Ecosystems Change over Time: Ecological Succession • Natural ecological restoration • Primary succession • Secondary succession Fig. 5-18, p. 118 Some Ecosystems Start from Scratch: Primary Succession Primary Ecological Succession • No soil in a terrestrial system • No bottom sediment in an aquatic system • Takes hundreds to thousands of years • Need to build up soils/sediments to provide necessary nutrients Fig. 5-19, p. 119 8 Natural Ecological Restoration of Disturbed Land Fig. 5-20, p. 120 Secondary Ecological Succession in Yellowstone Following the 1998 Fire Fig. 5-21, p. 120 9