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4 ELECTRICAL Supplies CHAPTER FOUR: • LIGHTING FIXTURES • ELECTRIC MOTORS • LIGHT BULBS • WIRE AND CABLE • CORDS • WIRING DEVICES • BATTERIES • TELEPHONES & ACCESSORIES ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES ELECTRICAL Supplies ■ The consumer trend in the electrical category is shifting toward higher-end products that have model variety and energy-saving features. Energy-efficient lighting products are finally beginning to catch on with consumers. Another key trend in the category is increased demand for lowvoltage outdoor lighting. Motion-sensor lights are popular with consumers concerned about home security. Many consumers are scared of electrical projects, and for valid reasons. Retailers should remind consumers of the dangers posed by household electrical systems. For example, tell consumers to shut off electrical power at the fuse or circuit breaker box before beginning any wiring project. And make sure they consult local building codes before embarking on an electrical project. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 2 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES LIGHTING FIXTURES ■ INTERIOR LIGHTING way to provide ambient lighting. Increased amounts of light are achieved using additional fixtures. This should be strictly observed because of the heat produced. Maximum wattage limitations are indicated on all fixtures and should be followed. Recessed lighting is good for rooms with low ceilings and can be used to supplement existing light in kitchens and bathrooms. No-glare lighting is also available in overhead fixtures, undercabinet lights and desk lamps. No-glare lighting fixtures are designed with a louver that cuts off highangle light to provide glare-free, truecolour lighting. No-glare lighting works well to prevent eye fatigue in home offices where computers are used. For more information, see (Installing Wall or nent fixtures. Track lighting is also applicable. Place light sources at various heights within the room to add visual interest. Use translucent shades on table lamps to contribute to the ambient light level. Use a halogen, floor-mounted directional fixture under a large plant to create an artistic pattern on the ceiling. A room larger than 225 sq. ft. will require separately controlled wall lights along two walls or multiple ceiling fixtures rather than a single light source. Interior lighting must satisfy two requirements: function and design. A customer replacing an existing fixture will be concerned mainly with the design, whereas a person remodeling or adding a room may be concerned with both function and design. Along with design and function, many customers are becoming more concerned about conserving energy. Lighting takes only 12 percent to 15 percent of the Bedrooms electricity used in a home. Customers are Bedrooms under 150 sq. ft. use a total of finding ways to reduce this expense by 120 to 200 watts in a ceiling fixture, 4' to using more efficient lighting and 9' of wall lighting or one 150-watt recessed advanced lighting controls. fixture. Over 150 sq. ft. use 120 to 200 Ceiling Fixtures) Task lighting gives localized light for watts in a ceiling fixture, 12' to 16' of wall specific activities such as reading, writing, The following guidelines suggest lightlighting, or five to eight 20- to 75-watt sewing and food preparation. The light ing standards for various rooms. reflector bulbs. should cover the entire task area and be For closets, use a 40- to 60-watt fixture located so shadows are reduced to a miniLiving Areas and 60 to 100 watts in walk-in closets. mum. Under-cabinet lighting is a popular Permanent lighting fixtures are not a These should be ceiling mounted at least form of task lighting in kitchens or under major consideration here because so many 18" from clothing or stored items, or use a shelves. homes depend on table or floor lamps. 20-watt fluorescent above the door header. General or ambient lighting provides Wall lighting (fluorescent tubes shielded comfortable background brightness in a by a cornice or valance) and recessed Bathrooms room. Light reflected from walls and ceildown lights are frequently used permaOverall lighting should consist of at ings or from large sources overleast one recessed 75-watt unit GENERAL LIGHTING SUGGESTIONS head reduces lighting contrasts for each curtained tub or shower and contributes to the comfort area. If the lavatory counter is Here are a few general guidelines to help consumers begin their planning. of the environment. wider than 3', overhead fluoresThe light sources, lighting fixtures and construction of the home, as well as the materials and colors of the furnishings, will affect the lighting plan. Accent or specialty lighting cent tubes should be installed creates a mood and adds interest along the entire length of the INCANDESCENT BULBS to a room. This kind of lighting counter in a soffit extending at 14, 15 watts—Use in multiple-socket hallway fixtures, small decorative is primarily for decorative effects least 18" from the wall. Smaller wall and table lamps, recessed aisle or step lights. and should be used in conjunclavatory areas need 20-watt fluo40, 55, 60 watts—Wall fixtures and sconces, multiple-socket ceiling tion with task and general lightrescent tubes mounted on either fixtures and floor or table lamps, pole and tree lamps, recessed shower ing. Track lights, a system of side of the mirror and centered lights, single- and multiple-socket bathroom mirror fixtures. movable lights wired to a metal 60" from the floor. 70, 75, 95, 100 watts—Ceiling, wall and pendant fixtures. track, make a great accent lightA ceiling fixture over the lava150, 200 watts—Single-socket ceiling fixtures; floor, table and desk lamps where three-way flexibility is not desired. ing choice for living rooms, bedtory mirror can provide extra 170, 250 watts—Portable table, floor and desk lamps with singlerooms and dining rooms. Track light. setting sockets. lighting is available in many colors, sizes and shapes, is easy to Kitchens THREE-WAY BULBS install and flexible since the Every 50 sq. ft. of floor space 30, 70, 100 watts—Portable dresser, table and hanging wall lamps. lights can be moved around and needs about 150 watts of incan50, 100, 150 watts—Floor, desk, table, double-dresser portable lamps. repositioned. descent or 50 watts of fluores100, 200, 300 watts—Large floor lamps with mogul (large) sockets. Recessed can lighting and surcent light from a ceiling fixture. face-mounted fixtures are one Additional fixtures should be NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 3 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES installed over sinks, work areas, etc. A 20watt fluorescent tube, mounted under cabinets above the countertop, is considered adequate for every 3' of counter space to be lighted. Light the sink area using recessed halogen or fluorescent valance lighting. Fluorescent strip lights can be concealed above cabinets to provide soft, indirect illumination. Suspend decorative pendant lighting with compact fluorescent globes over the table or island for visual interest and energy savings. Dining Areas A single ceiling fixture or hanging lamp with at least 150 watts of incandescent lighting will usually suffice for an average dining area. However, layering with light from a variety of sources will provide flexibility for creating different moods. The best choice is to install a dimmer switch to control light levels. Chandeliers with open sockets should contain decorative bulbs. When using down lighting over the dining room table, be careful not to create dark shadows that might be unbecoming to guests. Halogen directional bulbs can be used in adjustable accent lights to highlight plants, artwork or special furnishings. In addition, china cabinets can be lighted from within with small halogen or miniature fluorescent bulbs. Recreation Areas Relatively even lighting throughout the room can be accomplished with one recessed incandescent box, with a 100watt bulb for every 40 sq. ft. The number of fixtures can be reduced by using fluorescent tubes, which produce as much as four times the light of incandescents. Hallways Use ceiling-mounted fixtures with 75 to 100 watts for every 10' of hall or one recessed fixture with 75 to 100 watts for every 8'. Locate fixtures near closets or powder rooms. For halls that need light all day, recommend fluorescent fixtures; this saves energy and reduces bulb replacement. Wall sconces can add a warm, welcoming touch to a foyer. Place wall or ceil- ing-mounted lights and switches at the top and bottom of stairs for safety. Laundry Areas Center a diffusing fixture with 60 to 80 watts of fluorescent or 120 to 150 watts of incandescent light over appliances. ■ OUTDOOR LIGHTING Outdoor lighting primarily serves a security function. There are four basic types of outdoor lighting: area, motion, landscape and entrance/exit lighting. There are a wide variety of systems for outdoor lighting, including: high–intensity discharge (HID) systems for mercury, metal halide and high–pressure sodium light sources; incandescent and tungsten halogen fixtures; low-voltage lighting systems; and incandescent or halogen PAR spotlights and floodlights. HID lighting provides considerably greater illumination than other lighting commonly available. Its cost is also higher, although operating costs for lumens output is generally less. Lumens are the measurement of light output. Locate fixtures at both ends of the house for better spread of light over the entire yard. Many outdoor lighting units are equipped with a photoelectric cell to turn the fixture on at sunset and off at sunrise. Timers are also available for outdoor units. Fixtures to be used outdoors must seal moisture and dust from wiring and switches. Photocells provide automatic activation from dusk to dawn. Brass, aluminum, copper and baked-finish metals as well as non-metallic products will withstand extremes of outdoor exposure best and offer long product life. Outdoor lighting options have expanded with the advent of low-voltage lighting. A low-voltage system of six fixtures, for example, usually uses less electricity than a 60-watt bulb. It makes maximum use of electricity by splitting the light source. A power pack is the heart of the lowvoltage system and should be located outdoors by installing a weatherproof outlet cover to keep snow and rain out. Because of the low voltage, users will not receive an electric shock even if they touch the bare wires or cut a buried cable with a garden tool. Consequently, these systems are harmless to children and pets and do not require cables to be buried. Power packs typically range from 88-watt capacity up to 900-watt capacity. To determine which transformer you will need, add up the wattage of all the lamps you plan to use—otherwise known as the total nominal wattage (TNW). The total load wattage of the lamps should not be less than half of the transformer’s TNW or volt-amperes (VA) rating, nor should it exceed the transformer’s maximum capacity. If the TNW is too high, divide the electrical load between two transformers, or use a more powerful one. The first fixture should be installed at least 1' above the ground and at least 10' from the power pack. Low-voltage cable transmits the electricity through a weather-resistant, self-sealing stranded copper wire between 12-gauge and 18-gauge. On runs over 150' or when 10 or more lamps are connected to one line, consider using heavier cable (12- or 14-gauge), which reduces voltage drop and produces greater efficiency from the lamps. A cable connector is used to quickly join separate cable lengths or to split cables going different directions. The low-voltage lamp can be one of several types. Bayonet base lamps feature a copper base that twists into the fixture socket, while the wedge base lamp plugs into the socket. Halogen lamps provide the most energy efficiency. Remote photo control automatically turns lights on at dark and off during daylight hours. For more information, see (Installing Outdoor Wiring/Lighting). Area Lighting Spot and floodlights, along with traditional yard and security lighting, are used as decorative lighting for landscaping, architecture or holiday decorations. Coloured lenses can enhance different features; a green lens, for example, will brighten foliage while detracting from reddish objects. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 4 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES Weatherproof sockets are essential here because the fixture is often mounted near the ground and pointed upward, exposing the socket opening to rain and dirt. Most outdoor lighting fixtures should be installed only when the ground is completely dry, although low-voltage systems can often be installed anytime. Always consult the manufacturer’s instructions. Well lights are designed to be buried, and they cast light upward to create special effects—for example, highlighting landscaping. Motion Lighting WHERE TO USE BULBS SPECIAL-PURPOSE BULBS TYPE AND WATTAGE WHERE TO USE Reflector Bulbs (2-1/2" dia.) Pole and tree lamps. Track lighting and recessed downlights (cans). Reflector Floods (3-3/4" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlights (cans). Reflector Spots (3-3/4" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlighting (cans). Reflector Floods (5" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlights (cans). Reflector Spots (5" dia.) Track lighting and recessed downlighting (cans). Floodlight Bulbs (4-3/4" dia.) Exposed weatherproof sockets under eaves, on garages, porches and other outdoor locations. Bullet-shaped outdoor floodlight fixtures. Bug Lights (yellow coating) In fixtures on patios, porches and entrances to houses. Post Light Bulbs For post lights and coach lanterns. Plant Lights Special colour bulb finish enhances plant appearance, helps growth. Rough Service Workshop, utility area, garage. Usually used on “trouble light” extension cord. High-Intensity Bulbs Replacement bulbs for high-intensity portable lamps, they provide supplementary lighting for sewing, manicuring, hobby work and other close-up tasks. Night Lights Use in plug-in fixtures in bedrooms, bathrooms and hallways. Motion sensors are popular accessories to low-voltage outdoor lighting. They attach to a power pack and mount on walls or fences 6’ to 8' above the ground. By detecting heat and motion up to 40' away, they can cover 600 sq. ft. of property to guard against intrusion. Motion sensors are used with incandescent, halogen and fluorescent bulbs. When used in combination with a switch, the user can manually switch on the motion detector light. Indoor motion sensors are also available that automatically turn on a light when someone enters a room. Always check the fixture for required diameter and wattage limitations before recommending any of these bulbs. In general, floods are used for wide area lighting, spots are used for accent lighting. Landscape Lighting FLUORESCENT BULBS Landscape lighting is designed to accent or light steps and pathways. It also serves a decorative function and is relatively easy to install. Advise customers not to hook up landscape lighting with extension cords, which are for temporary use only. Mushroom lights, named for their sloped shades, are commonly used along pathways or in gardens. The bulb ranges from 5 watts to 60 watts, and light is reflected downward to give a soft illumination to the immediate area near the fixture. Opaque, tiered lens attachments shield light from the eyes and direct it downward. Bollard lights are cylindrical in shape, with the faceted lens being part of that cylinder. The lens diffuses light in a 360° pattern to create a soft glow. Lens shields can limit lighting to a 180° range. TYPE AND WATTAGE Garage Door Opener Bulb Built to take shock and vibration. Appliance Bulbs For ovens, refrigerators, freezers, microwaves, saunas and range hoods. Showcase Tubular Bulbs Approximately 6” long, frosted and clear. Use for picture lights, piano lights, aquariums, range hoods. Regular (medium) base. WHERE TO USE Cool White Use for work areas only. Warm White Good for living areas. Will harmonize with incandescent lighting. Not for use where colour discrimination is important. Soft White The recommended fluorescent for living areas, baths, kitchens. Good colour rendering. Harmonizes with incandescent lighting. Different wattage tubes are different lengths. It is important to purchase the right length tube to fit the desired fixture. Fluorescent tubes come in a variety of “white” colours. Use these guidelines to select the correct “white” tube for your use. SOURCE: GE LIGHTING Globe lights have spherical lenses, so they cast light in all directions, providing subtle illumination that can cover a large area without glare. They are often used around outdoor living areas. Deck lights are designed to fit under steps, benches and railings. They can be mounted in many other ways as well. Many other kinds of fixtures are also made to be recessed into steps or planters to directly illuminate pathways. What follows are some common lighting techniques used in landscape lighting. Down lighting—shines light down from large trees or eaves onto surfaces below the light source to create safer passageways NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 5 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES at night. Down lighting is used to outline driveways and walkways, mark garden paths and flowerbeds, and to accent patios and decks. Uplighting—places fixtures in the ground and directs light upward to create a dramatic focal point that accentuates the detail in a trellis or archway, illuminates fountains and statuary or highlights small trees and shrubs. Front lighting—positions light sources in front of an object to highlight important features and details. Back lighting—illuminates objects or plants from the back to highlight architectural features and eliminates darkened areas behind large bushes and around doors and windows for security purposes. Area lighting—uses a floodlight or another source of wide light to illuminate large areas for evening entertaining. Safety lighting—provides light for certain areas, such as paths or steps, so people can navigate safely. Also available are landscape boulders that blend naturally into the environment and glow from within, casting illumination for pathways. The faux boulders contain low-voltage lamps and components that are easy to wire, can be installed on their own system or added to an existing low-voltage system. Entrance/Exit Lighting Light each entrance to illuminate the door and to identify callers clearly. Recommend wall lanterns, 25 watts to 60 watts, on each side of the front door, centered 66" above standing level. For secondary entrances, recommend a single fixture on the latch side of the door. Lanterns with concealed downlights light up wall-mounted house numbers as well as the lock. Suspended or over-door lanterns should allow the light to flow downward. Wallmounted lanterns above doors should accommodate 75 watts to 100 watts; lanterns suspended from a ceiling 100 watts to 150 watts. With shallow, close-toceiling fixtures for a porch, recommend 60 watts to 100 watts. Exit or emergency signs are used to identify exit areas in commercial buildings. Internally lighted models are the most common. Originally, only clear glass was used to make incandescent bulbs, which left the bright filament exposed and resulted in a harsh, glaring light. To remedy this, special finishes are used to reduce the glare by diffusing the light. Clear glass is still used in applications where accurate light control is desired and in decorative lighting. A frosted finish used to be the most common. Light loss averages less than 0.5 percent due to the frosted finish. Today, light diffusion is usually accomplished by applying a coating of fine powder to the inside surface of the bulb. This coating provides a softer, more even distribution of light and reduces glare. Insidecoated bulbs are made in colours as well as white. A variety of colours are available in outside-coated bulbs which can be either transparent or translucent. Bulbs can be made to direct the light by applying a reflecting material to the inside surface of the bulb, or in the case of R, PAR and sealed beam, light can also be directed by beveled cuts on the surface of the bulb. bulb used for lower-wattage bulbs from about 15 watts to 200 watts. This type is normally used for home lighting. Vibration service is used on machinery or where continuous vibration could cause early failure of the filament. These bulbs have lower lighting efficiency. Rough service bulbs withstand shocks and bumps. The relatively long filament is securely mounted with many supports but has a lower efficiency than general and vibration service bulbs. They are used in workshops and garages and with trouble lights. Appliance bulbs are for ovens, refrigerators, freezers, microwave ovens and range hoods. Special coated bulbs are covered with a Teflon™ or silicon protective material to prevent shattering and to resist breakage upon contact with water. They are recommended for use in trouble lights and outdoor fixtures. Decorative bulbs with clear or coated flame-shaped glass, smooth B-type glass, C-line glass with bent tip bulbs and globeshaped bulbs are useful in chandeliers and wall bracket fixtures where fashion is important. Reflector® bulbs are usually made of “soft” glass for indoor service as a directional light source with a built-in reflector. These are available as spot or floodlights. Projector (PAR) bulbs are made of hard heat-resistant glass molded into a reflector and lens that are sealed together. Most are weather-resistant. Elliptical reflector bulbs are shaped differently than the parabolic reflector bulbs, bringing light to a focus a couple of inches in front of the bulb. Less light is wasted in deep-baffle fixtures, and glare is reduced in downlight fixtures. General Classes of Light Bulbs Light Bulb Bases Bulbs come in a variety of shapes, sizes and designs, each with a different purpose. Bulb shapes have letter codes that correspond to a general guideline. For example, "C" refers to cone-shaped bulbs and "T" to tubular bulbs. General service is the Type A (arbitrary) Light bulbs come with a variety of bases for use in different fixtures. The following are the most commonly used base types: Candelabra is a screw base used for specialty chandeliers and decorative lighting. It is the smallest base for 120V lamps. Intermediate is a screw base with appli- LIGHT BULBS There are three main types of light bulbs: incandescent, fluorescent and highintensity discharge (HID). Generally, the higher the wattage, the greater the light output. Bulb Finishes NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 6 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES cations similar to the candelabra bulb. Medium is a screw base, standard on most general-service bulbs of 300 watts and under. It has a high degree of interchangeability in bulb applications. Mogul bases are used for larger, heavyduty bulbs rated at 300 watts and higher. Skirted screw base is used on bulbs where the neck is too large to fit into the desired size base or where additional space between filament and bulb terminals is desired. LIGHT BULB BASES Three-contact bases are used for threeway bulbs that contain two separate filaments in one bulb. They are similar to other screw bases, but use an extra ring contact to light wattage filaments separately or in combination for three light levels. Bayonet bases are used on specialty lamps such as vacuum cleaners, sewing machines and low-voltage bulbs. It provides a more secure contact by using two small protruding pins on the sides of the base that fit into slots in the socket. Medium bi-post base is used for highercurrent bulbs. ■ INCANDESCENT BULBS 1 2 3 6 5 7 9 12 4 8 10 13 11 14 Incandescent bulbs produce light by passing current through a thin coil of wire called a filament. As the wire heats, it becomes white hot and emits visible light. Incandescent bulbs come in two types: vacuum filled and halogen gas filled. They are mainly used for general and task lighting around the house. Incandescent bulbs offer many advantages: a concentrated light source that is easy to direct; instant lighting; a wide assortment of sizes, shapes and colours; easy maintenance; and low initial cost. Moreover, incandescent lighting is flexible, particularly since light levels (proportional to wattage) for a given bulb-holder 15 GLASS BULB 1. Single-Contact Bayonet Incandescent Base 2. Candelabra Incandescent Base Filament 3. Double-Contact Bayonet Incandescent Base 4. Intermediate Incandescent Base 5. Medium Incandescent Base Support Wires Filling Glass Button 6. Medium Skirted Incandescent Base 7. Three-Contact Medium Incandescent Base 8. Mogul Incandescent Base 9. Three-Contact Mogul Incandescent Base 10. Circline Florescent Base Lead-in Wires Heat Deflecting Disc Stem Press 11. Medium Bi-Pin Fluorescent Base 12. Four-Pin Fluorescent Base Exhaust Tube Fuse 13. Recessed D.C. Fluorescent Base Base 14. Two-Pin Single-End Fluorescent Base 15. Four-Pin Single-End Fluorescent Base COMPARING LAMP EFFICIENCIES LAMP TYPE LUMENS PER WATT Incandescent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 Halogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Mercury Vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 Fluorescent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100 Metal Halide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 High Pressure Sodium . . . . . . . .140 Low Pressure Sodium . . . . . . . . .200 can be changed simply by using the desired wattage bulb. However, users should be careful not to exceed bulb wattage recommendations for a fixture. A mercury or fluorescent system is typically limited to a single bulb size. An incandescent bulb can operate on either direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). Wattage indicates the amount of electric power used by a bulb to produce light. Roughly speaking, the higher the wattage, the greater the light output. Some bulbs, however, produce more light output per watt than others do. Standard household bulbs have an average life of 750 to 1,000 hours, which can be lengthened or shortened by the treatment they receive. For example, a 120V bulb operating on a 125V circuit may produce more light but won’t last as long as one on a 120V circuit. Long-life bulbs, which may last up to twice as long as ordinary bulbs, have heavier filaments that do not burn out as quickly. However, these bulbs do not produce as much light as standard bulbs. Manufacturers disclose average light output (in lumens) and average bulb life (in hours) on package labeling. The filament vaporizes as a result of current flowing through it, and generally, the bulb “burns out.” Three-way bulbs lose two light levels when one filament burns out because two filaments are used in the bulb separately for two of the levels and together for the third. Bulb designations denote size and shape. The figure following the bulb shape letter designation is the bulb’s maximum diameter in eighths of an inch. Thus, A-19 NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 7 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES LIGHT BULB SHAPES INCANDESCENT SHAPES “A” Type R-40 Reflector Flame Tubular PAR-30 Reflector (indoor) PAR-30 Reflector (outdoor) Bulge Tube (LT-10) COMPACT FLUORESCENT SHAPES Screw Base Circular Tube Screw Base Lamp Screw Base Bulb HID SHAPES BT E would mean an A-shaped bulb with a diameter of 19 x 1/8", or 2-3/8". Most standard bulb envelopes are made of lime glass, but bulbs that must withstand greater heat are made of harder, heat-resistant glass. Hard-glass envelopes are used in many high-wattage bulbs and in bulbs recommended for outdoor use where there is danger of thermal shock from condensation. Incandescent bulbs turn black as they near the end of their lifetimes. Customers should consider replacing darkened bulbs, as they use the same amount of electricity to produce less light. ■ HALOGEN BULBS Halogen bulbs are technologically advanced incandescent bulbs used in resi- dential and commercial applications. As with incandescent bulbs, light is produced by passing current through a coiled tungsten wire, but the tungsten wire is enclosed in a small quartz or high-temperature glass tube, which is then filled with gases, including a halogen gas. The advantages of tungsten halogen bulbs compared with standard incandescent bulbs include less loss of light over lamp life; smaller physical size for better directional light control; whiter, brighter light; more light per watt; and longer life. Like incandescents, halogen lights have the advantage of instant-on light. They are easy to use with dimmers for energy savings. Typical halogen lamps last 2,000 to 4,000 hours compared to 500 to 1,000 hours for incandescent lamps. Wattage levels for home use run from 5 watts to 300 watts. Halogen bulbs are more energy-efficient than standard incandescent bulbs. They generate up to 30 percent more light for the same electricity. In addition, because their bulbs blacken much less than incandescents, they stay brighter as they age. Halogen bulbs are available for accent and task lighting and for general lighting applications. Since their brilliant, white light registers true colours, they are excellent for displays. Shading is important because of halogen’s intense brightness. They are available in A-type equivalent bulbs, PAR spotlights and floodlights in a variety of sizes, as well as low-voltage spotlights and floodlights. Advise customers not to touch the glass on halogen bulbs. ■ FLUORESCENT BULBS The two main types of fluorescent bulbs are tubular and compact fluorescent. Fluorescent bulbs are used in commercial, institutional, industrial and residential lighting. The popularity of the fluorescent bulb is due to its high efficiency in producing light, resulting in low lighting energy costs. Fluorescent bulbs produce up to 105 lumens per watt, compared with a 100-watt, type A incandescent, which produces around 18 lumens per watt. A fluorescent also has long lamp life, relatively low brightness and low heat content and glare compared with incandescent lamps. Fluorescents work well for area lighting, especially in kitchen, bath and task areas. In a fluorescent bulb, current flows through an atmosphere of inert gas and mercury vapor, producing ultraviolet energy that is invisible to the human eye. A phosphor coating on the inside of the tube transforms the ultraviolet energy into visible light. Fluorescent bulbs can vary from straight tubes 6" to 96" long to U-shaped tubes and circular tubes. Wattages for home use range from 4 to 75 watts. Tubes also come in a variety of diameters. Several common types are available in reduced-wattage versions that consume 15 percent to 20 percent less energy. The most common tube is the 1-1/2" used in most bulbs from 15" to 96" long. The smallest diameter is 1/2", used in lowwattage twin tube designs. The largest is 2-1/8" used for some high-wattage, nonresidential installations. Fluorescent bulbs are available in many shades of white, as well as colours determined by the type of phosphor used in the bulb. These colours are indicated by the colour rendering index number printed on the bulb. The higher the number, the more accurate the colour produced. Soft white fluorescent bulbs are recommended for living areas, baths and kitchens since they offer good colour rendering. Warm white bulbs, 3000K and lower, emphasize reds and yellows and are good for living areas, although not in areas where colour discrimination is important. Cool white bulbs, 4000K and higher, emphasize blues and greens and are used for work areas. There are a few important limits to the use of fluorescent lamps. Because they use a ballast, they can be dimmed only with special equipment that is relatively expensive. Standard household fluorescents are also sensitive to temperature and there- NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 8 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES GLOSSARY OF ELECTRICAL STANDARDS CSA International (CSA) and Underwriters’ Laboratory (UL)—are recognised, approved independent product certification testing authorities. Manufacturers submit products to CSA and/or UL for evaluation as to meeting the requirements of a standard—typically a CSA or ANSI standard testing. “Listed” by CSA or UL and marked “CSA or cUL”—means that the merchandise meets minimum safety standards and is suitable and safe if used for the purpose for which it was intended by the manufacturer. CSA (Canadian Standards Association)—an independent, “hands off” division of CSA International—and ANSI (American National Standards Institute) are non-profit organizations that coordinate the voluntary development of Canadian and U.S. national consensus standards. Such consensus-based standards—developed by a “balanced” committee of general interest, producers, regulators and users—are used voluntarily, becoming mandatory only when adopted by government laws and regulations. CEC— Canadian Electrical Code is based on safe and functional wiring methods. The code is updated at least every five years and provides a framework for electrical codes in Canada. Provinces have adopted this code and some have also superimposed a number of more restrictive or additional requirements. Be sure that you consult with your provincial and/or local governments to determine the requirements in force in your area. fore work best indoors. High-output fluorescents are for outdoor use and commercial application. Ballasts have sound ratings— “A” is the quietest; “C” is the loudest. If a customer is complaining about the noise made by fluorescent bulbs, suggest replacing the ballast. The main objection to fluorescents in the past has been their unflattering colour. New, colour-corrected tubes overcome this drawback with recent developments in phosphor technology. Premium types use rare-earth phosphors to offer superior colour that blends beautifully with incandescents. Electrical connections to the bulbs are made to the bases at each end. The most common is the two-pin base, designated miniature bi-pin for small diameter bulbs, medium bi-pin for average-size bulbs and the mogul bi-pin for industrial bulbs. Single-pin bases are used for instant-start bulbs, and recessed double-contact bases are used on rapid–start bulbs longer than 48". Ballast Operation Because fluorescent lamps are arc discharge devices, they require special auxiliary equipment to provide reliable starting and to assure proper electrical opera- tion. The principle function of the ballast is to hold operating current within proper limits and to provide enough voltage to start the lamp. Initially, all fluorescent lamps used a “starter” or time-delay switch, which allowed the electrodes to heat up prior to the lamp starting. The starter is a small silver-coloured cylinder found mostly in older fluorescent lamps. When the lamp in an older fluorescent begins to flicker, both the tube and the starter should be replaced. Starterless operation is achieved with instant-start and rapid-start ballast designs. Instant-start ballasts provide sufficient voltage to start fluorescent lamps without preheating and are commonly used with single-pin lamps and some special lamp types. Rapid-start ballasts heat the cathodes continuously from a low-voltage transformer within the ballast. This is the most common type of ballast in use today for 40-watt lamps and for all lamps that use recessed double-contact bases. Reduced-wattage lamps operate on most existing ballasts, which can reduce wattage 14 to 20 percent. In addition, new ballasts developed to minimize the wattage consumed by the ballast itself further reduce electrical consumption. Compact Fluorescents Compact fluorescent bulbs offer different style and performance from standard fluorescent bulbs. Their colour nearly equals Soft White incandescents, and they offer superior energy efficiency and long life. The new compacts can be used in many household fixtures. Circular units are already familiar in ceiling fixtures and artists’ lamps; new applications are wall sconces, table lamps, lanterns, desk lights and outdoor fixtures. Compact fluorescents feature sizes and shapes to match most incandescent bulbs including one that resembles a standard household bulb. They can be as small as 4.5" long, and some are the same size as their incandescent counterparts. Not all fixtures designed for incandescents may have enough room inside the shade or glass for the bulb. Compact fluorescents cannot be dimmed. Their life will be maximized if they are used in locations where a light stays on for hours at a time. Compact fluorescent lamps typically last 7,000 to 10,000 hours, which is nine to 13 times longer than comparable incandescent lamps. Energy efficiency can go up to 105 lumens per watt. Wattages for home use range from 7 to 27 watts. Reflector-shaped compact fluorescents can replace standard R30 and R40 shaped incandescent reflector bulbs. Globe-shaped compact fluorescents can replace standard G25 bath and vanity globes or G30 decorative globes that are used in pendants. Decorator or flame-shaped bulbs can replace similar incandescent bulbs in chandeliers, sconces and outdoor fixtures. Stick-shaped compact fluorescents can replace standard Type “A” bulbs in portable lamps, while twist-shaped compact fluorescents can replace standard Type “A” bulbs in virtually any application. There are also household-shaped compact fluorescents that make ideal replacements where the bulbs are visible in the fixture. When choosing a compact fluorescent bulb to replace an incandescent bulb, compare the lumen output of the two NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 9 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES bulbs. For maximum energy efficiency, select a bulb with the highest lumens and lowest wattage combination. For example, replace a 100-watt incandescent household lamp that produces 1,600 lumens with a 25-watt compact fluorescent lamp that also produces 1,600 lumens. ■ HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE LIGHTING High-intensity discharge (HID) bulbs produce light in a manner often described as “lightning in a bottle.” As in fluorescent bulbs, current flows through a conducting gas and ballasts are required to start the bulb and to control its operation. Unlike fluorescent, most of the light comes from the arc itself rather than through the work of the phosphor. The highest-efficiency light sources (the most light per watt) are members of HID families. The four basic HID types are mercury vapor, metal halide, high-pressure sodium and low-pressure sodium. HID bulbs are primarily used for area and security lighting. They feature a lifespan of 20,000 to 24,000 hours. They come in a variety of shapes and in medium and mogul bases. Mercury vapor lighting is used for exte- rior area and security lighting, such as dusk-to-dawn residential lighting. Mercury vapor lamps provide twice the light output per watt as incandescent lamps. Along with the higher output, they also have a longer lamp life, in some cases up to 30 times as long. They are also more expensive than incandescent or fluorescent. Mercury vapor bulbs produce a bluish white color. Self-ballasted mercury lamps can be used with a ballast in incandescent fixtures and are available for 120V systems in the lower wattages (up to 250 watts) and for 240V systems in both lower and higher wattages. These lamps deliver slightly more light output per watt as the incandescent lamps but have the long life of mercury lamps. Lighting systems that provide three to six times the light output per watt of incandescent lamps can replace incandescent, mercury and self-ballasted mercury systems. These metal halide and high–pressure sodium (HPS) lamps require specific ballasts, but offer major energy savings to users. The metal halide lamps feature medium efficiency, with 50 to 110 lumens per watt. They provide good colour characteristics (similar to cool white fluorescent lamps) along with higher light output. The high-pressure sodium lamps provide even higher light output per watt than metal halide (50 to 150 lumens per watt), with a golden yellow light. Residential applications include security and landscape lighting. Low-pressure sodium bulbs feature the highest efficiency, with 100 to 180 lumens per watt. They produce an orange light. When replacing HID bulbs, it is necessary to use the exact bulb. Energy-Saving Bulbs TOOLS—Wire cutters, strippers stapler and screwdrivers are all part of the electrician's toolbox. Compact fluorescent bulbs can be screwed into a standard incandescent base. In addition to energy savings, their main advantage is longevity. The lamps give as much or more light as an incandescent bulb, with about 1/4 the wattage. The bulb’s life is approximately 7,000 to 10,000 hours. Energy-saving incandescent bulbs generally provide nearly the same amount of light output as conventional 60- and 100watt bulbs but use fewer watts. Energy-saving PAR spot and floodlights combine a special reflector design with lower wattage to provide almost the same amount of useful light, using considerably less electrical energy. Lighting takes approximately 12 percent to 15 percent of the electricity used in a home. However, the following will help customers economize on the lighting portion of an electricity bill: o Turn off lights when you do not need them. o Use dimmers, when desirable. o Use photoelectric cells or timers to turn outdoor lights on and off automatically. o Use reflector bulbs, especially for task and accent lighting. o Use energy-saving fluorescents where practical since they provide more lumens per watt. WALL PLATES—Does the customer have the right number and configuration of wall plates to match the fixtures being installed? Solar Lighting SELLING TIPS FOR ELECTRICAL PROJECTS You can further both your sales and your “know-how” image by making sure the customer has everything needed for the job. Here is a checklist of items to go over in the store. CABLE—Are they buying enough to reach the distance of the circuit? Allow at least 10 percent excess to accommodate bends. Also, make sure the wire will handle the amount of amperage it will be expected to draw. Explain that lower resistance wire, while more expensive initially, will save money by reducing power loss or blown fuses and will increase safety. BOXES—Go over the proposed circuit with the customer. They will need a box for every outlet, fixture, splice or other break in the cable. WIRE CONNECTORS—At least two of these are required at every cable splice. Most light fixtures are pre-wired and must be spliced onto the circuit cable. Sockets and switches do not require connectors since cable is usually mounted directly to the device. INSULATED STAPLES—These will be needed to mount the cable to the studs. Make sure they are the right size for the type of cable being used. INSULATED TAPE—Necessary for wrapping splices or taping any electrical wires. LIGHT BULBS—Most lighting fixtures are sold without bulbs. Does the customer have the proper size and number for the fixtures being purchased? Solar lights require no energy to operate and are easy to install. Their performance is directly related to how much sun they NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 10 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES are exposed to, so proper placement is crucial. One type of solar light uses a prismatic polymer lens and custom reflector system that produces a relatively high level of light. Trouble Lights Safety is a primary feature of trouble lights. Strict standards are designed to assure safety. To meet the standards, all lamps with metal guards must be permanently threewire grounded to the guard. Some lamps have plastic guards that solve the grounding problem, reduce heat build-up and prevent scratching of painted surfaces. Recently, new incandescent and fluorescent utility lights have been introduced without built-in cords. These models attach to a user’s extension cord and are easy to store and convenient to use. In all cases, handles must be tightly fitted to the cage and meet crush-resistance testing and heat-factor requirements. portable conductors that carry electricity from outlet to appliance. The Canadian Electrical Code provides a framework for electrical codes in Canada. Several provinces have adopted this code while other provinces have adopted the framework and imposed more restirctive or new requirements. Minimum electrical needs in a home are 200 and more amperes. General-purpose 15-amp circuits will handle lamps, radios and TV sets and outlets for small appliances drawing no more than a total of 1,750 watts for a 15-amp fuse or 2,500 watts for a 20-amp fuse at one time. There is often confusion about which colours are used for hot, neutral and ground wires. The ungrounded conductor, or hot wire, can be any colour other than white, gray or green. Although the hot wire is typically black, there are exceptions. The grounded conductor or neutral wire is green, green with one or more strips, or bare. Consequently, all cables are made of at least two conductors, a “hot” line to carry the current to NM-B the appliance and a “neutral” line to complete the loop. All cables are marked with a series of letters UF-B followed by a number, a dash and another number. The letters indicate the type of insulation (cord, wire and insulation). The first number indicates the resistance of the wires in the cable, and the number following the dash indicates the number of individual conductors in the cable. If the designator “G” follows the series, it means that the cable is also equipped with a non-current-carrying ground wire. Hence, the designator USE 12-3/G indicates an underground cable containing three separately insulated wires capable of carrying 20 amps of current plus a grounding wire. Wire Night Lights The most popular night light is a 4-watt bulb rated at 3,000 hours. Another popular construction is a small neon light rated at 1/4-watt. There are also units available with photoelectric cells. WIRE AND CABLE Home wiring begins at the electric meter, where circuits break the total current coming into a home into usable quantities. Complete wiring or rewiring should be done by an electrician; however, many repairs can be done by d-i-yers with proper instruction. Unless highly skilled, they should limit their endeavors to “front-of-wall” repairs. For more information, see (Adding Electric Wiring). Wires, cables and cords are the means for bringing electricity to its point of use. Wire refers to a single conductor. Cable is two or more separately insulated conductors in a single covering used in permanent installations. Cord refers to the Wire is rated by its resistance to the flow of electricity passing through it. Copper or tinned copper is the most common conductor in home wiring because it has minimum resistance at reasonable cost. Aluminum is occasionally used, but because of its higher resistance, it is usually restricted to high-voltage lines where weight is more important than bulk. It is rarely used in ordinary home wiring. The diameter of wire is directly proportional to the amount of current it will carry. Larger wire carries more current. If too much current is forced through the wire, it will overheat and blow a fuse or trip a circuit breaker. Home wiring is rated from zero to 14 where No. 14 can be used for 15 amp circuits. Cable Cable refers to a collection of two or more strands of wire or conductors. Cable constitutes the bulk of the wiring sold in electrical departments. Electricity entering the house must form a circuit by returning to the point of entry to be connected to a ground. Two-Conductor Cable Two-conductor cable has one black wire and one white wire. The black wire is always the “hot” wire and must be fused. The white is always neutral and must never be fused. When current bridges the gap from the 110V hot wire to the neutral, it results in a 110V input to the appliance. Three-Conductor Cable Three-conductor cable contains a red wire in addition to black and white. The black and red wires are “hot,” carrying 110V each, and both must be fused. The white remains neutral. Bridging either 110V wire to the neutral wire produces 110V. Bridging both 110V wires results in 220V. This three-wire circuit is increasingly common in home wiring; it accommodates major 220V appliances, such as ranges and air conditioners. Grounding Wires Both two- and three-conductor cables can carry grounding wires, which provide a path of least resistance from the frame or case of an appliance to the ground to NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 11 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES USE COMMON SENSE TO AVOID ELECTRICAL HAZARDS Stress to your customers that they use common sense when working with electricity. Before proceeding with any electrical work, make sure the main disconnect on the service entrance panel is at the “off” position or pull the main fuses if the panel is the cartridge fuse type. When working on individual receptacles or light switches, turn off the circuit breaker for the circuit being worked on, and test with a test light before handling bare wires. Other tips: • Never stand on wet or damp floors when working at the service entrance on any electrical device. Wear rubber gloves and stand on a rubber mat for added safety. • To avoid overloaded circuits, never use a fuse which has a higher amperage rating than the rating on the wire for the circuit. • Never run more appliances from one receptacle than the amperage rating for that outlet. • Never use a penny or tinfoil in a service panel instead of a fuse. guard against electric shocks. The electric motor in a refrigerator, for instance, might develop a current leak to the frame of the appliance. A person touching the refrigerator could create a path for the current to pass to the ground. Consequently, he would receive a shock. A grounding wire, attached to the frame of the refrigerator and directly to the ground, would provide a lower resistance path than the person. The electricity could then pass safely to the ground. Thermostat Cables Thermostat cables are used in low-voltage control, alarm and communication systems. Most common types are braided, twisted and plastic-jacketed types. All three use solid copper conductors and are twisted and insulated with plastic. Twisted cable, which has no outer braid, is used in doorbells, burglar alarms, intercom telephones and public address systems. Braided cable is covered with cotton braid and is used primarily in thermostat controls and other low-voltage, remote control circuits. Plastic-jacketed cable is also used in similar low-voltage applications. Although thermostat cable is low voltage, it carries a UL-listing for being flameretardant since it is installed in the wall. Wiring used in security alarm and smoke detection systems must be CSA or cULlisted. TV Wire and Accessories Television lead-in wire connects the receiving set to the antenna. Good quality 300-ohm wire is used for both VHF and UHF receivers. A TV set coupler is a loss-producing device for connecting two or more TV receivers to the same antenna. The loss introduced into the circuit is small, but can be critical in “fringe area” reception. In such areas, customers should be told of this small loss and to expect a slight reduction in signal strength at the receiver. A lightning arrestor mounts on the outside of the house as close to the TV receiver as possible to protect the receiver against lightning damage. The lead-in wire is attached to proper contacts and the ground rod to ground connector. Lightning will jump the gap inside the arrestor and flow into the earth if the circuit is properly installed. Home Networking Multiple computers in the home, satellite dishes, cable TV, sophisticated audio systems and home theaters have given rise to the desire for home networks. The heart of these systems is the networking hub. Usually thought of in conjunction with computers, the home network hub differs in that it provides central control of computers, peripherals, phones, TVs and audio components. This is the unit where most of the wiring from different locations comes together to meet. Most home networks use coaxial, Category 3 and Category 5 cable. Coaxial cable is used for TVs, VCRs and satellite equipment. Category 3 cable is used for telephones while Category 5 is used for telephone, fax and computer systems. Some cables combine different functions into one cable. “Structured” wiring refers to a bundle of cables that runs from the networking hub to meet a home’s future information-carrying needs. This wire bundle may consist of some combination of Category 5 cables, fiber-optic lines, Category 3 cables and coaxial lines. New home construction and renovation jobs should try to accommodate wiring in this fashion to meet the bandwidth needs of digital transmissions. Jacks are used to terminate the cable. There are different jacks for telephones, computers, satellite, audio and video equipment. Many of these jacks and cable connectors require special tools for installation. Patch cords are used to connect different computer and audio/video devices with one another or with a central networking device such as a hub. Binding posts are used to connect bare speaker wire, while F-Connectors are used with coaxial cable. Home Wiring Testers New tools and testers are making the job of installing and maintaining household wiring and home networks easier and safer. Non-contact voltage testers allow you to see if a line is carrying current without touching the line. Features include audible and visual alarms, battery-checking circuitry and a size that is small enough to fit into a pocket. Circuit analyzers and receptacle testers are designed to determine if circuits are wired properly. They plug into any grounded electrical receptacle and test receptacle wiring and grounding in standard and GFCI outlets. A convenient chart and lights tell you if the circuit is wired properly, if the wiring is reversed, the ground is not working or if there is an open line. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 12 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES A ground fault receptacle tester and analyzer performs the same functions for GFCI receptacles plus it also tests the ground fault feature. Similar tools are available for telephone and computer lines. Circuit trackers easily locate circuits without turning off breakers or fuses. They feature a transmitter that is plugged into a live outlet. A receiver is used at the service panel to identify the circuit into which the transmitter is plugged. Some models incorporate a visual and an audio indicator. Adapter kits allow you to identify light switches and light bulb sockets. An in-wall pipe and wire detector locates metal objects and live unshielded conductors behind drywall, paneling and plaster walls. ■ CORDS Electrical cords provide a path for current to travel from a fixed outlet to an appliance. The type of cord needed for a given job is determined by the amperage drawn by the appliance, whether the appliance is grounded and the degree of physical protection required. Extension Cords Extension cords are for temporary power only. Make sure the customer uses the right size for the application. Outdoor and indoor/household types are available, as well as commercial cords with heavier gauges, higher amp ratings and extra flexibility. Indoor extension cords come in twowire and three-wire cords in lengths from 6' to 15' with 6' and 9' being the most popular lengths. White and brown are the basic colors. Outdoor extension cords are used for outdoor power tools and exterior lighting. They come in 16/3, 14/3 and 12/3 wire, and the most common lengths are from 25' to 100'. Heavy-duty extension cords should be used with high-wattage appliances. Be sure to match the construction of the cable to the job. SJT round cord is better able to withstand the constant flexing of use with power tools than SPT2. TYPES OF CABLE AND CORD AMPERAGE RATINGS FOR CORD AWG WIRE # MINIMUM AMPERAGE 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .125 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 Non-Metallic Sheath Cable 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30 Armored Cable 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Type SPT Cord 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 Any CSA or cUL-listed cord will carry a CSA or cUL label near the female end. It is important to check for this label. Non-listed cords can be similar in appearance to listed ones. To be CSA or cUL-listed for outdoor use, three-wire round cords must have connector and cap moulded to the cord and a lip on the end of the connector to prevent misuse. Grounding cords are available in both heavyweight and heavy-duty construction differing from standard cords, because they have three conductors instead of two and are equipped with a three-prong grounding plug and connector. An assortment of specialty extension cords includes: Step-saver cords—have built-in pendant switches to control appliances and lamps across the room. Wind-up reels—keep tangled, footcatching cords off the floor. In recommending a proper extension cord, pass along these buying and safety tips: o Advise customers to follow manufacturer recommendations for outdoor use and to not use a household extension cord outdoors. o Damaged or worn extension cords should be replaced, not repaired. Replace older cords that are non-polarized and don’t have safety closures. o Know the length of cord needed and electrical load it can carry. Cord should Type S and SJ Cord Type HPD Cord o o o o o reach easily from wall outlet to appliance. Never put two short cords together to obtain needed length. Only use an extension cord that has been tested by a nationally recognised testing laboratory such as cUL or CSA. Keep cords out of the reach of children and out of high-traffic areas where people might trip over them. Never remove the third prong or cut down the blade of a plug to fit a nonpolarized receptacle. Do not cover cords with carpet, furniture or appliances. Cord should be permanently bonded to the plug and the connector to ensure a good connection and no exposed wiring. Appliance Cords Appliance cords combine cord and connector. The difference between cord sets can be in type of connector and/or cord used. Free-end attachment cord sets without connectors are used in re-wiring direct attachment irons, toasters and similar small appliances. They have pre-tinned ends to speed up wiring. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 13 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES CORD, WIRE AND INSULATION DESIGNATOR TYPE OF INSULATION GENERAL USE WIRE R Rubber All-purpose building wire, 600V, 60°C. RH Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat resistance to 75°C. RW Rubber Same as R with moisture resistance. RHH Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat resistance to 90°C. RHW Rubber & cotton braid Same as R with heat and moisture resistance to 75°C wet or dry. RH/RW Rubber & cotton braid Same as R but 75°C dry and 60°C wet. T Thermoplastic vinyl All-purpose building wire, 60°C. THW Thermoplastic vinyl Same capacity as RHW. TW Thermoplastic vinyl Same as RW. WP Cotton braid Weatherproof for suspended outdoor use. NM Paper overlaid with cotton For dry use only, 60°C. Braid or plastic NMC Plastic or neoprene coating Wet or dry use, 60°C. Only cable approved for barns. USE Rubber & neoprene Underground service entrance. Fusing or additional covering not required. UF Thermoplastic Underground feeder and branch cable. Can be buried but must be fused. ACT Armored cable on plastic Branch circuits and feeders. Insulated wires. ACU Armored cable on rubber Same as ACT. Insulated wires. C Rubber & cotton braid Lamps and portable appliances in dry areas, 300V and 600V, 60°C. HPN Neoprene Same as HPD with moisture resistance. SP-1 Rubber Lightweight for lamps, clocks, etc., 300V. NONMETALLIC CABLE ARMORED CABLE CORDS SP-2 Rubber Same as SP-1 with heavier construction for more general use, 300V. SP-3 Rubber Heavier construction than SP-2 for use with refrigerators, air conditioners, etc., 300V. SPT-1, SPT-2, SPT-3 Thermoplastic Correspond to SP-1, SP-2 and SP-3. S Rubber and jute twine Heavy duty for power tools, battery chargers, etc., 600V. SJ Rubber and jute twine Same as S but only 300V. SJO Rubber and jute twine Same as SJ but oil resistant, 300V. AWG 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 125 95 70 55 40 30 25 18 13 10 Actual Size Maximum amperage Actual size of copper wires and maximum amperage allowed in permanent installation. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 14 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES Range and Dryer Cords ■ WIRING DEVICES Range and dryer cords are free-end types, commonly called “pigtails,” attached directly to the appliance. Free ends are fitted with cable terminals that connect to screw terminals of the appliance to assure positive connections. A metal clamp attached to the cable serves as a strain relief at the point where the cable enters an appliance and a cord protector. Heavy-duty attachment plugs for ranges and dryers are much larger than standard attachment plugs. Most are “L” shaped with a power cord feeding out the side of the plug. Sizes range from 30 amps for dryers and small ranges to 50 amps for larger ranges. The different amperage attachment plugs are not interchangeable because of a difference in their configuration. A recent code change requires new range and dryer receptacle installations to be 3-pole, 4-wire grounding receptacles. The neutral (grounded circuit conductor) can no longer be used to ground the frames of electrical ranges and dryers. Wires and cable form circuits to carry electricity through a building. Wiring devices described here are used to control current flow and provide access points so electricity can be used to power appliances and lights. Heating Tapes The primary function of heating tape is to protect pipes from freezing. Today there are heating tapes to warm the soil for growing plants as well as tapes for preventing water damage caused by snow and ice buildup. They are all designed for quick and easy installation. Tapes are automatic, constant-heat or self-regulating. A thermostat controls an automatic tape. Constant-heat tape must be manually turned on and off as the temperature changes. A self-regulating tape is made of semi-conductive plastic that adjusts to outside temperatures. Other Cords Plastic parallel cord can be sold off the roll for use with lamps, radios and other small appliances. Plastic bell wire is used for bells, buzzers, chimes, toy electric trains and other similar systems and hookups. Switches A switch controls power to lights and devices by turning off the hot side of the circuit. Selection depends on design and load capacity. For more information, see (Installing or Replacing Electric Switches). Conventional Switches A conventional switch makes or breaks contact when a mechanically connected tumbler or toggle bridges or breaks the line contacts in the switch. A single-pole switch is simplest and most frequently used in the home, controlling current on one circuit from one point. It features two terminal screws. Double-pole switches have four terminal screws. A three-way switch controls one circuit from two separate points, such as a garage light that can be turned on or off from the house or the garage. Four-way switches are used in connection with three-way switches to control one circuit from three or more points. Single-pole and three-way switches are available with lighted handles that glow in the dark. Dimmer Switches Dimmer switches control the amount of current in a lighting circuit, allowing the user to control the degree of light from off to full capacity. Some dimmers control the amount of voltage going to the lamp, increasing or reducing the amount of light given off. Other dimmers control a portion of each alternating current cycle applied to the lamp. This means a solid state dimmer turns the light off and on approximately 120 times per second. The on-off rate has no noticeable effect on the life of the bulb or on the eyes of persons in the room. One undesirable side effect of this onoff cycle is interference on AM radios. Some dimmers have radio/TV filters and printed circuitry. There are table lamp dimmers and dimmers that wire parallel into the lamp cord. In addition, use of a dimmer will cause some light bulbs to “hum.” The sound is created from the turning on and off of the A.C. sine wave. The rapid switching causes the tungsten filament to resonate. Filament hum is typical with inexpensive lamps that are commonly installed in new construction. The hum can be greatly reduced by upgrading to a lamp with a heavier filament. It is also normal for a dimmer to get warm during operation, which is why dimmers are built with a heat sink. If the load is not over the wattage rating of the dimmer and is a proper load for which the dimmer is designed to control, the dimmer does not need to be replaced. There are several styles of wall dimmer switches available. The most popular include a push on-off/dial-to-dim type, a rotary full- range type, a slide type and a toggle type that offers full-range control but uses toggle motion instead of a dial. Dimmers also come in single-pole or three-way construction. If two, three-way switches are involved, only one of them can be a dimmer. Otherwise, the setting will not work, although some toggle dimmers allow two three-way switches to be used. An air gap switch is built into all dimmers as a safety feature to ensure that power can be removed to the output— this is a UL requirement. Specialty Switches Rocker switch—used in place of a standard wall switch, it is activated with a push-button mechanism. Useful near a doorway or area where hands might be full or for appearance and for range hood and appliances. Delayed-action switch—circuit remains active for a few minutes after switch is NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 15 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES OUTLETS AND SOCKETS Grounding Outlet Single Pole Switch Two Switches thrown. Useful in garage or breezeway, allowing individual to get into the house before light goes out. Programmable memory switch—set to go on and off at specific times for security or safety purposes. Photoelectric switch—operates by light striking cell. Usually used on yard lights. Daylight turns circuit off; it goes back on at dusk. Circuit usually has a delay device to prevent passing headlights from turning light off. Motion switch—turns the light on as you enter the room. Used for both convenience and security. Can be used to replace existing wall switches. Illuminated switch—is available in two types. One has a small light that is on Double Outlet Pull Chain Ceiling Pull Chain Lampholder Socket Keyless Ceiling Lampholder when the switch is off so it can be easily found; these are usually used at entrances to rooms and in hallways. Pilot light switches are on when the light is off and usually used for out-of-sight lights such as those in the basement, garage and attic. Outdoor switch—enables electrical power to be used for outside applications. They feature a turning lever inside a weatherproof box cover with a toggle switch. A second type of tamper-resistant outlet utilizes an overlapping shutter system that limits improper access to its energized contacts. Voice-activated switch—offers a handsfree approach to illuminating dark areas quickly and safely. Voice-activated switch- RIP # ST KE Y RIP # ST WIRE 14 WIRE 12 Y LOOP HOLE OFF 6A 125V AC, 3A 25 0V 3A AC, VT 125 ELOH POOL IR # P TS 12 WIRE WIRE RIP ST 4 WIR #1 #12 IP Cord switch STR Duplex receptacle 2-pole, 3-wire grounding Weather protective cover for single receptacle Single-pole grounding switch IW 41 ER E ST RIP # Three-way lighted toggle grounding switch 4 WIR #1 STRIP RIP # ST WIRE 12 E TOP 2 single-pole switches 3 single-pole switches Push-Through Weatherproof Socket Pigtail Socket es incorporate the latest technology in speech recognition to enable homeowners to control the brightness of the lights. Used in place of any standard wall switch, they can be programmed with any command or language. Silent switch—provides the same operation as many of the other switches with little or no noise. Silent switches are either mechanical or solid state. The mechanical switch is almost identical to the regular switch except for an extra bumper to reduce the noise. Prior to 1991, silent switches contained mercury and used no springs or mechanical devices. This resulted in smooth, silent operation and long life. Due to health concerns they were removed from the market. Receptacles SWITCHES KE 3-way Socket TOP Single-pole AC quiet switch Three-way AC quiet switch The wall receptacle, or outlet, taps the circuit to provide electrical power at a given location. The slots in the outlet are designed to match the plug blades of the appliance or extension cord. Building codes specify number and spacing of outlets. Receptacles come in flush- and surfacemounted designs. Flush-mounted (recessed) is the style most commonly used for permanent installations. Configuration of a receptacle refers to the arrangement of slots or openings on the face of the outlet. These arrangements vary according to voltage and current rating of the receptacle. The most common configuration is three-wire grounded. The most common outlets used in homes are standard 15amp, 125V, three-wire designs. All outlets must be grounded (three prongs). A single- or double-wipe contact refers NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 16 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES to the area of the inserted prong on which contact is made. In the case of a double wipe contact, contact is made on both sides of each blade. All outlets should have a faceplate to help prevent exposure to “live” wiring. There are three basic ways to terminate wiring in wall receptacles. First is the conventional binding-screw method where wires are stripped, looped and placed under binding screws and then secured by tightening down screws. Second is the pressure-lock method, which eliminates binding screws. In this method, connection is made by inserting a stripped conductor, which pushes the conductor into and against the terminal channel for a strong connection. Release slots permit easy removal of conductors. A third method involves clamp-type terminals. Stripped wire is inserted into an open clamp beneath a screw that is then turned down to lock connection. Some receptacles have small “pilot” or guide lights. Appliance receptacles consist of one vertical slot and two slanted slots and are designed to be surface-mounted. Specialty receptacles include twist lock, childproof, surge suppressor, isolated ground and RV. Any flush-mounted receptacle may be installed outdoors if covered by a protective plate. These weatherproof covers have hinged or threaded caps that cover the outlet face. A self-sealing gasket fits between the plates and the wall surface to add further protection. Safety outlets have spring-loaded caps to prevent children from inserting objects into them. To insert an attachment plug, its prongs must be placed into the slots of the protective cap, then turned 90 degrees or until the slots of the outlet are exposed. When the plug is withdrawn, the cover automatically returns to its original protective position. A slight variation of this uses an overlapping shutter system. A second type of safety outlet utilizes a cam to make an internal electrical connection only when both blades are properly inserted. Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters Even with proper wiring and fusing or circuit breaking equipment, danger exists from ground faults, which are the most common cause of electrical shock. Ground fault occurs when a person comes into contact with a live electrical wire. This can happen by touching an exposed wire, or by operating a faulty appliance Ground fault circuit interrupter or power tool. Worn insulation, hidden damage or faulty connections can make the metal housing of an appliance a hot electrical conductor. Technically, this happens when a wire develops a small leak that will flow to the ground through any path, including a human body. This can cause serious shock, even death. Ground faults can also cause electrical fires. This hazard is so serious that the Canadian Electrical Code requires all new homes to be equipped with ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCI) in bathroom, kitchen, workroom, outdoor, basement and crawl space, garage and swimming pool receptacles. It is a good idea to suggest that homeowners install such a device in older homes. The GFCI interrupts power quickly enough to help prevent someone from receiving a lethal dose of electricity. GFCIs are available in receptacles, modules, breakers and extension cords. Receptacles work for 15- or 20-amp circuits. GFCIs should be tested monthly to ensure they are working properly. For convenience, a portable GFCI can be plugged into any existing outlets, either two-wire or three-wire, without rewiring. Circuit breaker GFCIs can be added in electrical panels to replace ordinary circuit breakers. They should be installed by a qualified electrician. Surge Suppressors With increasing use of home computers and other sensitive electronic home entertainment equipment, there is a growing need for protection from voltage surges, often called spikes or transients. Surge protection is also needed because of the sheer number of potentially destructive spikes and surges that occur in the home Surge protector power strip every day. Surges can cause equipment to malfunction and in severe cases cause catastrophic damage or fire. A surge is a transient increase of current, voltage or power on an electrical system. The larger, more destructive surges, generally caused by lighting, can reach thousands of volts. Surges can also come from utility transformer switching, air conditioner operation, inductive and power switching, distant lightning strikes and static discharges. They put extreme stress on solid-state components. Unchecked, such surges can quickly destroy wiring, appliances, telephones and other electrical devices. Transient voltage surge suppressors (TVSS) help protect sensitive electronic equipment. Surge protectors limit surge voltages by discharging surge currents to ground. Proper grounding is the strongest prerequisite for proper surge protection. The key component in almost all surge protectors is metal oxide varisters (MOVs). Under normal conditions, MOVs offer high resistance to currents, preventing normal currents from discharging to the ground. Under surge conditions—typically 115 percent or more of a normal current— the MOV’s resistance drops within nanoseconds, creating a path with far less resistance than the facility’s wiring for the current to flow to the ground. Basically, there are two types of suppressors. One—also known as a surge strip—is similar to a grounding adapter, and the appliance plugs into it at the wall outlet. Surge strips are not capable of suppressing a powerful surge. The other type, designed primarily to prevent lightning damage, is mounted at the service panel and protects the home where the electric, telephone and cable lines enter. The Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers recom2 2 1 1 1 5 5 3 3 4 3 2 4 NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 17 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES mend whole-house surge suppresThe connectors are molded of LAMP HOLDERS sion as the most effective way to strong, heat-resistant materials protect against damage in the and come in a variety of styles, home. such as switchless, armored (or Some of these suppressors also heavily protected), side outlet feature filters that reduce or and monopull. All have spring eliminate line noise distortion cord protectors. that is picked up on radios, teleThere are two standard sizes: Keyless lampholder Lampholder with Fluorescent visions and tape recorders. These 11/16" and the miniature 1/2". pull cord lampholder filters also help guard against Standard 11/16" connectors accidental data loss in home generally fit on irons and toastcomputers triggered by spikes or line Lampholders ers. The 1/2" connectors are for coffeemaknoise. Lampholders are devices with a screw ers, corn poppers, some electric skillets A whole-house surge protector mountbase that hold light bulbs. Some have and other similar appliances. ed at the service panel also protects secswitches to turn them on and off. ondary distribution wiring and electrical Lampholder sockets come in two basic Bulb Life Extenders appliances such as ovens, air conditionstyles: single and multiple holders. The Extenders have different designs. One ers, dishwashers and refrigerators from most popular styles are twin light, adapter, screws into a regular socket like a socket most sudden power surges. To increase keyless, pull-chain tap socket, push switch adapter; the other is a small disc placed in the protection of electronic equipment, it and turnkey. the base of the socket before the bulb is is also recommended that a plug-in surge A socket has three principal parts: shell, inserted. Bulbs last up to 30 times longer suppressor be installed at the point of use cap and interior. The cap has three basic than in standard sockets; extenders should to supplement a secondary surge arrester. styles: pendant, nozzle and side outlet. A be recommended for use where the bulb Surge protectors are rated in Joules and pendant is used with a suspended socket; a burns continuously. clamping voltages. Once surge protection cord enters through the top. Side outlet has been provided at the maximum levfits cords coming through the side. Nozzle Boxes, Fittings and Conduit els, the unit must be replaced. Look for caps are used on table lamps where cord According to the Canadian Electrical audible or visual indicators. feeds through the bottom. Code, every break or termination in an When selling surge protection devices, The shell is the body of the socket. It can electric cable must be enclosed in an stress the low cost of these products combe brass, brass-finished, nickel-finished aluappropriate box. This rule applies to pared to the high cost of repairing or minum or plastic. Shell liner, interior and switches and fixture connections as well as replacing branch wiring and electrical cap may be disassembled for wiring. to splices and junctions. appliances and equipment. However, a Other sockets include pigtail weatherWall boxes, ceiling boxes (junction surge protector will not protect against a proof, which comes with two short leads boxes) and weatherproof (outdoor) boxes direct lightning strike. for splicing into a power source. are the main types of electrical boxes. Similar to the pigtail is the pin type, but The three types of boxes are switch and Transfer Switches tightening down the top and forcing conoutlet, ceiling and utility boxes. Some are Transfer switches have become more poptact pins into wire makes contact. made of galvanized steel with knockouts ular for new construction and aftermarket The most common size sold is medium to bring cable into the box. Non-metallic installations due to weather storms or accibase (such as on 60- and 100-watt bulbs). (plastic) boxes are also available. Clamps dental power outages. Transfer switches are Other principal sizes are large-base mogul, are included in some boxes to hold cables wired up to specific load center circuits that used on three-way floor lamps; and interin place. will be utilized when there is an emergency mediate, which is used on outdoor Switch boxes are 2" x 3" in size and can power outage. A portable generator is then Christmas tree bulbs, candelabra and some be used to house receptacles (outlets) as plugged into it and the switch transfers gennight lights. well as wall switches. Switch boxes are erator power through the home’s existing designed so that two or more may be faselectrical circuits. There is no backfeed Appliance and Heater tened together to form a larger box. The when power is restored. Transfer switches Connectors side walls must be removed where the eliminate unnecessary extension cords and Connectors are used to connect older boxes join. are easy to install. Available in choice of style, heat-generating, small household Octagonal ceiling boxes are used primawatts and number of circuits, plus optional appliances with heat-resistant neoprenerily in ceilings to hold overhead light fixaccessories. type HPN cords. tures and splices. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 18 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES BOXES AND COVERS WET LOCATION ONLY WHEN COVER CLOSED Weather protective cover for duplex receptacle 4-hole outlet box 3-hole outlet box 5-hole outlet box These systems have adapters that alter existing outlet boxes, so consumers can tap wires off them and snap together vinyl channels that carry the wires to the new outlet or switch. The channels hide unsightly wiring and can be painted to blend into any decor. Quick and easy installation and economy are its major advantages. Fuses and Circuit Breakers Utility boxes are used for the same purpose as switch boxes, but their rounded corners make them suitable for surface wiring. All boxes require covers. Box covers can be made of metal or plastic and come in several different shapes. The box covers may be solid or feature knockouts for receptacles. Electrical fittings are used to couple, connect, fasten or ground conduit or cable. Refer to local codes for requirements. Cable is sometimes held in place by straps or staples that are designed to handle different sizes and is terminated by the use of cable connectors. A number of other fittings are available for service entrance installations, for grounding purposes or for hazardous locations. Fittings can be installed easily with a screwdriver, hammer or pliers. Conduit is a raceway in which wires are installed and protected. Types of conduit include metal, non-metallic and flex. Each conduit and size requires its own family of fittings. Metal conduit can be electrical metallic tube (EMT); intermediate metallic conduit (IMC); rigid or surface raceway. Non-metallic conduit can be surface raceway or polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Flex conduit types include flexible (steel and aluminum); electrical non-metallic tube (ENT); and liquid tight (metallic and non-metallic). Conduit can be held in place by a variety of straps and hangers that are designed to fit a specific size diameter. The diameter of rigid and EMT conduit differs, so the correct strap or hanger must be specified. Lengths of conduit are joined together by BOXES AND ACCESSORIES Switch Box Octagon Box Utility Box Cover Utility Box couplings (either rigid or EMT) and terminated by connectors. Couplings and connectors generally are either a set-screw type, threaded for rigid conduit or raintight compression type for damp locations. PVC, EMT with rain tight fittings, liquid tight, rigid and IMC conduit can be used outdoors. For underground applications, only PVC and rigid conduit can be used. Surface Wiring Devices Surface wiring switches, receptacles, lampholders, etc., are installed entirely on the surface of the wall as opposed to a normal flush-mounted installation. The device includes a box, cover and electrical device in one unit. The unit is molded of an attractive and sturdy plastic insulating material, which makes it suitable for use in the home as well as in barns, garages and basements. On-the-wall wiring systems created for do-it-yourselfers allow the consumer to run electrical wires to the point of use in the home without breaking into the wall or ceiling. A fuse or circuit breaker box, commonly called a main service entrance panel or load center, is located between incoming power lines and house wiring. It divides the main power line into branch circuits. Load center applications vary, depending on local codes. Fuses and circuit breakers are safety devices that break an electrical circuit when it is overloaded. The fuse or circuit breaker is sized to protect the branch circuit wiring between the breaker and the outlet and does not protect anything plugged into the outlet. Circuit breakers come in three main types: single, double and thin. You can generally tell if a fuse is blown by looking at it. If the fuse is blackened, that indicates a short circuit has occurred; if the metal is melted, then an overload has occurred. There are several types of fuses. Plug fuses are available in 5- to 30-amp sizes and are the most commonly used fuse. Another fuse is the Type S, which provides a minimum time delay for the starting of small household motors. Type S fuses prevent anyone from replacing a lower-rated fuse with a higher one. It consists of two parts: the fuse and the adapter, which has a different diameter for each fuse ampere rating. Once an adapter of a particular size has been inserted into the fuse socket, it cannot be removed and only the same rating fuses can be used in that socket. Cartridge fuses are used in high-current applications, such as the main service box and in clamp- or bar-type fuse boxes that serve electric ranges, water heaters, clothes dryers and air conditioners. Round car- NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 19 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES tridge fuses have ratings to 60 amps; greater capacity (to 600 amps) requires a cartridge fuse with knife-edge contacts. A screw-in breaker can replace a fuse. When a circuit malfunctions, a button on this device pops out; it must be pushed in to reset. A circuit breaker contains a bi-metal strip that breaks the circuit when current exceeds a predetermined rating. A broken circuit is indicated by the breaker’s switch being in the mid-point position. This is commonly referred to as a “tripped” breaker. After the overload has been corrected, reset the circuit breaker by switching it to the “off” position and then to the “on” position. Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters Existing circuit breaker technology does not protect against an occurrence known as an arc fault. Arc faults are believed to cause a significant percentage of the electrical home fires, deaths and injuries annually. An arc fault can occur when insulation around cords, wires or cables is damaged or deteriorates. In many cases, arc faults are the results of aging wire. Arc faults can flare at very high temperatures, igniting surrounding combustible material. In many cases, conventional circuit breakers do not respond quickly enough to arc fault situations. By the time a circuit breaker responds, a fire may have begun to smolder. An arc-fault circuit interrupter (AFCI) is a device that recognizes the unique characteristics of many types of arcing faults and acts instantly to interrupt the circuit. In some devices, the arc-fault circuit interrupter is integrated into state-of-the-art circuit breaker design. Now available is a combination AFCI/GFCI circuit breaker that is certified by Underwriter’s Laboratories. The breaker protects against electrical fires and dangerous electrical shock hazards, enhancing electrical safety in the home. It also simplifies the installation process for electrical contractors since there is no need to wire two separate devices. WALL PLATES Toggle Switch Plate PLUGS AND TAPS Combination Wall Plate Straight plug Weatherproof Outlet Plate Grounding adapter Double Outlet Plate 6-outlet tap 3-outlet 4402 tap C t N Wall Plates Wall plates include all plates used to finish or cover switches, receptacles or combination devices. Standard plastic wall plates are constructed with durable, smooth surfaces. Builders in new homes often install inexpensive ones. There are also designer and decorator plates, switches and receptacles with smooth plastic faces in contemporary colors. Chrome-plated wall plates are made of steel and brightly finished for lasting appearance and durability. Decorative wall plates come in many styles and materials such as ceramic, aluminum, brass, wrought iron, stainless steel, copper, wood and die-cast metals. Die-cast products include switch and receptacle plates made in finishes and designs to match other functional hardware items such as door handles, cabinetware and bath fixtures. operating voltage. Standard doorbells operate at 10V or 16V. Some doorbells may require other voltages, depending on the design. Step-down transformers should be CSA or cUL-listed. The doorbells themselves are safe, low-voltage devices that do not require CSA or cUL inspection. Single or multiple-stranded bell wire is used between the doorbell, the transformer and the push buttons. Push buttons are easily installed and replaced. Bulb life for lighted push buttons is approximately three to five years, and replacement bulbs are available. Push buttons are available in lighted or unlighted, recessed or surface-mounted styles. Non-electric chimes are also available. Wireless doorbells are all on the same frequency, although some offer adjustable frequencies. For more information, see Timers Plugs, Adapters and Taps Timers turn on lights and appliances at specified intervals and times, making them a useful security product. They are available for outdoor or indoor applications and can be electronic or mechanical. Spring-wound timers for bath fans and spas have a manual on-off switch. Plugs connect devices to the power supply through a receptacle. The typical plug includes two blades or prongs, a molded plastic body holding the two blades apart and a blade/cord connection within the plug body. When inserted into an outlet, the blades become energized. Electricity flows through the blades, through the blade/cord connection and through the cord, thus energizing the appliance. Plugs come in polarized and non-polarized varieties. Polarization helps reduce Doorbell Equipment If not battery operated, doorbells require AC step-down transformers to reduce household voltage to the proper (Installing Doorbells). NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 20 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERN ALERT Many provinces and local governments are enacting legislation concerning dry-cell and rechargeable batteries. Current legislative topics include mercury in batteries, batteries for cordless tools and appliances and battery recycling. Mercury will have to be eliminated from batteries. This will probably reduce the performance and increase the cost. Batteries in cordless power tools and appliances will have to be removable. Be sure you know the laws regarding these topics in your area. the potential for shock. With polarized plugs, one blade is wider than the other. Three-conductor plugs are automatically polarized because they can only be inserted one way. Two-prong plugs do not have a grounding pin. Older homes may not have polarized receptacle outlets. If not, the receptacles will not accept polarized plugs. A qualified electrician should replace the old receptacles and put in wiring consistent with polarization. Choose the plug based on the gauge of wire on the appliance or tool. Male plugs have prongs while female connectors have slots. There are plugs for different applications, such as exterior, interior and marine. A twist lock prevents accidental disconnection. Attachment plugs fit on the ends of cords of portable appliances and permit SPECIFICATIONS FOR CYLINDRICAL BATTERIES AA (Penlight) . . . . . . . . . .1.2**, 1.4*, 1.5 AAA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.5 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2** D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2**, 1.4*, 1.5 N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.5 *Mercury cell **Nickel-cadmium cell them to be connected to wall receptacles or extension cords. Plugs and connectors are used to build extension cords or for replacement on extension cords. The arrangements of slots and blades on connectors, receptacles and plugs must match the configuration of the devices with which they will be used. The number of slots or prongs on these devices must be the same as the number of wires in associated cords. Socket adapters screw into the socket, while taps plug into the outlet. Adapters are generally used for temporary application to provide two outlets where a light socket is in use. Taps are used to increase the number of attachment plugs that can be used on a single receptacle face. Caution must be exercised when tapping additional attachment plugs into the same line. If the power rating of the circuit is exceeded, fuses will blow (if the circuit is properly fused). Multiple taps plug into existing outlets and can accommodate four to six plugs. Some come with built-in surge protectors. Other types of taps are table and cube. Plug-in strips feature multiple outlets placed at regular intervals. If used in a workshop, it should have grounded outlets and be attached to a grounded circuit. Quick-Clamp Devices Quick-clamp devices do away with screw terminals and the necessity of stripping wire. If a plug needs replacing, insert the cord into the clamping mechanism as shown on the instructions. The clamp forces the cord into the proper position and onto sharp contact points that pierce the insulation and make contact with the conductors. Clamp devices include both attachment plugs and cord connectors of various styles. They are used with portable lamps and small appliances. They cannot be used on kitchen or large appliances because of their low amperage rating. Wire Nuts/Connectors Insulated wire nuts or connectors are used to connect wire ends that have been twisted together inside a lighting fixture or box. The size of the wire nut or connector must correspond to the size wire being used. Connectors are used to connect heat-generating, small household appliances with heat-resistant neoprene-type HPN cords. The connectors are molded of strong, heat-resistant materials and come in a variety of styles, such as switchless, armored (or heavily protected), side outlet and monopull. All have spring cord protectors. An offset wing design on some models provides increased torque with reduced wear on fingers. A hex head enables nut driver and automated use. There are two standard sizes: 11/16" and the miniature 1/2". Standard 11/16" connectors generally fit on irons and toasters. The 1/2" connectors are for coffee makers, corn poppers, some electric skillets and other similar appliances. TELEPHONES AND ACCESSORIES ■ TELEPHONES Consumers look at telephone purchases much the same way as they look at other home electronics purchases. They want a quality product sold by a reputable retailer. Service backup is important because telephone owners are responsible for their own repairs, just as they are for any other kind of equipment they own. If the telephone breaks, they take it back to the store that sold it. Telephones contain microprocessors and other electronic parts. New and more sophisticated features are being added. As telephones become more complicated, they require more sales attention. Consumers need to be shown how to use the additional features. If they will be installing, replacing or rewiring, they may need instruction in these areas, too. To stock the telephones and accessories most needed in your market, study the demographics of the area. Cordless phones may work well in suburban and rural homes, NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 21 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES but are sometimes subject to interference in urban areas. Beyond the basics, consumers can buy cordless phones, automatic redialing phones and combination clock-radio phones. Here are important points to keep in mind when selling phones and accessories. Telephone companies require consumers to report their ringer equivalency number (REN). This REN is published on the instruction sheet or phone unit housing. Standard phones have REN ratings of one. Compact, low-cost models may have as low as .7 REN or as high as 1.3 REN. If the REN on one line exceeds 4.0, the phones will not ring. There are two basic types of phones: pushbutton tone and dial pulse. The dialpulse phone looks like a pushbutton tone, but its pushbuttons technically dial the phone. It doesn't process a call as fast as the pushbutton tone. Dial pulse gives the convenience of the pushbutton-tone type of dialing without higher monthly costs. It should be noted too that pushbutton-tone phones are required to access long-distance services. Consumers should also be aware that installing a pushbutton-tone phone means they must also be receiving this type of service from the phone company. Cordless telephone systems incorporate a base station connected to the telephone line and a wireless handset. The distance a cordless phone will work away from the base station varies. It may be as little as 50' or phones with antennas may work as far away as 1,000'. Elevating the base station and placing it away from other reception barriers can improve cordless phone performance. One word of warning: In most cordless phones, ringers are located in the earpiece. The ring registers nearly 130 decibels, and if the phone is picked up and the switch not turned from “standby” to “talk” position, a phone ring could damage hearing. Cordless phones are powered by rechargeable nickel-cadmium or nickelmetal hydride batteries. The length of time required to recharge and the length of time between rechargings will vary. Therefore, it is necessary to read the instructions with the individual product to see how long to charge and how sensitive the battery is to frequent rechargings. Some nickel-cadmium batteries will “remember” how much time elapsed between chargings and if they are recharged too often, will shorten the length of time they hold a charge. Eventually the batteries will have to be replaced, but most phones will take several hundred chargings. ■ ACCESSORIES Accessories are available in either “modular” or “conventional” designs. Installation of a conventional system requires no more than a screwdriver. Accessories are used in conjunction with standard telephones, using standard fourprong plug configuration, spade-tipped wires or hard wiring. All wiring in the phone base, handset and wall receptacle can be replaced by matching the coloured wires. But it is important that store employees know enough to help d-i-yers with wiring information and connection procedures on the models you stock. Plugs and jacks provide the connection for standard telephone and extension cord hook-ups. They may also be attached to existing cords, adding versatility to existing phones. No tools are needed for modular connections; the system was designed to allow “snap-fit” connection of miniature plugs with mating hardware. The following connections are available using the snap-fit modular concept: Coil cord—old cords can be removed by depressing a clip and pulling the plug out of the phone’s base and handset. The new cord is then pushed into place until it locks. Straight-line cords—plugs are clipped into the base of the phone and the wall receptacle. Extension cords—cords are equipped with modular plugs that snap into a wall receptacle while a modular jack accepts the line cord from the existing telephone. Modular adapter—allows phones with modular line cords to be plugged into a four-pronged conventional plug that matches the holes of conventional telephone jacks. Modular plug and conventional jack— allows connection of conventional fourpronged plug extended line cords to modular jacks so that conventional phones can be plugged into modular connections. Modular coupler—allows connection of modular plug-ended cords to each other to extend the phone system. Duplex modular adapter—allows two modular extensions to be run off one modular unit. For instance, allows you to connect a telephone and telephoneanswering device to the same phone line. Retrofit modular adapter—allows conventional telephones with spade-tipped conductors to be connected to modular jack assemblies without tools. Surface wall-mount jack assembly— allows conversion of conventional terminal blocks to a modular jack. Portable wall-mount jack assembly— allows connection of modular plug-ended line cords in any location to convert fourhole jack to a modular design. Flush wall-mount jack assembly—allows flush-mounted connection of plug-ended modular line cords for initial installation or conversion from existing wall receptacles. Can be connected in parallel when more than one jack is required. Wall-mount modular patio jack—weatherproof assembly accepts plug-end modular line cords. ■ ANSWERING DEVICES The kind of telephone answering device you recommend will depend in large part on the kind of use the customer expects of it. Models vary by price and optional features. Basic digital units do not require a tape recorder or tape to handle incoming messages. In most models, total answer time is limited, but more sophisticated units will allow for messages of varying lengths. Features which differentiate models include: NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 22 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES Leaving messages—some units permit the user to leave a digital or tape-recorded message. Dictation—some units double as dictating machines with no time limit on recording. A switch will stop and start the answer tape. Announce only—for messages that require no response, such as announcements of when the owner will return. Ring-response adjustment—allows machine to wait to answer call until phone has rung up to 10 times. An advantage since it eliminates connecting and disconnecting unit each time owner leaves and returns. Remote pick-up—allows owner to pick up messages from a distance by telephoning the answering unit. Extended recording—allows user to record a complete two-way conversation without being cut off after allotted message time. Monitor—allows user to listen, undetected, to incoming messages as callers leave them. Listener can pick up phone and interrupt recording message, if desired, or simply let it be recorded. Some phone companies still require an Authorized Protective Connection Module, if the answering device could produce excess voltage on the telephone line. The APCM plugs directly into the phone jack. ■ BATTERIES General-purpose and heavy-duty battery systems serve a variety of functions. Generalpurpose batteries provide 1.5V to 510V. They have good shelf life but decreased efficiency at high-current drains. They drop voltage gradually with use and operate poorly in low temperatures. They are available in a variety of shapes from small pen cells to huge emergency lighting batteries. Their uses range from camera flashbulbs to radios and flashlights. General-purpose and heavy-duty batteries are designed for light moderate to heavy-current drain equipment. They, too, are available in a variety of sizes and shapes providing from 1.5V to 9V. They have a good shelf life and maintain voltage better under load GLOSSARY OF ELECTRICAL TERMS ALTERNATING CURRENT—Abbreviated “AC.” A current of electricity that alternates at a rate of 60 hertz (cycles per second). It flows first in one direction, then in the other. Only at very low frequencies is this charge visible to the eye through the flickering of lamps. AMPERE—Abbreviated “amp.” A measure of the flow of electrical current through a wire. BALLAST—A form of transformer used in fluorescent lamp circuits to control current and keep it within specific operating limits. CANDLEPOWER—A measure of the intensity of light produced by a source. One candlepower corresponds approximately to the light produced in any one direction by an ordinary candle. DIRECT CURRENT—Abbreviated “DC.” A flow of electric current continues in one direction as long as the circuit is closed. FOOTCANDLE—The unit used to measure how much total light is reaching a surface, such as a wall or table. One footcandle is the amount of illumination falling on a one-square-foot surface from a standard candle located 1 foot away. FUSE—A replaceable safety device used to break the flow of current when a circuit becomes overloaded. GROUNDING—Connects the electrical system with the earth to prevent damage or shock. Ground wires are usually bare. HOT WIRE—A power-carrying wire (usually in red or black) as distinguished from the “neutral” wire (usually white). KILOWATT—1,000 watts. From “watt” and Greek word “kilo,” meaning 1,000. KILOWATT HOURS—Abbreviated “kwh.” A 1,000-watt lamp burning one hour will use one kilowatt hour of electricity. If the rate were 3 cents per kwh, the cost would be 3 cents per hour to operate. LAMP—Technical word meaning light bulb or tube—the part that shines until it burns out. It can also refer to a type of fixture, such as a desk lamp. LUMEN—A unit that expresses the total quantity of light given off by a source regardless of direction. A lumen is defined as the amount of light falling on a surface of one square foot, every point of which is one foot away from a source of one candlepower. NEUTRAL WIRE—A wire that runs from an appliance or device to make uninterrupted connection back to the power source. The opposite of a “hot” wire that carries power from the electrical source to the appliance. NOMINAL LAMP LIFE—A rated average bulb life that is obtained through closely controlled tests. OHM—A unit of electrical resistance. (Electrical resistance is the opposition by a material to the flow of electrical current.) TRANSFORMER—Steps up or steps down amount of alternating current available from circuit to that required by the appliance. VOLT—Amount of pressure needed to push electricity through a wire. WATT—The unit of measurement of electrical power. Calculated by multiplying volts times amperes. For instance, 746 watts equal one electrical horsepower. than general-purpose batteries. They are used in flashlights, calculators, motor-driven toys, electronic games and portable compact disc players. Alkaline batteries are the longest-lasting all-purpose batteries. They are designed for high- and continuous-current drain applications. Voltage ranges from 1.5V to 9V. The average cell holds 90 percent of its energy for two to three years on the shelf. Alkaline batteries are disposable and operate well in low temperatures. Uses include tape recorders, remote controls, portable communications systems, radios, television sets and shavers. Lithium batteries are more expensive but can hold their power for eight to 10 years, unused. They are designed for cameras, watches and other items that use a small amount of current repeatedly over a long period of time. They are available in 9V. Heavy-duty batteries have a short life compared to alkaline batteries and work best for low-drain applications such as remote controls and wall clocks. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 23 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES Miniature zinc air batteries are designed to provide power to miniature hearing aids. They can be directly substituted for silver oxide or mercuric oxide batteries in most hearing aid applications. They are activated by removing the covering from the air access hole. They are available in common hearing aid battery sizes. Improved cell construction and advanced use of titanium and lithium technology have resulted in new premium batteries that offer long-lasting performance for use in high-drain devices. Nearly 80 percent of all batteries sold are in the AA and AAA sizes. Some batteries come with a gauge-style tester so the user knows how much power remains in the battery. Household batteries should be stored in a dry place at room temperature. Make sure not to mix battery types in the same device and never mix new and old batteries in the same device. Do not dispose of any battery type in a large group since they can come into contact with one another. Always take precautions when handling exposed battery chemicals. Battery chemicals should not be placed near the eyes or ingested by any means. Mercury Batteries Mercury (and silver) batteries are used to power hearing aids, electronic watches, calculators and other electronic equipment where small size and long life are critical. They maintain a constant voltage for the entire life cycle. Concern over the environment has led manufacturers to design mercury-free batteries for household use. Rechargeable Batteries Although nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries are most commonly used in rechargeable applications, other kinds are available, including alkaline and lead-acid. The major drawback to rechargeable alkaline batteries is fewer recharging cycles. Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries have emerged as a viable alternative to Ni-Cd batteries since they outlast Ni-Cd batteries by up to 40 percent. Ni-MH cells are available in AA, AAA, C, D and 9-volt sizes. Ni-MH batteries offer superior performance for use with highdrain applications such as flash cameras (including digital) and camcorders. Rechargeable batteries are not charged before purchase and must be charged for approximately eight to 12 hours before using. Some rechargeable batteries are now available with shorter charging times. Rechargeable batteries will lose their charge if not used for an extended period (30 to 60 days) and should be charged every month for best performance. Some batteries can be recharged 800 to 1,000 times and will last up to four years. They offer “overcharge” capability, which means they can stay on house current for long periods without damaging the cell. Like mercury batteries, nickel-cadmium cells maintain constant voltage for their full life span. Nickel-cadmium batteries are permanently built into a number of cordless tools and appliances. In addition to the larger batteries, nickel-cadmium batteries are available in D, C, AA, AAA and 9V sizes with chargers. Battery recharging systems include the charger and charging module. The module is available in four sizes to hold AA, C, D or 9V batteries. The charger should be used only with batteries specifically designated as rechargeable. These are sometimes known as secondary batteries. Trying to charge nonrechargeable batteries can cause leakage and possible cell rupture. Lead-acid batteries are built into tools. These batteries, about the size of a D battery, won’t leak, don’t vent explosive gas or corrosive fumes, offer lengthy shelf life and cost about half as much as nickel-cadmium. Life span is 200 to 500 cycles, but they will lose power gradually with age and use. A national program has been started to recycle rechargeable batteries. Retailers can participate at no cost. The split-phase motor is the simplest. It contains no brushes or commutator and comes in one-third or less horsepower. At full speed, the split-phase motor is able to develop as much power as any other type, but it is not capable of starting heavy loads such as pumps or compressors. It functions best when maximum load is applied at full speed, such as in sanders, grinders and light power tools. Universal motors do not run at a constant speed but slow as the load increases in some instances from 15,000 rpm without a load to 500 rpm under heavy load. For this reason the motor is unsuitable for many jobs. It is used only where the load is reasonably constant and predetermined, such as in sewing machines, vacuum cleaners, fans, etc. It is the only type of motor that can be controlled by a rheostat. Electric Motors There are two basic motors found most frequently in household applications— split phase and universal. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 24 CANADIAN IMPERIAL AND METRIC MEASUREMENTS Canadians generally use a mixture of measurement units. Liquid volumes are typically based on the metric (SI) system. Temperatures and distances are commonly specified using metric terminology. Weights, depending on the type of product, use either the metric or Canadian Imperial system. Lengths and dimensions of construction products, particularly for residential use, are generally in Canadian Imperial measurements. And many of the products we use are manufactured in U.S. measurements. Canadian building codes are written using metric units. But the construction trades, particularly those in residential construction, typically use the Canadian Imperial system. This mixture of measurement systems frequently results in many product manufacturers providing information using both systems. Unfortunately, the approaches used in pre- senting the “converted” measurements are not consistent. Some information is based on “exact” conversion measurements, whereas other information is based on “rounded” measurements. From your perspective and in communicating with your customer, it is important to recognize that in some instances the exact conversion is necessary and in other instances a more “rounded” conversion is appropriate. CONVERSION FACTORS 1 inch (in.) = 25.4 mm 32 fluid ounces - US (oz.) = 1 US qt. 1 foot (ft.) = 0.3048 m 40 fluid ounces - Canadian (oz.) = 1 Canadian qt. 1 yard (yd.) = 0.9144 m 1 mile (mi.) = 1.609 km 1 fluid ounce - US (oz.) = 29.6 mL 1 fluid ounce - Canadian (oz.) = 22.8 mL 236mL 1 ounce - avoirdupois (oz.) = 28.35 g 1 cup - US (cup) = 1 pound - avoirdupois (lb.) = 0.454 kg 1 cup - Canadian (cup) = 227mL 1 quart - US (qt) = 0.946 L 1.136 L 1 pound per square inch (psi) = 6.895 kN/m2 1 quart - Canadian (qt) = 1 pound per square foot (psf) = 0.04788 kPa 1 gallon - US (gal.) = 3.785 L 1 gallon - Canadian (gal.) = 4.546 L Celsius temperature = (Fahrenheit temperature - 32) / 1.8 SOME TYPICAL MEASUREMENTS FOR HARDWARE AND FASTENER PRODUCTS (“rounded” conversions) Length in. 1 /32 1 /8 Length 3 /8 1 /2 5 /8 3 /4 Length Weight mm in. 0.8 1 /8 3.2 1 /2 6.4 2 51 72 1.8 12 3.7 50 22.7 9.5 4 102 84 2.1 18 5.5 100 45.4 12.7 12 305 90 2.3 25 7.6 750 340 15.9 18 457 120 3.0 50 15.2 1250 567 3 mm in. m ft. m lbs kg 35 48 1.2 7.5 2.3 1 0.45 38 60 1.5 10 3.0 10 4.5 1 1 /4 Length 19.1 24 610 156 4.0 75 22.9 1900 862 /8 22.2 30 762 216 5.5 100 30.5 2650 1202 1 25.4 36 914 312 7.9 5000 2268 7 NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 25 ELECTRICAL SUPPLIES The course was first developed by the North American Retail Hardware Association (NRHA) and the Home Center Institute (HCI) under the direction of a project coordinator and a number of authors. Several U.S. based companies provided industry specific information. This second Canadian Edition of the ACHR is based on NRHA/HCI’s 14th Edition. It has been extensively modified and rewritten with the help of Carl R. Wilson & Associates Ltd. (CRWAL) so as to reflect Canadian products and construction practices. We also acknowledge the many Canadian organizations and companies that provided information for this Canadian edition of the Advanced Course in Hardware Retailing (ACHR) and the Building Material Product Knowledge Course (BMPK). Because local codes and regulations vary greatly, you are reminded to check with local experts and authorities on which codes, regulations and practices apply in your area. Copyright© 2004 by NRHA. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or any system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher. Though the information in this course is intended to be accurate and useful, the authors, editors, publishers, CRHA and CRWAL and their directors, officers, agents and employees will not be liable for any damage whatsoever that might occur from any use of this material. NOTE: ALWAYS CONSULT YOUR PROVINCIAL AND LOCAL CODES 26