Download JapaneseVisual Grammar Reference Sheets

JAPANESE PRONOUNCIATION
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Syllables
Syllables in Japanese are very regular. Unlike English, there is no
stress on any particular syllable of a word. Each syllable is also
given equal time to pronounce, including double consonants,
individual vowels, and ん.
sai
ee
sah
nah
nande
nah
nakatta
dey
kah
to~
Toukyou
Keep in mind that because Japanese is spoken quickly, emphasizing each syllable would sound strange. Instead, focus on the
time given to each syllable. The language should sound like a
steady flow.
n
t~
~oh
~ta
kyoh~
kiite
kee~
~ee
tey
kitte
kee
t~
~tey
~oh
Vowels
Vowels can act inconsistently in English, but vowels in Japanese are simple and predictable. Japanese vowels
never form diphthongs (combined vowels that form a new sound, like “ai” in “rain”), but remain distinct sounds.
There are also “long vowels,” which are when a single vowel sound is held for two intervals.
a
ah, like in “raw”
aoi
ah-oh-ee
i
ee, like in “bee”
iie
ee~ee-ay
u
oo, like in “moo”
uu (long u)
e
eh, like in “meh” or ey, like in “hey”*
ee or ei (long e)
o
oh, like in “bow”
oo or ou (long o)
oo~oo
e~ey
o~oh
ん
Although it is typically translated as “n” in romaji, ん sounds like an “m” when followed by “m,” “p,” or “b.” Also
remember that the ん sound is held for the same time as any other syllable, which results in a slight pause
after the ん.
NOTES
* For double consonants, treat it like one long
sound. Start the beginning of the sound at the
end of the preceding syllable, hold silently for
an interval, then finish with the next syllable.
* The vowel “e” can vary slightly in sound. When
at the end of a word or followed by a vowel, it
sounds harder, like “ey” in “hey.”
* Some syllables tend to have a weak vowel sound.
*
*
*
For example, “shita” → “shh-tah”, “desu” → “deh-ss”
“f” sounds more like an “h” in Japanese. Try to say
“fu” without touching your teeth to your lips.
“r” is softer in Japanese. Try to say “ru” by flicking
your tongue, not pursing your lips.
Tip: Try clapping your hands at even intervals or
using a metronome to help you practice your
timing.
JAPANESE WRITING: HIRAGANA
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
ﾞﾞ
ﾞ
ﾟﾞ
A
KA
SA
TA
NA
HA
MA
YA
RA
ﾞﾞ
ﾞ
ﾟﾞ
WA
KYA
SHA
CHA
NYA
HYA
MYA
RYA
あ
か
さ
た
な
は
ま
や
ら
わ
きゃ
しゃ
ちゃ
にゃ
ひゃ
みゃ
りゃ
I
KI
SHI
CHI
NI
HI
MI
RI
い
き
し
ち
に
ひ
み
U
KU
SU
TSU
NU
FU
MU
YU
り
RU
KYU
SHU
CHU
NYU
う
く
す
つ
ぬ
ふ
む
ゆ
る
きゅ
しゅ
ちゅ
にゅ
ひゅ
みゅ
りゅ
え
け
せ
て
ね
へ
め
E
KE
SE
TE
NE
HE
ME
れ
RE
MYU
RYU
DAKUTEN
k
s
* tsu → dzu
g
z*
t
h
shi → ji
d*
b
KO
SO
TO
NO
HO
MO
YO
RO
WO
KYO
SHO
CHO
ﾟ
ﾞ
HYU
O
ん
N
NYO
HYO
MYO
RYO
お
こ
そ
と
の
ほ
も
よ
ろ
を
きょ
しょ
ちょ
にょ
ひょ
みょ
りょ
HANDAKUTEN
h
p
chi → ji
* “j” syllables other than ji (じ) combine “ji” and small “y” kana. For example, “ja”: じゃ
* A small tsu (っ) represents a double consonant. For example, かった means “katta.”
* A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals.
JAPANESE WRITING: KATAKANA
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
ﾞﾞ
ﾞ
ﾟﾞ
ア
カ
サ
タ
ナ
ハ
マ
や
ラ
ワ
キャ
シャ
チャ
ニャ
ヒャ
ミャ
リャ
A
KA
SA
TA
NA
HA
MA
YA
RA
ﾞﾞ
ﾞ
ﾟﾞ
WA
KYA
SHA
CHA
NYA
HYA
MYA
RYA
ィ
き
シ
チ
ニ
ヒ
み
I
KI
SHI
CHI
NI
HI
MI
リ
RI
U
KU
SU
TSU
NU
FU
MU
YU
RU
KYU
SHU
CHU
ﾞ
NYU
HYU
MYU
RYU
DAKUTEN
k
s
* tsu → dzu
*
*
*
*
g
z*
t
h
shi → ji
d*
b
chi → ji
ウ
ク
ス
ツ
ヌ
フ
ム
ュ
ル
キュ
シュ
チュ
ニュ
ヒュ
ミュ
リュ
え
ケ
セ
テ
ネ
へ
メ
E
KE
SE
TE
NE
HE
ME
O
KO
SO
TO
NO
HO
MO
YO
レ
RE
RO
WO
KYO
SHO
CHO
NYO
ﾟ
N
ン
HYO
MYO
RYO
オ
コ
ソ
ト
ノ
ホ
モ
ヨ
ロ
ヲ
キョ
ショ
チョ
ニョ
ヒョ
ミョ
リョ
HANDAKUTEN
h
p
The “v” sound doesn’t occur naturally in Japanese, so it is often substituted with “b” or represented as a
dakuten form of “u”: ヴ.
Other syllables that don’t occur naturally in Japanese are often formed by using a small version of a
vowel. For example, “fu+small o” makes “fo”: フォ. Simularly, ヴぁ makes “va”
A small tsu (ッ) represents a double consonant. For example, カッタ means “katta.”
A long dash (一) represents a long or double vowel, meaning hold the vowel sound for two intervals.
JAPANESE VERBS: INTRODUCTION
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Godan Verbs
Ichidan Verbs
Irregular Verbs
Meaning “five stage,” for each vowel
stage, and the most common type of
verb. They are mostly regular, aside
from three special classes: iku/yuku,
-aru verbs, and colloquial -u verbs.
Ichidan verbs consist only of verbs
that end in -eru or -iru, but not all
-eru or -iru verbs are ichidan. The
only way to tell is by memorization.
There are dew irregular verbs in
Japanese, including the “copulas,” da
and desu, and the verbs suru and
kuru, as well as verbs that use suru
as their root.
aruku
kau
kasu
to walk
to buy
to lend
taberu
to eat
suru
oboeru
to remember
benkyou suru
to study
chuumon suru
to order
deru
to leave
mastu
to wait
kariru
yomu
to read
miru
kudasaru
iru
to give (honorific)
to borrow
to need
iru
I
E
O
TE
kuru
to be able
da
to be, to exist
to come
~to be
desu
~to be (polite)
Conjugate each form starting from the dictionary (”u”) form.
-[vowel]+u
-[v]+wa
-tsu
-ta
-u
-a
-tsu
-chi
-su
-shi
-u
-i
-ru¹
-i
-tsu
-te
-u
-e
-tsu
-tou
-u
-ou
-ku²
-ite
-ku²
-ita
-gu
-ide
-gu
-ida
-u³/-tsu/-ru
-tte
-u³/-tsu/-ru
-tta
-su
-shite
-su
-shita
-bu/-nu/-mu
to worry
Conjugations
Godan
A
shimpai suru
to see
dekiru
to do
-nde
Suru/Kuru
Ichidan
A
I
E
O
TE
TA
TA
-ru
ー
-ru
ー
-ru
-re
-ru
-you
-ru
-te
-ru
-ta
-bu/-nu/-mu
-nda
A
I
E
O
TE
TA
suru
shi
kuru
ko
suru
shi
kuru
ki
suru
sure
kuru
kure
suru
shiyou
kuru
koyou
suru
shite
kuru
kite
suru
shita
kuru
kita
¹ Only for the five “honorific” aru verbs: kudasaru,
nasaru, gozaru, irassharu, and ossharu
² iku 行く → itte / itta | yuku 行く yutte / yutta
³ In some dialects, -u → -uta/ute or -ota/ote
JAPANESE VERBS: VOWEL FORMS
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irrealis-mizenkei
A Form
aruka
kawa
-nai²
-nakatta
I Form
continuative-ren’youkei
-masu
-mashita
U Form
terminal-shuushikei
plain negative command
-ba
kae
kase
mate
hypothetical/provisional conditional
-ba ii²
arukou
[base]
regret (”would’ve been good if”)
kaou
kasou
volitional (”let’s...”)
to omou¹
think about doing
to suru¹
try to do / be about to do
matou
do while doing [verb]
miru
suru
present relative clause
no/koto
nominalization
tabere
-ru³
[base]
ki
hard / easy to do
+ [noun]
-nai²
optative (”would be good if”)
-ba yokatta
taberu
koto ni suru¹
assumptive conditional
shi
desiderative (”want to do”)
-nagara [verb]
matsu
must do
decide to do
mire
kuru
sure
U Form
E Form
polite past
kasu
not have done when [clause]
mi
-nikui² / -yasui²
plain present
nara
negative command
tabe
-tai²
ko
attributive-rentaikei
[base]
aruke
hypothetical-kateikei
machi
polite negative (past)
kau
shi
[nai to/nakereba] [naranai/ikenai]
polite present
aruku
O Form
kashi
-masen (deshita)
mi
-zu (ni) [clause]
negative condition
kai
tabe
-naide
negative past
-nakereba
na
mata
negative present
aruki
volitional-ikoukei
kasa
kure
potential/ability (godan only)
no potential/ability (godan only)
impolite command (generally godan only)
tabeyou
miyou
shiyou
koyou
NOTES
¹ verb that can be conjugated
² adjectival verb (i-adjective) that can be conjugated
³ forms new ichidan verb that can be conjugated
JAPANESE VERBS: TE, TA, PASSIVE, AND CAUSITIVE
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Te Form
-ku
-ite
-gu
-ide
-u/-tsu/-ru
-tte
-su
-shite
-bu/-nu/-mu
-nde
[base]
ichidan -ru
-te
iru¹
iku
itte
kuru¹
suru
shite
oku¹
kuru
kite
shimau¹
-ku
-ita
-gu
-ida
-u/-tsu/-ru
-tta
-su
-shita
-bu/-nu/-mu
-nda
[base]
perfective (~simple past)
-ri [...-ri] suru³
ichidan -ru
-ta
bakari
to have recently done
koto (ga) aru¹
iku
itta
-ra
suru
shita
to shitara/suru¹
kuru
kita
toki
The participle is a verb form that modifies the
noun, verb, or noun or verb clause. In Japanese,
it is commonly used for continous actions, to
make requests, answer questions, and link a
series of actions performed in order.
the participle
command/answer/linking
continous action (”i” often omitted)
perfect continuous action
accidentally/unexpectedly
conditional (“tara” form)
suppositional
“when [clause happened]...”
Causative
Tense
Subject causes indirect object to act.
godan a form
+reru²
godan a form
+seru²
ichidan a form
+rareru²
ichidan a form
+saseru²
suru
sareru²
suru
saseru²
kuru a form
+rareru²
kuru a form
+saseru²
causative a form
+rareru²
Passive-Causative
passive perfect continous
iku¹
future continous
mo ii
to try doing and “see”
“may” (”may I?”/”you may”)
The perfective aspect doesn’t exist in English,
but it is simple enough to compare it to our
simple past tense. It is an action that has been
completed in full.
the perfective
Passive
Tense
Subject becomes the direct object.
request
aru¹
miru¹
to plan to do
Ta Form
kudasai
-rou
to have experienced
past subjunctive (”probably”)
to shite mo
tokoro
list general actions
“even if...”
to have just done
NOTES
¹ verb that can be conjugated
² forms a new ichidan verb that
can be conjugated
³ each clause uses the -ri conjugation, but the tense for every
clause is determined by suru,
which comes at the very end
JAPANESE VERBS: COMPOUND, DA, AND DESU
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Compound Verbs
Most V+V compound verbs are formed by using the i-form of the topic verb and conjugating the phrasal verb,
similar to using helping verbs with the infinitive in English, where the “helping verb” comes second. Other V+V
compound verbs use the linking form (te-form) for the first verb to link two actions taken together.
N+V compound verbs use “suru” for the phrasal verb. Some use the object particle (を), some don’t.
[verb, i-form]+hajimeru
[verb, i-form]+oeru
to begin to do
to finish doing
[verb, te-form]+miru
[verb, te-form]+shimau
[verb, i-form]+sugiru
to overdo
motteiku
[verb, i-form]+naosu
to redo
mottekuru
[verb, i-form]+tsudzukeru
to continue doing
to try doing and “see”
to do accidentally
to take (to have + to go)
to bring (to have + to come)
benkyou suru
to study (study/research + to do)
Da and Desu ー The Copula?
Whether you want to call da/desu copulas, auxillary verbs, or whatever, it does not explain when and how to
use them. Instead, consider them contextual markers for tense and politeness and follow these simple rules:
must use¹
can use²
when there is not already a predicate verb or adjectival verb in the clause to provide tense/politeness
when it will add context of tense, politeness or meaning to a clause, if the main verb cannot do it itself
cannot use³
when it would not add context of tense, politeness, or meaning, or it would disagree with the main verb
¹ For example, to say you are happy, you must use a form of da/desu with the noun “shiawase.” In this sense, it is a copula.
² For example, since “taberu” has the polite form “tabemashita,” you CANNOT say “taberu desu.” However, you can say “tabetai desu.”
³ For example, you cannot say “tabemasen datta,” because “tabemasen” is polite. The past form must be “tabemasen deshita.”
Da (Plain)
present
da
negative
past
Desu (Polite)
present
de (waは) /ja nai
datta
volitional
te-Form
conditional
negative
past
past negative
de (waは) /ja nakatta
darou
desu
deshita
past negative
volitional
de
te-Form
nara/naraba
attributive/prenominal
no/na
de (waは) /ja arimasen
conditional
de (waは) /ja arimasen deshita
deshou
de arimashite
de areba
attributive/prenominal
desu
JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: INTRODUCTION
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
The Japanese language does not have “adjectives” from a linguistical sense. Instead, it uses verbs and nouns to
describe objects. When used prenominally, they form a relative—or adjectival—clause; and when used as a
predicate, they are used inflected or paired with a form of da/desu to create a state-of-being (stative) sentence.
attributive/prenominal
i-Adjectives
kawaii neko (cat that is cute)
verb
terminal/predicate
Neko ga kawaii. (The cat is cute.)
na-Adjectives
noun
A very common type of “adjective.” They always end in
い in their character form. They are considered a special
type of verb because they include state-of-being and
are conjugated directly, often similarly to verbs.
Another common type of “adjective,” formed simply by
adding a conjugation of da or desu after the noun. The
“na” only refers to their prenominal present form; they
have no visual way to distinguish them.
f-Adjectives
no-Adjectives
verb
f-adjectives are the continuous or perfective form of a
normal verb, used to modify a noun. Prenominally, they
are considered a relative clause, like “city that froze,” and
not “frozen city,” meaning they can be used in advanced
ways, such as “the city that was frozen by a storm.”
The other type of adjectival noun. There is no outright
way to distinguish na- and no-adjectives, but personal
qualities are usually na-adjectives, while unsubjective
attributes are commonly no-adjectives, like “next” or
“my,” or even “apple tart” and “German dog.”
WHAT TYPE?
ends in “ii”
ends in “ei”
it’s an i-adjective
it’s not an i-adjective
ends in “[consonant]+i”
it’s not an i-adjective
probably an i-adjective¹
physical attribute
conceptual attribute
unsubjective attribute
probably a na-adjective
probably a no-adjective
NOTES
¹ A notable exception to this is color. The most
*
primary colors (red, blue, yellow, black, white)
have both i-adj and no-adj forms. Secondary,
tertiary, tints, and shades are strictly no-adjs.
The only “irregular” verb is “ii” (”good”). In all
forms other than present, its stem reverts to its
true form, “yoi.”
noun
COMPARISONS
A>B
[clause A] hou ga [clause B] yori [adj]
B>A
[clause A] yori [clause B] hou ga [adj]
↑ “[B] yori” or “[B] no hou ga” can be dropped if clear from
context. Must use attributive form (”na”/”no”).
degree
[clause] hodo [adj]
↑ For example, to say someone is “so tall that [clause]” or
“not tall enough to [clause]”
superlative
ichiban [adj]
superlative
mottomo [adj]
↑ Both forms can be used before the terminal/predicate
or attributive/prenominal form.
more than anyone
more than anything
[noun] wa は dare yori [adj]
[noun] wa は nani yori [adj]
↑ “dare” must be used for animate objects, while
“nani” is used for inantimate objects.
“same exact”
[A] wa は [B] to onaji
“as much as [noun]”
“different”
[noun] to onaji gurai [adj]
[A] wa は [B] to chigau
JAPANESE “ADJECTIVES”: CONJUGATION
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
hayai 早い early | stem: haya
attributive present
terminal present
negative
hayai
hayaku nai
irrealis (a-form)
hayaku
haya¹
continuative (i-form)
adverb
hayaku [verb]
conditonal
hayakereba
past (ta-form)
hayakatta
volitional (o-form)
hayaku shiyou
neg. conditonal
past negative
hayaku nakatta
participle (te-form)
hayakute
noun
terminal present
negative
benri de(waは)² nai
past negative
benri datta
benri de(wa)² nakatta
okoru 怒る to get angry
attributive perfect
okotta [noun]
attributive continuous
terminal present
negative
past negative
the adjectival noun
irrealis (a-form)
benri de
continuative (i-form)
benri
adverb
benri ni [verb]
conditonal
benri nara/dattara
volitional (o-form)
benri de arou
neg. conditonal
participle (te-form)
benri de
noun
f-adjectives are really just the perfect
or continuous form of a verb, used as
a relative clause to describe a noun.
benri de nakereba
[base]
f-Adjectives
the adjectival clause
okotte iru [n]
okotte iru
okotte inai
past (ta-form)
na-Adjectives
benri na [noun]
benri da
past (ta-form)
hayaku nakereba
hayasa (”speed”)
na-adjectives are nouns used to
describe attributes by using a form
of the verb da (plain) or desu (polite).
attributive present
okotte ita
okotte inakatta
NOTES
²
*
the adjectival verb
hayai [noun]
benri 便利 useful
¹
i-Adjectives
i-adjectives are like special verbs,
which include tense (and thus must
not use the plain verb da).
The i-form of adjectives that end in
“nai” appends “sa.” Ex. “nai” → “nasa”
”ja” is a colloquial form of “de(waは)”
Aside from present or polite forms,
each form may be used as either the
predicate (terminal) or the prenominal (attributive) form.
present
okotte imasu
negative
past
okotte imasen
okotte imashita
past negative
okotte imasen deshita
no-adjectives are a class that include
possessive, “type,” numeral, demonstrative, and interrogative adjectives.
possessive: my
watashi no
“type”: Japanese
nihon no
numeral: two
numeral: many
ni [counter] no
oku no
“adverb”/te form
okotte [verb]
no-Adjectives
the other adjectival noun
distributive: another
betsu no
demonstrative: this
kono
interrogative: what
nani no
JAPANESE ADVERBS
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Manner Adverbs
Manner adverbs (how an action is performed) are usually derived from adjectival verbs and nouns. For i-adjs,
the adjective is inflected to the adjectival form. For na- and no-adjs, use the particle, “ni.”
i-adj
i → ku
na/no-adj
ureshii (”delightful”)
na/no → ni
ureshiku (”delightfully”)
ketteiteki na (”~decisive”)
ketteiteki ni (”decisively”)
Locational Adverbs
Locational adverbs (where an action is done) usually use a noun, followed a location particle like “ni” or “de.”
koko ni / soko ni
here / there
chikaku ni / tooku ni
nearby / distantly
Toukyou no kita 10 mairu ni
tsukue no shita ni
10 miles north of Tokyo
underneath the desk (”at the desk’s bottom”)
Time/Frequency/Degree Adverbs
Time/frequency adverbs (when or how often
an action is done) and degree adverbs (to what
degree an action is done) usually use a “true”
adverb. Time adverbs usually go towards the
beginning of the clause.
ima
now
mainichi
taitei
hotondo
every day
zenzen
usually
amari
almost/barely
not at all (neg. tense)
not very much (neg. tense)
NOTES
* Generally, adverbs can be placed anywhere. Time adverbs usually come near the beginning, while other types
*
go near the verb. The adverb applys to the next verb in the sentence.
Some adverbs can only be used with negative conjugations. For example, while “zenzen” might be translated
as meaning “entirely,” the clause “zenzen tabetakunai” would be translated as “I don’t want to eat at all.”
Kanjiru & Omou
While “feeling” something in English uses adjectives, Japanese uses manner adverbs with “kanjiru” or “omou.”
To mention what makes you feel that way, use the direct object particle “o” を.
sabishiku kanjiru/omou
feel lonely
sore o を shiawase ni kanjiru/omou
feel happy about that
Suru & Naru
Using a manner adverb directly before “suru” can imply causitive tense. In other words, the subject causes the
direct object to become [adjective]. Using “naru” can imply that the subject became [adjective].
yowaku suru
turn down (”make weak”)
hazukashiku suru
kirei ni suru
embarrass or make shy
clean (”make pretty/clean”)
atsuku naru
become hot
tomodachi ni naru
suki ni naranai
become friends
cannot like (”will not become likable”)
JAPANESE NOUNS: PRONOUNS
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Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogatives are “question words” like who, what, when, where, and how. These are a few common examples.
what
nani
what time
who
dare
how (manner)
whose
why
dare no
nanji
nanide / douyatte / dou
how much (cost)
naze / doushite / nande
How many...
ikura
how many (general)
where
doko / dochira
how much/far
when
itsu
how long (”until when”)
ikutsu
doregurai (n) / donogurai (a)
itsu made
people
nan nin
times
nan kai
years
nan nen
years old
vague
nan sai
nan [counter]
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstratives are words that refer to something by proximity. These are a few common examples.
ko- (close to speaker)
so- (close to listener)
a- (far)
do- (interrogative)
pronoun
kore (this)
sore (that)
are (that over there)
dore (which?)
determiner
kono (this...)
sono (that...)
ano (that...over there)
dono (which...?)
adjective
konna (like this)
sonna (like that)
anna (like that)
donna (how/what?)
place
koko (here)
soko (there)
sasoko (over there)
doko (where?)
direction
kocchi (this way)
socchi (that way)
acchi (over that way)
docchi (which way?)
manner
kou (this manner)
so (that manner)
aa (that manner)
dou (how?)
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns refer to one or more unspecified people or things. These are a few common examples.
nani (-thing)
dare (-one)
doko (-where)
itsu (-time)
ka (some-)
nani ka
dare ka
doko ka
itsu ka
mo (every-)
nani mo (rarely used)
dare mo
doko mo
itsu mo
mo ... nai (no-)
nani mo ... nai
dare mo ... nai
doko mo ... nai
itsu mo ... nai
demo (any-)
nan de mo
dare de mo
doko de mo
itsu de mo
These suffixes (or rather particles) are not limited to these examples. For example, “nan nin ka” means “some people.”
JAPANESE NUMBERS: BASICS
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Basic Numbers
juu man
Similar to “hundred” and “thousand,” each place
value up to the millions has a key word.
2
百万
6
1
十万
万
hyaku man
However, this system is not as simple as it seems
because many sounds are contracted depending
on the values. For example, 800 is condensed
from “hachi hyaku” to “happyaku.”
roku bun no yon
六分の四
11.36
8
4
千
1
百
2
十
hyaku
Together: 二百万 六十万 一万 八千 四百 十 二
“Ichi” (1) is only used in the 1s place and the 10,000s (”man”) place.
Ordinals
Use “ten” 点, meaning “dot.”
Say it like “A of B parts.”
juu
man
Decimals
Fractions
4
6
sen
“me” 目 indicates a place in a series.
juu ichi ten san roku
十一点山ろく
3rd thing
mitsu me
5th person
go nin me
三つ目
五人目
Measurements
Units always come after the number. To give height/length/etc, use a noun, like “nagasa” (length). When describing distance away from something or somewhere, you can use the verb “hanareru” (to be apart).
Shinchou wa 203 senchi¹ da.
Taijuu² wa 60 kiro desu.
(My) height is 203 cm.
(My) weight is 60 kilo(grams).
Eki wa 2 mairu hanarete iru.
The station is 2 miles away.
Machi wa koko kara nan kiro hanarete imasu ka?
Takasa¹ 605 fi-to no biru
Kore wa omosa² ga 4 kiro da.
nagasa roku inchi no sakana
a 605-foot tall building
Its weight is 4 kilo(grams).
a 6-inch long fish
How many kilo(meters) away is the town from here?
¹ “shinchou” is used to measure the height of a living being, while “takasa” is used for the height of an object.
² “taijuu” is used to measure the weight of a living being, while “omosa” is used for the weight of an object.
Time & Dates
Use “ji” (時) after the hour and “fun” (分) after the minutes. “han” (half 半) is often used for half-past an hour.
4:30
yo (not yon) ji han
11:00
juu ichi ji
7:15
nana ji juu go fun
9:40
ku³ ji yon fun
Years/months use the standard counting system, followed by “nen”/“gatsu” (年/月). Days 1-10, 14, 20, and 24
use a different reading system, followed by the reading “ka” (日). All other dates use the reading “nichi” (日).
1/1
ichi gatsu tsuitachi
2/2
ni gatsu futsuka
3/3
san gatsu mikka
4/4
shi gatsu yokka
5/5
go gatsu itsuka
6/6
roku gatsu muika
7/7
shichi gatsu nanoka
8/8
hachi gatsu youka
9/9
ku gatsu kokonoka
10/10
5/24
go gatsu ni juu yokka
1996年
2/12
juu gatsu touka
ni gatsu juu ni nichi
sen kyuu hyaku kyuu juu roku nen
11/14
3/21
juu ichi gatsu juu yokka
san gatsu juu ichi nichi
2014年3月4日
12/20
juu ni gatsu hatsuka
9/30 ku³ gatsu san juu nichi
ni sen juu yon nen san gatsu juu yokka
³ “kyu” tends to change to the shortened “ku” for time, months, and days.
JAPANESE NUMBERS: COUNTING
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Counters
Counters are used when counting objects, definite or indefinite. Think of “loaves” in “some/2 loaves of bread.”
Contrary to belief, counters are not used for every noun, but they are more common in Japanese than English.
The proper counter varies based on the object, and some objects can use different counters. Common counters:
general counter
tsu¹
ri / nin² 人
people (ex. boys)
kan 間
time (often omitted)³
months⁴
kagetsu (kan) ヶ月(間)
small animals
hiki 匹
long, cylindrical
large animals
tou 頭
flat, thin
books, magazines
satsu 冊
vehicles, machines
dai 台
hon 本
mai 枚
small, compact
liquid (ex. drinks)
ko 個
hai 杯
Counting Objects
Most counters can be used in two ways. The first is preferred unless referring to people, using -tsu, or emphasizing quantity.
[object]
[number]
Hon ni juu yon o satsu katta.
aoi no kami ni mai
[counter]
[number]
[counter]
no
Hitotsu¹ no shitsumon ga arimasu.
(I) bought 24 books.
Futari² no ane ga imasu.
two pieces of blue paper
[object]
I have one question.
(I) have two older sisters.
¹ “tsu” uses the traditional Japanese counting system, which is much different from the modern system.
² When counting people, 1 and 2 are “hitori” and “futari,” while all other numbers use the modern counting system with “nin.”
Counting Time
When counting time, the order is different than counting objects. Counting days uses the calendar-day system.
[number]
Go ji kan kore o sagashita.
[object]
(I) looked for five hours.
Konojo wa ni nen kan nana kagetsu⁴ atte inai.
[counter]
Mikka kan mae ni itta.
(I) went three days ago.
I haven’t seen her in two years and seven months.
³ When counting time, “kan” can be omitted except in the case of hours.
⁴ The word“kagetsu” combines the counter and object into one word, and “kan” is almost always omitted.
Approximations
ni juu go nin gurai
ni ijou, juu ika
around 25 people
not less than 2, not greater than 10
suu hyaku hiki no inu
several hundred dogs
shi, go nin no gakusei
4 or 5 students
Occurances and Frequency
The noun “kai” 回 is to count the number of times of an event. Along with “ni,” it can convey frequency.
Ni, san kai sushi o tabeta.
kotoshi de rokkai me
I’ve eaten sushi 2 or 3 times.
sixth time this year
Nen ni san kai koko ni iku.
san kagetsu ni ikkai
I go three times a year.
once every three months
JAPANESE PARTICLES: INTRODUCTION
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Particles are special parts of speech that modify or mark the noun, verb, or clause that comes before it. Often,
they will behave like English prepositions, conjunctions, or adverbs, but they play a heavier role than just that.
There are six central types of particles, with different uses. Knowing each type can help you understand its
complete and proper use within a sentence. Many particles belong to multiple categories, but by recognizing
the part of speech they follow, it can become much easier to discern which meaning they take.
Case Markers
Parallel Markers
Identifies the role of a noun in a clause. They always
follow a noun.
Identifies the relationship between two or more nouns.
They always follow a noun.
ga
Subject marker
o を¹
ni
Direct object marker
Indirect object marker
e へ¹
Direction marker
no
Possession marker
to
“and” (exhaustive)
ya
“and” (inexhaustive)
na do
“etc.”
Binding Particles
Adverbial Particles
Identifies the topic and its context in the sentence. They
generally follow a noun.
Modifies a clause to operate like an adverb for the independent clause. They may follow a noun or a clause.
wa は¹
mo
Topic marker
bakari
Agreement marker
made
“only,” “just”
“up until”, “as far as”
koso
Emphasis marker
dake
“as (much as)”
shika
“only”, “just”
hodo
“to the extent of”
Conjunctive Particles
Sentence-Ending Particles
Identifies the relationship between two clauses. They
always follow a clause.
Provides additional context to the sentence, like emotion.
Despite the name, some can follow internal clauses.
kara
“because”
ka
Uncertainty marker
Tag question marker
to
“if”
ne
ga
“although”
ka na
NOTES
keredomo
“but”
yo
“I wonder”
Assertive final particle (masculine)
¹ Based on old kana roots, some particles are pronounced differently than they are written.
* Particles always come after the word or clause that is being modified.
* These lists only provide a very small handful of examples for each category.
JAPANESE PARTICLES: CASE & BINDING
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Case Markers - The Basics
Case markers indicate the role of a noun. Ever wonder why “I” changes to “me” when you’re the object of a
sentence? Because it is a different “case.” These changes are much more simple in Japanese, where you only
need to mark the noun with a particle based on its role. These are some of the most common case particles:
ga
subject/actor
performer of the action
ni
indirect object
recipient (inc. place) of the action
direct object
object being acted upon
de
instrument
means by which the action occurs
participent of the action
yori
oを
to
accomplice
ga¹
Watashi
ga¹
Kare
kare
kanojo
ni
ni
eigo
de
zenryoku
tegami
comparison
o
kaita.
nagurareta.²
de
object compared against subject
I wrote him a letter in English.
He was hit by her with all (her) force.
¹ “ga” vs “wa”: Using “ga” suggests that there is emphasis on the subject (”it wasn’t her, it was ME.”). More on “wa” below.
² Like English, when using passive form, the subject is the recipient of the action while the indirect object is the actor.
* Unlike English, stating subject/object is not required. Objects are usually left out if they are obvious, especially “I” and “you.”
* You cannot have more than one “ga” or “o” per clause. In order to avoid repeating particles, look into using “lists.”
Case Markers - Location & Time
Location and time share similarities, and are marked by case markers that indicate whether they are starting
points, general points, or ending points. Note that ORIGIN, DESTINATION, and LIMIT can also be people.
ACTION
ORIGIN (”from”/”since”)
[place]
[time]
DESTINATION (”to”)
[place]
LOCATION (”at”/”in”)
kara
de/ni³
[place]
[time]
made ni
LIMIT (”until”)
[place]
[time]
TIME (”at”/”on”)
[time]
ni³/e へ
REQUIREMENT (”by”)
ni
made
³ “ni” can only be used for location when the verb itself
involves a location as being the recipient of the action.
Binding Particles
Unlike case markers, binding particles actually give a meaning to the word it modifies. If used on the actor or
direct object of the action, they replace “ga” and “o.” Otherwise, if the object has a particle, it comes afterwards.
wa は
mo
~“about”
“also”
sae (mo)
sura⁵
shika⁵
”even”
“not even”
“anything but”
Kare
wa
Watashi
wa
Nihongo
de sae
Neko
Sore
sura
wa
About him, (his) Japanese is very good.³
nihongo ga umai.
nihon
ni mo
kore o ginei dekiru.
suki ja nai.
nihon
itta koto aru.
I have also been to Japan.⁴
He can even recite it in Japanese.
He doesn’t even like cats.
de shika
okorenai.
It can’t happen anywhere but Japan.
³ “wa” and “ga” together: His Japanese is the subject, not “him,” but “kare wa” establishes whose Japanese we are talking about.
⁴ “mo” is modifying “nihon ni,” not “watashi,” so it means “in addition to another place,” not “in addition to another person.”
⁵ Must be used with a negatively conjugated verb.
* Binding particles cannot be used on interrogative pronouns, like “dare” or “nani.”
JAPANESE PARTICLES: を, に, & CAUSITIVE CASING
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
The Complexity of「を」
Direct objects for Japanese verbs do not always translate as such in English. You will need to learn that certain
verbs can be transitive in Japanese, especially when English equivalent would use prepositions.
sagasu
to look (for)
Watashi no
matsu
to wait (for)
Kare
deru
kanjiru
to leave (location)
neko
oを
oを
Sore
sagashite ita.
ichi nichi juu matte imashita.
San jikan mae ni
to feel (about)
oを
ginkou
oを
deta.
dou kanjimashita ka?
I was looking for my cat.
She waited for him all day.
He left the bank about three hours ago.
How do you feel about it?
The Complexity of「に」
Likewise, indirect objects are not always how we see them in English. Especially when dealing with location. It
is not a true location/destination marker: it can only be used if the location itself can “receive” the action.
This chart shows which particle can be used with each type of action. “Ni” tends to be preferred when possible.
ni
movement verb
”to”
locational verb
”at”/”in”
other action verbs
”at”/”in”
transferal verbs
”to”
indirect
“-”
indirect
”for”
indirect object
de
eへ
location
Mise ni iku.¹
destination
Mise e aruku.
made
limit
Mise made aruku.
Koko ni aru.²
Gakkou de taberu.
Neko o kare ni ageta.
Neko o kare e ageta.
Tomodachi ni au.
Anata ni ii.
¹ “ni” can only be used with some movement verbs. For example: “iku” and “tobu” can accept it, but “aruku” and “hashiru” cannot.
² “Locational verbs” are verbs that inherently involve the subject attaching to a location. For example, “to be,” “to hide,” “to enter.”
Case Markers - Causitive Tense
English does not have causitive tense, but it is a simple concept. Someone or something is forcing someone or
something else to perform the action. The subject is always the person causing the force.
Kanojo
ni
kare
to
ikaseru.
I will have her go with him.
Most of the time, the person being forced to perform is selected with the indirect object particle, “ni.”
Kanojo
oを
mise
ni
kare
to
ikaseru.
I will have her go with him to the store.
However, you can also use the direct object particle “o,” particularly when you have already have an indirect
object. This does not mean you cannot use two “ni” particles, but it sounds better not to repeat them so close.
Kanojo
ni
kare
oを
mise
eへ
okuraseru.
I will have her escort him to the store.
Remember that you cannot repeat “o,” so it is good to be familiar with the above chart in order to avoid repeating the “ni” particle so many times.
JAPANESE PARTICLES: PARALLEL, の, & POSTPOSITIONS
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Parallel Markers - Lists
EXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and”)
1
Parallel markers are case markers that link nouns together.
Most of them are used to construct lists. Formally, they must
follow each noun except the last.
[particle]
1
2
ka
3
ka
[particle]
Give it to Sakura and Shirou.
Basu ka karuma de ikou.
INEXHAUSTIVE LIST (’and such...etc”)
Let’s go by bus or car.
Ringo ya nashi ga oishii.
3
to
ALTERNATIVE LIST (”or”)
THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST CLAUSES OR VERBS.
Sakura to Shirou ni agete.
2
to
1
Apples and pears and such are tasty.
2
ya
3
ya
[particle]
Possession & Nominalization 「の」
There are two “no” particles. First is generally called the possessive case. Like other parallel markers, it connects
two nouns. Sometimes it is translated as “of,” since it is also used to turn some nouns into adjectives.; however,
this is not very accurate (”sukoshi no jikan” cannot be translated as “hours of few”).
watashitachi
no
neko
our cat
daidokoro
no
nagashidai
kare to kanojo
no
kawaisa
his and her cuteness
nihon
no
denwabangou
ni juu san sai
no
musume
23-year-old daughter
ooku
no
nihonjin
kitchen sink
Japanese phone number
many Japanese people
The second “no” nominalizes a verb or clause. Remember that it will need to be followed by a particle.
THESE ARE NOT USED TO LIST MULTIPLE VERBS OR CLAUSES.
Watashi wa
tomodachi to gakkou ni aruku
Kore o kiru
Kare wa
no
wa hisashiburi da.
engi o suru
no
no
ga suki desu.
I like walking to school with my friends.
It’s been a while since I’ve worn this. (“About wearing this, it’s been a while.”)
tokui de nai.
He is not good at acting. (”About him, (his) acting is not good.”)
Postpositional Phrases
Postpositions (equivalent to English prepositions) use a noun + the possessive particle “no” + locational noun.
As a noun, each of these must be followed by a particle.
ue
above/on
shita
below/under
Watashi no kasa wa
Kare o
Kanojo ga
Kore wa
eki
inside
soto
outside
reizouko to kabe
no soto
ki
naka
mae
ushiro
no aida
de¹ matte kudasai.
no ushiro
watashi no tsukue
ni¹ aru.
behind
aida
mawari
space between
around
My umbrella is between the fridge and the wall.
Please wait for him outside the station.
ni kakurete iru no o mita.
no ue
(in) front
ni oite kudasai.
I saw her hiding behind the tree.
Please put it on (top of) my desk.
¹ “ni” vs “de”: Typically, “de” is used for the location of an action, but when the verb is stative and inherently involves attaching to a
location, the location is the recipient of the action, and thus uses the i.o. particle “ni.” Examples include “to be,” “to live,” and “to enter.”
JAPANESE SENTENCES: CLAUSES & RELATIVE CLAUSES
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Clauses
A clause is the simplest unit that can express something. The only required piece of a clause in Japanese is a
predicating verb, which always comes at the end of the clause. The order of everything else is flexible, but
the general order is: [time adverbs] + [topics] + [subject] + [everything else] + [predicating verb].
Sentences can have multiple clauses, which can be within or
next to other clauses. The order of clauses is also flexible as
long as subordinate clauses come before the related independent clause.
[topic] + wa は
[subject] + ga
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
[direct object] + o を
A subordinate (dependent) clause provides the independent
(main) clause with additional information. They never use
polite tense. There are three kinds:
[indirect object] + ni
+
[verb]
[location] + de
· Relative (Adjectival) Clauses describe nouns
· Adverbial Clauses describe actions (why/when/etc)
· Noun Clauses are used as a noun
[adverb]
...
Relative (Adjectival) Clauses
Also known as “adjectival clause,” these are subordinate clauses that describe a noun. In English, they use pronouns, like “that” or the “wh-words.” In Japanese, they are formed by putting the clause before the noun. As
such, you must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb.
Kare ga mottekita
ringo
wa oishii.
The apples that he brought were delicious.
The clause “kare ga mottekita” is being used to describe “ringo”
Senshuu kyuukou datta
Boku wa
jugyou
kare ni tegami o kaita
ni itta.
kodomo
I went to the class that was canceled last week.
o sagashite iru.
I am looking for the child who wrote him a letter.
* Relative clauses sometimes use “no” instead of “ga” for the actor of the clause. This puts less emphasis on the actor as a whole.
Relative clauses can also use general nouns, like “person” or “thing.” Common nouns to use include:
koto¹
“thing (that)”
mono
“object (that)”
hito²
“person (who)”
basho²
toki²
ryuu²
“place (where”)
“time (when)”
“reason (why)”
Kare no ringo o tabeta koto o shitte iru.
Kare wa motometa mono o eta.
Sono hon o kaita hito o aitai.
He got what he asked for.
I want to meet the person who wrote this book.
Kinou tabeta basho ga suki desu.
Toukyou ni itta toki o kangaeta.
Eranda ryuu wa akiraka desu.
I know (the thing) that he ate the apple.
I like the place where I ate today.
I thought about the time when I went to Tokyo.
The reason why (I) chose (it) is obvious.
¹ In English, it is more natural to use noun clauses, which are covered in another section, but Japanese often prefers
to use of true nouns over noun clauses. However, you cannot use “koto” for quotes or thoughts.
² These are not used when the object is unknown or vague. For subordinate interrogatives, see the Noun Clause section.
* You must use the prenominal/attributive form before each of these words. This means using plain tense, and “na” instead of “da.”
JAPANESE SENTENCES: QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Question Markers
Japanese does not use intonation or rearrange sentence structure to form a question. Instead, questions are
clauses or sentences that are “marked” by particles like “ka” and “ne.”
ka
uncertainty prt.
Kyou hirugohan o mou tabeta desu ka?
ne
tag question prt.
Kare wa nihongo o yoku hanasu, ne?
Did you already eat lunch today?
He speaks Japanaese well, doesn’t he?
Invitations
In order to be polite, invitations (and even non-invitations) often use volitional or negative forms.
volitional
negative
[o-form] | [i-form]+mashou
[a-form]+nai | [i-form]+masen
Ashita kaerou ka?
Shall we return home tomorrow?
Issho ni gohan o tabemasen ka?
Won’t you eat with me?
Nounal Interrogatives: Who? What? Where?
To ask a question with a nounal interrogative, pop the word right where the answer would go.
dare
who
Dare ga sono hon o kaita ka?
nani
what
Nani o tabetai desu ka?
doko
where
Kare ga doko ni iku hazu desu ka?
dochira
which
Dochira o jushoushita ka?
Who wrote this book?
What do you want to eat?
Where is he supposed to go?
Which one did you win?
Adverbial Interrogatives: When? Why? How?
To ask an adverbial question, place the adverb anywhere before the verb.
itsu/nanji
when/what time
naze/nande/doushite
dou/donoyouni
why
how
Kare wa itsu kaeru ka?
When will he get back?
Naze kanajo wa gakkou ni ikanakatta ka?
Kore o donoyouni tsukau ka?
Why didn’t she go to school?
How do you use this?
Answering Questions
In Japanese, it is common to answer with the predicate, but not any of the objects, even with transitive verbs.
Kare ni banana o watashita?
Did (you) give him the banana?
Hai, okotte iru desu.
Yes, (he) is angry.
Bobbu ni? Iie, watasanakatta. Kare wa okotte iru?
To Bob? No, (I) didn’t give (him) (the banana). Is he angry?
JAPANESE SENTENCES: CONJUNCTIVE SENTENCES
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
NOTES
Coordinating Phrases
¹
In coordinating sentences, each clause holds equal weight.
[clause A] and [clause B]
[clause A, te-form] [clause B]¹
[clause A] but [clause B]
[clause A] ke(re)do(mo)² [clause B]³
[clause A], so [clause B]
[clause A] kara⁴ [clause B]³
²
³
The last clause’s verb denotes tense and politeness for the entire sentence.
Keredomo > keredo/kedomo > kedo in terms of
politeness; verbs should reflect politeness used.
Both clauses should be conjugated for tense
and politeness.
Subordinating Phrases (Adverbial Clauses)
Some of the most common subordinate sentences, where “clause B” is the subordinate clause.
[clause A] because [clause B]
[clause B] kara/no de⁴ [clause A]
[clause A] when [clause B]
[clause B] aida ni⁴/uchi ni⁴ ⁵ [c. A]
[clause A] while [clause B]
[clause B, i-form] nagara [clause A]
[clause A] after [clause B]
[clause B, ta-form] ato ni⁴ [clause A]
[clause A] before [clause B]
5
[clause B, u-form] mae ni⁴ [c. A]
[clause A] since (time) [clause B]
[clause A] until [clause B]
4 These forms either use the particle “no” or
[clause B] toki ni⁴ [clause A]
[clause A] while [clause B]
[clause B, te-form] kara [c. A]
*
[clause B, u-form] made [clause A]
[clause A], therefore [clause B]
NOTES
a noun followed by the particle “ni.” In
these cases, clause B must use prenominal
/attributive form (using “da”instead of “na”).
Further, you must use plain tense.
Use “nagara” if the subject of both clauses
is the same. If clause B is negative, “uchi ni”
means “[clause A] before [the positive of
clause B].”
As subordinate clauses, the first clause
should not use polite tense.
[clause A] no dakara⁴ [clause B]
Other Conjunctive Phrases
[clause] tame ni
[clause] no ni
[clause] kagiri
[noun] ni tsuite
[noun] niyotte
[A] ka [B]
“in order to”
“despite”
“as long as”
“about”
“by means of”
“either, or”
[A] de mo [B]
Dakara [clause]
Shikamo [clause]
Soshite [clause]
“even if”
“therefore”
“moreover”
“and”/”then”
yoriyoi yomu tame ni benkyoushite iru
studying in order to read better
Isogashii no ni kare wa made itte kimashita.
Watashi wa ikite iru kagiri hataraku.
I will work as long as I live.
nihongo o hanasu koto ni tsuite no hon
katsu koto niyotte uru
Despite being busy, he still went.
book about speaking Japanese
obtain by winning
Ie ni aruite ka koko de matte.
Walk home or wait here.
Shigoto wa taihen de mo tanoshii.
Abunai! Dakara sugoku nayamu.
Shikamo shiken de isogashii.
Even if work is tough, it is fun.
It’s dangerous! So, I’m really worried.
Moreover, I’m busy with the exam.
Soshite watashi wa asagohan o tabeta.
And then I ate breakfast.
JAPANESE SENTENCES: IRREALIS MOODS
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Imperative
While there is a grammatical imperative form (meireikei), it is considered rude and rarely used outside of TV.
polite
[i-form]+na(sai)
O-yasumi nasai.
plain
[te-form]+(kudasai)
Tasukete! Isoide kudasai!
impolite
[meireikei form]
plain neg.
[a-form]+naide
impolite neg.
[u-form]+na
Te o agero!
Good night (”rest”).
Help! Please hurry!
Put your hands up!
Shimpai shinaide (kudasai).
Kore o taberu na!
(Please) Don’t worry.
Don’t eat that!
Potential
Potential forms conjugate like any ichidan verb. For suru verbs, use the ichidan verb dekiru, “to be able.”
godan
[e-form]+ru
ichidan/kuru
[a-form]+rareru
Kare wa zenzen piano o hikenai desu.
Yoku neraremashita.
He can’t play the piano at all.
I was able to sleep well.
Conditional
As most of the conditional forms have general, interchangeable uses, below are merely their key divergences.
The first clause is the condition, and thus uses the listed form, while the second clause is the result.
provisional mood; focuses on necessary condition; not used to command, permit or suggest¹
-ba
verbs
neg.
-tara
[a-form]+nakereba
i-adj
neg.
[stem]+kereba
[stem]+ku nakereba
nouns
neg.
[noun] de areba
[noun] de nakereba
subjunctive mood, perfective tense; focuses on result; can show intent, relative past, and correlation
verbs
neg.
baai
[ta-form]+ra
[a-form]+nakattara
i-adj
neg.
[stem]+kattara
[stem]+ku nakattara
nouns
neg.
[noun] dattara
[noun] de nakattara
hypothetical mood; noun meaning “case,” literally, “in the case that...”
verbs
to
[e-form]+ba
[u-form] baai
i-adj
[present] baai
nouns
[noun] na/no² baai
implicative mood; used for expected, definite, habitual, correlative, or natural results; result is present tense
verbs
nara
i-adj
[present] to
nouns
[noun] da to
assumptive mood; used when the condition is “known” or likely, but not when result is natural or obvious
verbs
moshi
[u-form] to
[u-form] nara
i-adj
[present] nara
nouns
[noun] nara
for emphasis; must be used at the beginning of the clause, and in conjunction with another conditional form
¹ -ba form can be used for suggestions only when the condition is an i-adj, the verb is aru or iru, or the condition is negative.
² Use “na” for na-adjectives and general nouns, and “no” for no-adjectives.
* These forms can be translated as “When B, A,” “If B, then A will occur,” or “If B, then A would occur” depending on context/tense.
JAPANESE SENTENCES: NOUN CLAUSES
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The Subordinator “that” 「と」
The particle “to” is used very similarly to our word “that” when used to turn a clause into a noun. Below are
common verbs to use with “to,” but the translations are more literal than natural.
to iu¹
to say
Kanojo wa
kare ga isogashii
to
itta.
She said that he is busy.
“to” denotes that “kare ga isogashii” is the object that was said
to omou
to think
Hana wa kirei da to omowanai ka?
Don’t you think the flowers are pretty?
to kanjiru
to feel
Nihongo o hanasu koto wa tanoshii to kanjiru.
to shinjiru
to believe
Jijitsu de aru to shinjimasu.
to shiru
to know
to wakaru
I believe that it is true.
Watashi wa jibun ga muchi da to shitte iru.
to realize
I feel that speaking Japanese is fun.
Mita totanni sugi kare da to watakatta.
I know that I am ignorant.
The moment I saw (him), I knew that it is him.
¹ “to iu” is often abbreviated to “tte,” which is also commonly used to emphasize words, similar to the expression, “[...], you say?”
* You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “to.” This means using “da” instead of “na.”
* Use the o を particle when dealing with direct objects or relative clauses, and not noun clauses, ex. ”I know the reason...”.
Subordinate Interrogative Clauses 「か」
The “ka” particle is not just used to ask questions, but shows that a clause is unknown or uncertain, even within
a declarative sentence. If the noun clause starts with a “wh” word or “if,” you should use “ka” instead of “to.”
Doko ni iru ka shitte iru.
I know where (he) is.
Itsu iku beki ka shirinai.
I don’t know when (I) should go.
Watashi wa kare ga oyogeru ka mitakatta.
I wanted to see if he could swim.
Raishuu karera wa ikitai ka to omoimasu.
(I) think that they want to go next week (but I am not sure).
* You must use the predicate/terminal form before the particle “ka.” This means using “da” instead of “na.”
Nominalized Clauses 「の」
You should already know that the nominalization particle “no” turns clauses into nouns, but it can be used with
“da/desu” to nominalize entire clauses. This essentially turns actions into statements, and is identical to our use
of noun clauses and the verb “to be.” For example: “Here is where [I put my watch]” vs. “I put my watch here.”
This is often used to provide explanation, but it is also makes questions sound more polite.
no/n (da)
Ashita watashi wa ikitakunai no ja nai.
no/n (desu)
Mou kirei na² no desu.
no/n (desu) (ka)
Dou kore wa yatte mitsuketa no desu ka?
no/n de
Osokatta n de, sensei ga okotte ita.
It’s not that I don’t want to go tomorrow.
It is that it is already clean.³
How is it that you found this?
It is that I was late, and the teacher was mad.³
² You must use the prenominal/attributive form of a verb before the particle “no.” This means using plain form, and “na” instead of “da”
³ Because the nominalization often implies explanation, this structure is usually translated as “because.” So the more
natural translations would be “Because it is already clean.” and “The teacher was mad because I was late.”
* Note that in casual speech, “no” is often abbreviated to “n” and “da/desu” and/or “ka” may be left out.
JAPANESE EXPRESSIONS: EXPANDING ON QUALITIES
JAPANESE.FLIPPANTRY.COM
Observations & Similes - “like” 「よう」
The noun “you,” means something like “form.” As a noun, you must use prenominal/attributive form before it.
you da
observation ¹
Karera wa konai you da.
you na
adjectival
Kuiiru you na manazashi de jitto mita.
you ni
adverbial
Kare wa watashi o minakatta you ni furumatta.
no you ni
simile
Chou no you ni tobitai.
Seems like they aren’t coming tonight.
(I) watched with a devouring gaze.
He acted like he didn’t see me!
I want to fly like a butterfly.
¹ This is not used when something literally has a certain appearance. For example, to say “looks sad,” use “kanashiku mieru.”
Comparisons - “-er, than” 「より・ほう」
The case marker “yori” and the noun “hou” are commonly used to compare the quality of nouns or clauses
against each other. “hou” represents the side of the subject, while “yori” represents the “challenger.”
Ikou yori iu hou ga yasashii.
Easier said than done. (”Compared to doing, saying is easy.”)
Watashi wa suugaku yori sono hou ga rikai shiyasui desu.
That’s easier for me to understand than math.
Both “yori” or “hou” may be left out. Also, “yori” can be used without a noun to give a general meaning.
Hayaku okiru hou ga zutto ii.
Mizu yori karui mono wa uku.
You really should wake up early. (”It is much better to wake up early.”)
Anything lighter than water floats. (“A thing that is lighter than water floats.”)
Yuki wa Taro yori mo hayaku hashiru.
Yuki runs faster than even Taro too.
Watashi wa itsu ka yori tsuyoku naru.
I will get stronger some day.
Degree - “enough/so” 「ほど」
When you want to elaborate the extent or degree of a quality, you can use the adverbial particle, “hodo.” Note
how the positivity of the clauses reflects in the naturalized English translation.
[+] hodo [+]
~“enough”
Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakai.
He’s tall enough to reach the ceiling.
[+] hodo [-] ~“not enough”
Tenjou ni tegatodoku hodo segatakanatta.
[-] hodo [+]
~“so”
Nikugan dewa mienai hodo chiisai.
[-] hodo [-]
~“not so”
Sore o shiranai hodo baka de wa nai.
He’s not tall enough to reach the ceiling.
It is so small that you cannot see it with the naked eye.
He’s not so stupid that he doesn’t know that.
“too” 「過ぎる」
Use the continuative form of verbs and adj. verbs followed by the verb “sugiru” to say something is “too much.”
Kare wa segatakai sugite, kono heya de wa massugu ni tatenai.
He is too tall, he can’t stand up straight in this room.