Download Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia

Pine Ecosystem
CONSERVATION HANDBOOK
www.forestfoundation.org
© 2008 6500
CONSERVATION HANDBOOK
f o r t h e G o p h e r To r t o i s e
in Geor gia
A GU IDE FOR FAM ILY FORE S T OWNE RS
f o r t h e G o p h e r To r t o i s e in Georgia
AMERICAN FOREST FOUNDATION
1111 Nineteenth Street, NW
Suite 780
Washington, D.C. 20036
Phone: 202.463.2462
Fax: 202.463.2461
Pine
Ecosystem
PEFC/29-44-1
The American Forest Foundation
is a member of the PEFC Council
www.pefc.org
A publication of the American Forest Foundation
Edited by Laura Dunleavy
Cover photos by Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
Design by: TM Design, Inc.
Pine
Ecosystem
CONSERVATION HANDBOOK
f o r t h e G o p h e r To r t o i s e
in Georgia
A G U I D E FO R FA M I LY FO R E S T OW N E R S
A publication of the American Forest Foundation
Edited by Laura Dunleavy
Drue DeBerry
Our special thanks go to those who reviewed and improved the drafts of this handbook
including Todd Gartner, American Forest Foundation; Margaret Gunzburger, Gopher Tortoise
Council; Robert Brooks, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Sharon Holbrooks, Georgia Department
of Natural Resources; John Jensen, Georgia Department of Natural Resources; Kevin
McIntyre, Margaret Munford, American Forest Foundation; Joseph Jones Ecological Research
Center; Lora Smith, Joseph Jones Ecological Research Center
The Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia is part of an
initiative of the American Forest Foundation’s Center for Conservation Solutions that brings
together conservation partners and family forest owners to conserve and create forest habitat
for the gopher tortoise and other declining wildlife of the southern pine forest.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Matt Hinderliter, The Nature Conservancy
Drue DeBerry
Drue DeBerry
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
The Gopher Tortoise: A Keystone Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Fire and the Longleaf Pine Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
A Natural Food Plot: The Longleaf Pine Understory . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Wildlife in the Pines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Longleaf Pine Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Conservation Forestry Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Regulatory Assurances for Forest Owners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Conservation Incentives and Technical Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Conservation Easements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
The American Forest Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Project Partners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Conservation Forestry Awareness Sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
References/Suggested Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Primary authors: Drue DeBerry, American Forest Foundation and David Pashley,
American Bird Conservancy
Contributing authors: Laura Dunleavy, American Forest Foundation; Bob Franklin and
Dr. George Kessler, Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service; John Jensen,
Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Matt Nespeca, The Nature Conservancy;
Hans Neuhauser, Georgia Land Trust Service Center; Brad Wyche, Upstate Forever
Edited by Laura Dunleavy, American Forest Foundation
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
3
Drue DeBerry
Introduction
Family forest landowners attend an American Forest
Foundation Field Day for gopher tortoise conservation.
Families own nearly 60 percent or 126 million acres of
forestland in the South and will play an important role in
the future of species like the gopher tortoise.
“I have read many definitions of what is a conservationist, and written not a few
myself, but I suspect the best one is written not with a pen, but with an ax…
A conservationist is one who is humbly aware that with each stroke he is writing
his signature on the face of his land. Signatures of course differ, whether written
with axe or pen, and this is as it should be.”
Aldo Leopold, 1949
Most forest landowners today have many reasons, not just economic ones, for owning
a forest. They include recreation, hunting, wildlife viewing, and the aesthetic pleasure
of enjoying a natural place of scenic beauty free from the distractions of modern life.
Although not solely interested in or dependent upon generating income from their
lands, most forest owners need to generate some income to help with property taxes,
road maintenance, invasive species control and other management-related activities.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
The goal of the “Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook” is to help forest
landowners find a balance that will ensure you, and those that serve as forest
stewards after you, have the ability to generate income from your property
while increasing the recreation, wildlife, and aesthetic aspects of your land.
The handbook provides information on the gopher tortoise and other animals
and plants native to a functioning Southern pine forest, and recommends
management options to restore or conserve your woods to benefit these species
while also maintaining economic productivity.
W H Y FA M I LY FO R E S T S M AT T E R T O T H E
G O P H E R T O RT O I S E
As a community, 170,000 family forest owners own ten acres or more of
forestland and collectively hold more than 13 million acres or over one-half of
Georgia’s forests. As majority owners, family forest owners are uniquely positioned
to influence how future generations will experience the state’s natural heritage.
The survival of many plant and wildlife species native to Georgia, from the stately
longleaf pine to the lesser known gopher frog, are dependent upon the active
forest management that is carried out by family forest owners.
Another inhabitant of the Southern pine forest that greatly benefits from the
conservation forestry efforts of family forest owners is the gopher tortoise. As a
keystone species (a species that influences the ecological composition, structure,
or functioning of its environment far more than its abundance would suggest),
the survival of the gopher tortoise helps nearly 400 other species also continue to
persist. Habitat loss and fragmentation, primarily the harvesting or conversion of
longleaf pine, which once covered 90 million acres of the Southern landscape but
has now been reduced to 3 million, pose some of the greatest threats to the
gopher tortoise. In addition, the lack of active forest management, such as the
use of prescribed fire, has led to population decline. As a result, in the western
portion of its range (western Alabama, Louisiana and Mississippi), the gopher
tortoise is now federally listed as threatened. In the eastern portion of its range
(eastern Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and South Carolina), the species is protected
at the state level. However, a petition for federal listing of the eastern populations
of the gopher tortoise is currently under review.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
5
“Private lands contain the vast majority of forest containing gopher tortoises.
Accordingly, maintenance of the (gopher tortoise) population is not possible
without some significant successes on privately-owned timberlands...
Promoting protection of habitat on private lands is difficult because of the
few legal responsibilities and the perceived economic interests of landowners.
Therefore, special efforts are needed on private lands.”
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service’s Gopher Tortoise Recovery Plan
The survival of the gopher tortoise depends upon participation by family forest
owners—public lands will not guarantee their future. The collective action of family
forest owners has the potential to preclude the need to federally list the eastern
popluations of the gopher tortoise under the Endanged Species Act.
The generosity to exercise a conservation ethic and leave a conservation legacy is
balanced by the financial realities of forest ownership. That is why the conservation
forestry practices highlighted in this handbook factor in management for the
gopher tortoise and the economics involved in this pursuit. Information on available
conservation incentives for active forest management, such as cost-share
assistance, is provided. Additionally, the economic and ecological benefits of
Butterfly weed
6
Drue DeBerry
Drue DeBerry
longleaf pine are described.
Longleaf pine cone
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Chris Evans, River to River CWMA, Bugwood.org
Gopher tortoise
The Need for Active Forest Management
Too often conservation is thought of as “hands-off” management. While all
wildlife is impacted by the loss of habitat to development, simply protecting land
and limiting human activity is usually not enough. On the contrary, many species,
such as the gopher tortoise, require active management, such as thinning
operations or the use of prescribed fire, or their habitat will degrade until it no
longer supports them.
If you take up the noble cause of conserving
wildlife habitat for at-risk species through your
forest management, your efforts should be
rewarded, not punished. A Candidate Conservation
Agreement with Assurances from the U.S. Fish &
Wildlife Service (USFWS), described on page 79,
can provide regulatory assurances and protect your
future management options. This tool is available
to landowners in Georgia and other states where
the gopher tortoise is currently being considered
for listing by the federal government under the
Laura Dunleavy
Endangered Species Act.
A resource professional discusses invasive species
management at a family forest owner field day.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
7
One of the goals of this handbook is to help family forest owners understand how
they can practice conservation forestry to benefit the gopher tortoise and other
wildlife. In addition to providing background information on wildlife species of the
Southern pines, subsequent chapters of this handbook outline opportunities for
managing and restoring pine forestlands to benefit these species.
While a major portion of this handbook focuses on longleaf pine, it is not the only
species that can be managed to conserve wildlife dependent upon fire-maintained
pine ecosystems. When conditions are appropriate, the gopher tortoise can utilize
loblolly or slash pine forests. However, forest owners should bear in mind that on
many sites, longleaf will outperform loblolly and slash in terms of both timber
production and wildlife benefits. Longleaf requires more effort to establish, but the
rewards go to the landowner who perseveres. There are more opportunities to
harvest pole-quality timber from longleaf stands and additional income streams
that can be realized through pine straw (if harvested moderately), hunting leases,
and other non-timber products. Longleaf is also less vulnerable to fire damage and
the associated decrease in timber value. The idea of converting to longleaf
becomes even more attractive when you consider available cost-share programs
and conservation incentives.
Sharing the Conservation Ethic
Gifford Pinchot, an early U.S. forest conservationist and the first chief of the U.S.
Forest Service, believed: “We must be more than careful stewards of the land; we
must be constant catalysts for positive change.” As one of more than five million
family forest owners in the South, you have the opportunity to multiply your own
impact by encouraging other landowners to follow your lead. By
sharing your management experiences and challenges, you will gain
greater understanding while also building support for the efforts of
other family forest owners.
You can also help build public support for active forest management
by explaining to neighbors and friends the reasoning behind what
you are doing. As Southern forests come under increasing pressure
from urban sprawl, crucial practices like prescribed fire will come
under greater scrutiny. Most folks, being disconnected from the
land, will only see controlled burns as a source of air pollution –
causing smog and making it unpleasant to breathe. Some may feel
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
that prescribed fire is detrimental to wildlife and forests, a misconception that can
be one of the most significant problems for land managers attempting to burn
their land. If you can increase public understanding of the many benefits to the
pine ecosystem that come from active management, such as the use of prescribed
fire, you will garner supporters and defenders of sustainable forestry.
Ensuring that your family understands your management goals and desires is also
important, as the most common reason given for owning forestland in Georgia is
the desire to leave a family legacy. The condition of the land when it is passed to
the next generation is one of the most frank and honest character testimonials that
heirs receive. The equity of blood, sweat, toil and tears invested in the land through
the practice of conservation forestry sets a high bar for the next generation.
Unfortunately, studies have shown that most forest owners who hold land for the
purpose of family legacy have not discussed how the land should be managed
after they have passed. On the brighter side, a study by the Pinchot Institute for
Conservation found that although most heirs said their parents had not discussed
transition of ownership or current management decisions, these heirs said they
would appreciate an opportunity to be more involved. If multiple heirs exist,
discussing how the property will be passed on is an effective way to enhance the
likelihood that there will be agreement over the future of the land. Providing heirs
with a copy of this handbook and explaining how and why you are practicing
conservation forestry is a good first step towards starting a conversation.
Civic leaders who learn about forest management from passionate individuals who
have gained their knowledge first-hand will pause to reflect before deciding on a
course of action that will impact
private forests. Local chapters of
conservation groups like the
National Audubon Society and The
Nature Conservancy are often
eager to learn and discover more
about forest ecosystems. By
sharing your story or inviting them
to visit your woods, you gain new
Drue DeBerry
allies who support the
conservation of family forests.
Working with a forester can help make
your management goals a reality.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
9
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
Gopher Tortoise
“...Everything affecting the gopher tortoise’s habitat affects the tortoise and ... eventually
affects all other organisms in its ecosystem. Efforts to save the gopher tortoise are really a
manifestation of our desire to preserve intact, significant pieces of the biosphere. ...We must
preserve ... the gopher tortoise and
other species in similar predicaments,
for if we do not, we lose a part of our
humanity, a part of our habitat, and
ultimately our world.”
Illustration by Carol Stix
The Gopher Tortoise:
A Keystone Species
Dr. George W. Folkerts, Department of
Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Alabama
Gopher tortoise emerging from burrow
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Pine communities can vary as a
result of topography, hydrology,
and soils. Pine savannas and
A descendant of North American tortoises that
flatwoods have seasonally wet
roamed the continent for millions of years, the
soil and occur on the flat
gopher tortoise is one of four terrestrial tortoise
ground of the Coastal Plain.
species found in North America and the only
These communities have a sparse
tortoise to occur east of the Mississippi River.
canopy of pines, thin or no
shrub understory, and a diverse
Gopher tortoises primarily occupy dry, sandy
herbaceous flora. Upland/sandhill
upland areas throughout the Coastal Plain from
pine communities are found in the
southeastern South Carolina to the southeastern
rolling sandhill region where the
regions of Louisiana. Populations are scattered
soils are deep, sandy, and very dry.
throughout the area with a majority located in
These pine communities tend to
north-central Florida and southern Georgia. This
have a sparser pine canopy than
distribution coincides with the historic range of
the pine savannas or flatwoods, a
longleaf pine forests of the lower Coastal Plain. The
scattering of shrubby trees (such as
open, park-like conditions found in fire-maintained
turkey oak), as well as less diverse
longleaf sandhill and dry flatwood ecosystems
herbaceous ground cover.
provide ideal habitat.
Sandy soils allow for
“easy” excavation of
the extensive burrows
that the gopher
tortoise calls home
(and for which the
Gopher tortoise range
“gopher” is named).
Abundant sunlight is
able to reach the floor
of well-managed
forests, providing
important sunny spots
for basking and egglaying, as well as
promoting the growth
of herbaceous plant
species for grazing.
Current gopher
tortoise range
in Georgia
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
11
Randy Tate, The Nature Conservancy
Pete Pattavina, USFWS
The half-dome gopher tortoise burrows are usually easy to spot. Active burrows have
loose sand at the entrance and often have tracks or other indications of movement.
A HOME TO MANY
The gopher tortoise uses its shovel-shaped front legs to dig extensive below-ground
burrows, which are often 10 feet deep and 25-35 feet long (although they can be
much deeper and longer). These burrows provide protection from extreme heat,
cold winters, drought, fire and predators. The gopher tortoise spends roughly 80%
of its time resting in its burrow or close-by, basking in the sun or feeding on
grasses or other non-woody plants.
These burrows are critical not only to the gopher tortoise but also to an astonishing
number of other species (roughly 300 invertebrates and 57 vertebrate species).
These animals use tortoise burrows for shelter from temperature extremes,
predators, and wildfires. Co-inhabitants of the burrows include the tiny dung
beetle which converts dung into soil nutrients, the gopher frog, which shelters
almost exclusively in burrows except when it moves to wetlands in winter to breed,
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Matt Hinderliter, The Nature Conservancy
Randy Tate, The Nature Conservancy
Matt Hinderliter, The Nature Conservancy
and various snakes such as the pine snake, the Eastern diamondback rattlesnake
and the threatened Eastern indigo snake. Often, the only visitor that might receive
an unfriendly welcome in a gopher tortoise hole is another gopher tortoise. Burrow
disputes are sometimes settled through force, with the loser risking being flipped
on its back.
Because so many animals depend on the gopher tortoise burrow to survive, the
tortoise is considered a keystone species. Declines in gopher tortoises and their
burrows also affect the population of the other species that utilize their burrows.
L I F E C YC L E
The journey from egg to adult is not an easy one for the gopher tortoise. The age
when female tortoises can first reproduce varies by individual, ranging from 9 to 21
years of age. They nest only once a year or less and lay an average of four to nine
eggs, primarily during May to mid-June. Predation of eggs by a number of species,
including raccoons, coyotes, foxes, domestic and feral dogs and cats, and red
imported fire ants, is high. In fact, most females produce a successful nest only
once in 10 years!
Even if an egg hatches, the young are still at risk, especially during their first few
years of life as their shells are still soft. The mortality of eggs and hatchlings
combined can be as high as 92 percent. After hatching, gopher tortoises will take
temporary shelter under brush or dig their own burrow. Hatchlings have, on
occasion, been observed using adult burrows. Digging a burrow can take 2-3
days—one reason that gopher tortoises prefer sandy soils.
Gopher tortoises that are lucky enough to make it through the hatchling and
juvenile stages, lasting between 5 to 7 years, have few predators, mostly because
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
13
of their large size (they can grow to an average of 6 to 9.5 inches in length) and
hard shell. On average, adults have been known to live to the ripe old age of 60
although some tortoise may survive to 80 to 100 years. Because of the high rate of
egg and juvenile mortality, tortoise populations are dependent on the long life span
of adult tortoises, and any reduction in the survival of adult tortoises will quickly
decimate a population.
T H E S T RUG G L E T O S U RV I V E
Despite the long life span of the gopher tortoise, populations are decreasing
throughout its range as a result of the low survival rate of eggs and young,
combined with habitat loss, fragmentation and degraded habitat conditions. It is is
estimated that tortoises have declined by 80% over the last
100 years. This range-wide decline has led to the gopher
tortoise being listed at both the state and federal level (in
the western portion of its range). In addition, a petition to
federally list the gopher tortoise in the eastern portion of its
range is currently under review.
STATE
STATUS
GEORGIA
state listed as a Threatened Species
FLORIDA
state listed as a Threatened Species
SOUTH CAROLINA
state listed as an Endangered Species
MISSISSIPPI
state listed as a Threatened Species; federally listed as a Threatened species
ALABAMA
protected non-game species; populations west of the Tombigbee
and Mobile Rivers are federally listed as a Threatened species
LOUISIANA
state listed as Threatened Species; federally listed as a Threatened species
Habitat loss poses the most serious threat to the continued
survival of the tortoise in much of its range. The firemaintained longleaf pine forests, which once covered some
90 million acres of the Coastal Plain, have been reduced by
over 97 percent. This loss is a result of historic logging, fire
supression, and other factors.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Current development trends are also of concern. The influx of new residents into
Georgia has created intense commercial and residential development pressures.
This is evidenced by census data which shows that Georgia's population increased
more than 63 percent between 1980 and 2003. The dry, sandy forests that support
gopher tortoises are well-suited for roads, housing and commercial development.
Longleaf forests have also been converted to closely-spaced slash, sand, or loblolly
pine plantations. The dense canopies of many of these plantations reduce the
amount of sunlight that reaches the ground. In addition, fire suppression, whether in
loblolly, slash or longleaf, has led to an increase in the hardwood midstory and a
decrease in sunny forest gaps. As a result, the grasses and non-woody vegetation
that the gopher tortoise
relies on for food have
also decreased. Fewer
sunny patches also affect
the ability of gopher
tortoises to control their
body temperature
(through basking) and
reduce the availability of
locations where females
can lay eggs. Local
isolated populations of
gopher tortoises may
persist for decades in
overgrown habitat, but
recruitment of young into
these populations declines
as the canopy increases
and habitat quality
Laurel Barnhill Moore, SC DNR
decreases.
In a dense pine stand, only small
spots of sunlight reach the forest
floor, leading to a barren understory
that has little wildlife value.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
15
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
Chris Evans, The University of Georgia,
www.forestryimages.org
USDA APHIS PPQ Archives, USDA APHIS,
www.forestryimages.org
Invasive species pose additional threats to the gopher tortoise. Cogongrass
(Imperata cylindrica), which is not preferred by the gopher tortoise or other native
wildlife, can quickly take over an area, reducing the diversity of edible plants
available. Additionally, red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta), a destructive,
aggressive stinging ant, along with a long list of other predators, consume
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
hatchlings, reducing offspring survival.
Invasive cogongrass overtaking a gopher tortoise burrow.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
C R E AT I NG H A B I TAT FO R T H E G O P H E R
T O RT O I S E
Proactive management for the gopher tortoise can help prevent further decline.
Forestry practices such as thinning and prescribed fire have been shown to be
beneficial to tortoises. These practices open up the canopy and control the
hardwood midstory, allowing more sunlight to reach the forest floor, thus
encouraging the growth of grasses, forbs, and other gopher food plants and
increasing areas for basking and nesting.
While these management practices can be used in all Southern pine stands to the
benefit of the gopher tortoise, longleaf pine is most well-adapted to the use of
prescribed fire. A
brief overview of
this unique forest
ecosystem is
provided in the
following section
of this handbook.
Techniques on how
to establish and
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
manage longleaf as
Prescribed fire being used in a longleaf stand.
well as conservation
forestry practices that
can be utilized in
longleaf, loblolly or
slash are covered in
subsequent chapters.
This management
benefits not only the
gopher tortoise and its burrow inhabitants but also a wide variety of songbirds,
game birds, amphibians, reptiles, and other wildlife that also depend upon open
stand conditions.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
17
Laura Dunleavy
Fire controls competition in the longleaf ecosystem.
Fire and the Longleaf
Pine Ecosystem
It is difficult to imagine the vast forests of longleaf that early settlers encountered
almost five hundred years ago when Europeans first started to explore the
Southeastern United States. At the time of initial exploration, scientists estimate that
the longleaf pine ecosystem covered approximately 90 million acres of the Coastal
Plain from southeast Virginia south to central Florida and west to east Texas. These
longleaf forests dominated the upland areas and wetlands, except for those associated
with rivers. On over 70 million acres, the dominant tree was longleaf, and the majority
of the forest was very open compared to modern standards, with trees spaced far
enough apart to essentially create a feeling of savanna as well as forest.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Surface fires were frequent across this landscape and would burn over thousands of
acres. The frequency of the fire would depend on soils, hydrology, and topography–
sandhill communities might burn every three to ten years, while flatwoods and
savannas might burn every two to three years. These fires had two ignition sources
–lightning and people. Naturally-occurring fires were the result of spring and summer
lightning strikes that would transfer fire to the ground cover if conditions were right.
Every year, the pines would drop dry needles to the ground, where they would build up
a thick flammable layer. Needles falling onto grasses would dry even faster due to air
circulation. To have a ground fire would require the build-up of sufficient fuel and dry
conditions. Fires likely started when strikes occurred during storms that did not include
heavy rains and were more frequent in the spring than later in the summer when wet,
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
lush growth would tend to inhibit fire.
A lightning struck longleaf
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
19
L O NG L E A F A D A P TAT I O N S
Longleaf pine has a number of adaptations that enabled it to survive and
eventually thrive in this fire-driven landscape. For example, longleaf seedlings
have a unique “grass”-stage growth form consisting of dense tufts of needles.
These seedlings are tolerant of surface fires as the long green needles direct
flames upwards and also create a type of moisture shield for the tree’s terminal
bud. Seedlings often remain in this stage for three to six years which allows for
the development of a deep taproot and extensive root system (depending on
planting stock and depth, this time may be shortened to one to two years).
During the “candelabra” or “rocket” stage, when height growth is initiated,
longleaf is more susceptible to fire
damage as the terminal bud is elongating
and is less protected by needles. This
often occurs for 6-8 weeks in the spring
(later March-early May). However, once
this initial period of rapid growth ends,
longleaf is again more fire resistant, as a
result of the thick, insulating bark that it
develops that protects it from the heat of
American Indians used fire extensively for
up to 10,000 years prior to the arrival of
Europeans and had a major impact
managing the land. Fire was used to create
optimal hunting conditions, to clear land for
crops, and as a tactical weapon in warfare.
Fires also substantially increased the protein
content, nutrients, and palatability of forage
for game species.
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Ricky Layson, Ricky Layson Photography, Bugwood.org
most fires.
Longleaf in the grass stage
following a prescribed fire
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Without fire, the shade-intolerant, longleaf pine would have been quickly choked out
by other species. Fire exposed bare mineral soil necessary for longleaf seedlings to
germinate and controlled competition. The passage of a fire left the ground bare and
blackened, with many woody competitors of longleaf killed or weakened. Seeds of
competing trees continued to disperse from the bottomlands into the longleaf forest
every year. Although they often germinated and began to grow, the fires burned
frequently enough so that the seedlings of many competitors were killed because of
their thin, less fire-resistant bark. Notably, some hardwoods withstood fires and
resprouted.
Where fires reached streams and rivers, damp soil conditions often stopped them.
Therefore, zones paralleling waterways – from a few dozen feet in width around
small streams, to many miles surrounding a river like the
Mississippi – did not burn, and provided a refuge for
longleaf’s competitors. Longleaf did not tend to grow
well in these zones, and contributed little to fuel buildup,
further reducing the likelihood of subsequent fires. These
bottomlands were dominated by various hardwoods (oaks,
ash, sweetgum, etc.) and loblolly pine, species less tolerant
of fire.
While longleaf forests were remarkable in that their tree
species composition was almost all longleaf, the structure
of the longleaf forest was not homogeneous, because
soils, moisture, storms, and the behavior of fires created a
mosaic of structural diversity. This is due in large part to
the idiosyncratic nature of wildfire. A fire does not burn
every square foot of a huge area in an identical manner.
Winds, moisture, and fuel loads all cause a fire to meander,
missing some spots altogether while violently scorching
others. In addition, lightning strikes would kill groups of
trees and small windthrow events would down a few older
individuals. In these small gaps, likely no larger than an acre
or two in size, young longleaf would thrive with access to
sunlight, and grow into a dense stand of saplings, resulting in a new, young stand in
the midst of an older forest.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
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CHANGES ON THE LANDSCAPE
Soon after American Indians had contact with
Europeans, their populations declined significantly
throughout the Americas. The prevailing theory
holds that the Europeans brought pathogens (such
as smallpox and measles), previously unknown to
indigenous immune systems. By the time European
settlers started to move inland, the landscape had
changed significantly since the peak of Indian
influence. Vast areas that had been purposefully
The first settlers on the coastal plain of Virginia
quickly recognized the resource potential of longleaf
forests and began to exploit them. Earliest uses
were for “naval stores” used to build and maintain
ships. These included tar, pitch, resin, and
turpentine, as well as the tall poles for ships’ masts.
Some goods were extracted from living trees, but
Photo courtesy of USDA Forest Service
managed using fire were left unburned.
Logging and skidding longleaf
others required harvesting and burning in kilns for
production. The naval stores industry, at least the portion involved in production of
turpentine, persisted well into the 20th century. In the meantime, settlers cleared areas
of longleaf forest for agriculture, but the forests remained healthy and widespread until
a logging boom hit the Southeast in the 1870s.
By the 1930s, nearly all of the longleaf throughout its range had been cut. Either
through neglect or because of a poor understanding of the dynamics of longleaf, cut
areas generally failed to regenerate back into longleaf, but rather converted to other
pines, notably loblolly and slash. This conversion was driven in part by a perception that
these other species offered a more sound economic choice.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Suppression of fire in the past century, either
intentional or through creation of roads and other
formidable fire breaks, kept these alternate pines on
the landscape instead of longleaf. Now, longleaf
dominates only approximately three percent of its
original range, and only a tiny portion of that has
never been cut. The longleaf pine woodland is one
of the most heavily altered habitat types in North
America. As a result of this decline, it should come
as no surprise that the rich biological diversity
associated with longleaf is at risk. Nearly thirty plant
and seven wildlife species, including the gopher
tortoise, are federally threatened or endangered
due to the decline of longleaf forests.
(Earley 2004) [Stephen F. Austin University].
In Georgia, longleaf’s range was
roughly below the fall line in the Upper
Coastal Plain, though it sometimes
flourished across the lower Piedmont as
well. One study estimates that Georgia
maintained more than 4 million acres
of longleaf forest in 1936, while just
455,162 acres remained in 1997.
A virgin stand of longleaf pine in the
East Texas Piney Woods region, 1908
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
23
Laurel Moore Barnhill, SC DNR
A mature longleaf stand with a diverse wiregrass understory
A Natural Food Plot: The
Longleaf Pine Understory
Longleaf is not the only species that relies on fire for its survival. Hundreds of non-woody
plants associated with the longleaf ecosystem, such as native warm-season grasses, have
adapted to and depend upon fire for their continued existence. In sharp contrast to the
near monoculture of the longleaf overstory, the diversity of the herbaceous understory of
these forests is as great, or greater than, that of any other forest ecosystem on the
continent. In fact, over 1,000 plant species have been identified growing in some
longleaf pine forests. In some cases, up to 40 to 50 different plant species have been
found per square meter (an area of approximately 3 feet by 3 feet)! A large number of
these species are endemic, or restricted to longleaf communities, and many are now
extremely rare.
All of these plants rebound rapidly following fires. The seeds of many species remain
dormant and are stimulated to germinate by fire. Other plants, such as wiregrass, flower
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
and produce seeds the year after a fire. Some plants
have extensive root systems; the aboveground
vegetation may burn up completely in a fire, but the
Native warm-season grasses is a
roots survive below the soil, allowing the plant to
collective term used to describe all
resprout quickly post-burn. These understory plants
the grasses that grow in an area
also thrive following fires as a result of the increased
during the summer and are
access to sunlight that occurs after fire kills woody
dormant during autumn and
midstory species. Some understory plants, such as
winter. Common species include
wiregrass, play a role in carrying fire across the
wiregrass, big and little bluestem,
landscape as they provide fine fuels to support and
broomsedge, Indiangrass, and
spread fire. The leaf blades from adjacent grasses will
switchgrass. These grasses, which
often overlap, creating a net to catch pine needles.
typically grow in bunches (or
This allows air to circulate along the savanna floor
clumps), provide excellent cover for
and keeps the ground dry. Fire spreads easily from
wildlife and are usually found with
clump to clump, burning rapidly under these
other non-woody plants that also
conditions. By preventing the needles from reaching
provide significant wildlife
the floor, decomposition is slowed, resulting in the
benefits. Native grasslands have
maintenance of higher levels of needles to serve as
largely disappeared throughout
fuel for fires than sites without wiregrass. In areas
the South. How to maintain or
where wiregrass is absent, other bunch grasses such
restore these understory grasses is
as broomsedge or big and little bluestems take over
discussed on page 62.
the role of providing fuels to support fire.
It is largely the diversity and abundance of this understory vegetation that determines the
wildlife benefits of a longleaf stand. This vegetation provides food and, in some cases
shelter, for many reptiles, such as the gopher tortoise, as well as amphibians, birds and
small mammals. It also harbors many insects that are an important part of their diet.
Plants in the legume family improve soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere,
replenishing what's lost in prescribed fires, and making these nutrients available through
rapid decomposition. Active forest management, particularly the use of prescribed fire,
encourages a diverse understory that provides a tremendous benefit to the gopher
tortoise and other wildlife.
Gopher tortoises have been documented to feed on more than 400 - 500 different kinds
of plants with low-growing, warm-season grasses and forbs accounting for the majority
of their diet. These include golden aster (sometimes referred to as silver grass) and
legumes, such as butterfly pea. Fleshy fruits such as blackberries, paw paw, and gopher
apples are also a part of their diet.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
25
COMMON PLANTS OF THE GOPHER TORTOISES' DIET
The following plants are commonly found in open, fire-maintained pine ecosystems and
are also an important component of the diet of the gopher tortoise:
Wiregrass (Aristida beyrichiana)
This grass grows in clumps up to six inches across with soft, hair-like tufts at
the leaf base. The narrow, stiff leaf blades sometimes reach lengths of 20
inches and can appear cylindrical because they curl inward at the edges.
Grass-leaved golden aster or
Silver grass or silk grass
(Pityopsis graminfolia)
Butterfly pea (Clitoria mariana)
Butterfly pea is a viny perennial with stems that grow up to five feet long.
Leaves are in groups of three. Leaflets are usually lance shaped. Large, blueviolet flowers up to one inch in diameter appear from June to late August. It
has flat linear seed pods up to five-inches long that contain 10-20 seeds.
Gopher apple
(Licania michauxii)
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Gopher tortoises, like other turtles, lack teeth, instead they use a bony, scissor-like
beak to cut vegetation. They use sight and smell to find important or favorite plants
and will selectively eat certain vegetation and plant parts to obtain needed nutrients.
Source (except where noted): “Forest Plants of the Southeast and Their Wildlife Uses”
James H. Miller and Karl V. Miller, 1999.
Photos by Larry Allain, Thomas Barnes, J. Scott Peterson and Ted Bodner.
Golden aster is a perennial reaching
about two feet high. The leaves look
like silvery grass blades and both the
stem and leaves are covered with
silky hairs. It is often mistaken for a
grass until its bright, yellow flowers
begin to appear in July.
Goat's rue or Devil’s shoestring (Tephrosia virginiana)
Goat's rue grows one to two feet tall. Stems are covered with silky silver
hairs and leaves are divided into 8 to14 leaflets. It blooms from May
through August with pink and white, or pink and pale yellow flowers
bunched at the top. Its long, thin and tough roots are the source of one of
its common names, "devil's shoestring."
The gopher apple is a low-growing (1-2’),
evergreen shrub that often grows in clumps.
The smooth-edged leaves are shiny, limegreen on top and whitish and slightly fuzzy
on the bottom. Plant stems are reddishbrown. Small, white clusters of flowers
bloom from late spring to summer. Fleshy
fruits turn from green to purple when ripe.
Sensitive briar (Schrankia microphylla; aka Mimosa microphylla)
Tiny thorns grow closely along the long (up to ten feet), viny stem of littleleaf
sensitive-briar. Leaves are divided and when touched or moved by the wind,
they fold and droop, thus the plant’s common name. Large pink flowers appear
from June-November. Linear seed pods one to four inches long are covered
with prickles and contain many small seeds. The gopher tortoise is known to
eat the plant’s foliage.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
27
Phillip Jordan
One of the most popular gamebirds in the country, the Northern Bobwhite has undergone decades of
precipitous population decline. It requires a mixture of woodland and grassland, and suffers due to
“clean” agriculture and exotic grasses.
Wildlife in the Pines
The understory diversity of a fire-maintained longleaf pine forest supports an
abundance of wildlife. Longleaf trees can also provide important habitat for
insects and birds. Like longleaf and the understory plants, the animals of the
longleaf forest have adapted to fire; primarily by avoiding it. Many animals are
able to quickly disperse during fires. Others take shelter, with many species using
the well-insulated burrows of the gopher tortoise for protection. Although some
ground-nesting birds can suffer losses from fires, populations as a whole benefit
from the improved forage and open habitat created by fire.
Approximately 36 species of mammals are typical of the longleaf pine ecosystem,
over a third of which are rodents. Reptile and amphibian species are unusually
diverse; of the 290 reptile and amphibian species native to the Southeast, 170
(96 reptiles, 74 amphibians) are found within the longleaf pine ecosystem.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Nearly 100 bird species fill the longleaf forest with their song. Forty percent are
found year-round, 33 percent migrate from the Neotropics to breed, and 26
percent overwinter. Many of these birds depend upon the open understory;
however, some actually depended on the pine trees themselves, with the most
specialized, the Red-cockaded Woodpecker, requiring not only an open midstory
and longleaf pines, but old living trees as well, large enough to serve as sites in
which to excavate roosts and nest cavities.
Like the gopher tortoise, populations of many of these wildlife species have
declined. The following are some declining species that also benefit from activelymanaged pine forests:
B AC H M A N ’ S S PA R R OW
Perhaps not as conspicuous as some other species, Bachman’s sparrow (Aimophila
aestivalis) is nonetheless one of the most characteristic birds of Southeastern pine
habitat. It is a relatively large sparrow, averaging six inches in length, with a large
bill that it uses for feeding on seeds, and a long, rounded, dark tail. Adults are gray
on their back and heavily streaked with chestnut or dark brown.
Bachman’s sparrow also depends on an open
forest dominated by native grasses, and can
do well either in fire-maintained pine forest or
other grassland situations. Its range expanded
northward early in the 20th Century, probably
in response to new habitat created by farm
abandonment. As farmland grew into mature
forest and fire was suppressed throughout
contracted significantly. Its former name, Pine
Woods Sparrow, speaks volumes regarding its
habitat affinities and its potential to benefit
from improved Southeastern pine habitat
management.
© James E. Flynn, Jr.
the area, both population size and range
Bachman’s sparrow
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29
NO RT H E R N B O B W H I T E
The Northern bobwhite (Colinus
virginianus) is a beloved upland game
bird; quail hunting is an important part
of the rich Southern rural heritage. This
quail species is predominantly reddishbrown with lesser amounts of white,
brown and gray. Both sexes have a dark
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
stripe that originates at the beak and
Northern Bobwhite
runs around the eye to the base of the
skull. In males the dark stripe is bordered
above and below by white while in
females it is dark tan or brown.
Unfortunately, this highly valued species
has undergone a severe population
decline over the past three decades.
Current estimated numbers reflect at
least a 65 percent drop.
The Northern bobwhite thrives in large blocks of native grassland, with or without
a tree canopy. Perennial warm-season grasses are the preferred nesting material.
Survival of offspring is greatest when the young can forage without easily being
seen by predators and when bare ground is present, preventing entrapment in
dense grasses. A diverse community of erect annual forbs with bare ground
between stems is ideal.
The main cause of decline is habitat loss and degradation, including “cleaner”
agriculture, which has resulted in field edges that are less shrubby; replacement of
native grasses by exotic species; reduction in the size and fragmentation of blocks
of suitable habitat; and pine stands without fire management becoming choked
with woody undergrowth.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
B R OW N - H E A D E D
N U T H AT C H
The brown-headed nuthatch (Sitta
pusilla) is a small (averages a little
over 4 inches in length), year-round
resident that occupies the overstory
of mature, open pinelands. It prefers
pine stands older than 80 years,
which often have dead limbs present
and allow easier excavation of nests.
The nuthatch has a brown cap, dark
back and dull buff underparts as well
as a long, thin bill for probing under
bark for insects.
People often see or hear brownheaded nuthatches in small family
groups, foraging for insects high in
association with mature pines may
make it a good indicator of the
health of Southeastern pine forests,
and its steady population decline in
recent decades speaks poorly of that
health. Causes of that decline go
Todd Schneider, Georgia DNR
the branches of the canopy. Its
Brown-headed nuthatch
back to the same problems faced by
other species: fire suppression, hardwood intrusion, conversion of longleaf to other
species, and loss and fragmentation of habitat.
R E D - C O C K A D E D WO O D P E C K E R
The red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis) is the only Southeastern pinedependent bird listed under the Endangered Species Act, reflecting its reliance on firemaintained, mature pine stands. It is one of the most specialized birds on this list, and
also the rarest. The red-cockaded woodpecker is colonial, its family group consists of a
breeding pair and usually three to seven offspring. The size of a group’s territory
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
31
averages 125 acres and centers on plots of 60- to 300-year-old living trees. The
woodpecker prefers longleaf for both nesting and foraging habitat but will also use
slash, shortleaf, loblolly, or other pines where longleaf is absent. They avoid hardwood
forests or any situation with a dense
hardwood understory. Most redcockaded woodpeckers today exist
on public lands – about 20 percent
of all woodpeckers are found on
private lands.
Fortunately for private landowners,
Safe Harbor agreements encourage
management for habitat suitable for
this woodpecker while offering
insurance against onerous regulatory
John and Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS
limitations. As a result, there is great
Red-cockaded woodpecker
hope that this species will thrive on
both public and private lands into the
future. Safe Harbor has been well
received by landowners. Over 600,000
acres of southern pineland in Georgia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Texas,
and Virginia are enrolled in the
program containing over a quarter of
all red-cockaded woodpeckers found
on private lands. More information on
these agreements can be found on
page 80.
E A S T E R N I N D I G O S NA K E
The Eastern indigo snake (Drymarchon couperi), the largest North American snake,
has been federally listed as threatened since 1978, due to past pet trade collection
and current habitat loss. Once known to occur from South Carolina to Alabama, it
is now found only in Florida and southeast Georgia. These glossy, bluish-black,
thick- bodied snakes typically reach 60-74 inches in length as adults, but some
individuals may exceed 96 inches. Other identifying characteristics include reddish
markings along the chin and throat and a blue-gray belly.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
The Eastern indigo snake utilizes
different seasonal habitats. From the
late winter to early spring, they prefer
the excessively drained, deep sandy soils
of the sandhills. In this winter habitat,
gopher tortoise burrows are a favorite
den and nesting site and eastern indigo
snakes are known to lay their eggs in
they may be found more frequently in
riparian habitats. Due to this utilization
of multiple habitats, corridors that link
these different habitats are important.
Natalie Hyslop
these burrows. During other seasons
Eastern indigo snake
Indigo snakes also heavily use debris
piles left from site-preparation. Leaving these piles can provide important hiding
cover for both the snake and its prey.
GOPHER FROG
These small (two to four inches in length), nocturnal frogs are noted for their short,
stubby appearance. Gopher frogs (Rana capito) have large heads, short legs and heavy,
dark blotches that cover their body. While they spend most of the day in gopher tortoise
burrows or other underground holes, at night they often venture out. Males produce a
low, guttural call (similar to a rolling snore) that can be heard for quite a distance.
Upland longleaf pine sandhill and flatwoods habitat is
used by non-breeding, adult gopher frogs. Breeding
adults and tadpoles rely on isolated wetlands, or
other seasonally-wet freshwater features, which lack
predatory fish. In autumn or winter, breeding adults
will move to these ponds or wetlands to deposit their
eggs. The gopher frog larva spends several months in
adult form occurs. Young adults move away from
the breeding ponds and only return when they
become reproductively mature adults. Similar to the
Eastern indigo snake, maintaining corridors between
these two different habitat types is important for the
ongoing survival of the gopher frog.
Steve Bennett, SC DNR
these wetlands before metamorphosis into the
Gopher frog
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
33
Photos by Drue DeBerry and Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
Longleaf growth from the grass stage to
candle stage to poles
Longleaf Pine Restoration
E C O NO M I C S O F
L O NG L E A F P I N E
A wise landowner will always factor economic
considerations into their management decisions.
Even if their primary reason for owning land is
not to generate income, it takes money to
maintain the land and pay taxes. However, most
landowners incorporate other values in addition
to economics when forming management plans.
Aesthetics, hunting recreational opportunities,
“ Longleaf pine is our native
pine tree and goes hand-inhand with the deep, sandy
soils of this region. For the
rest of my days, I'm going to
work to bring back longleaf.”
Mike Buckner, Tree Farmer,
Talbot County, Georgia
and leaving a remarkable legacy are often as
important as economics. Longleaf does not absolutely guarantee the highest economic
return, but it holds great potential for also realizing the maximum return on other
values that may interest forest landowners.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Landowners have converted from longleaf to
loblolly or slash pine in part due to economic
assumptions. The forestry community perceived
longleaf as difficult and therefore risky to establish.
Today, after years of stand establishment, research,
and trial and error, regeneration for longleaf is
proven silvicultural methods, longleaf establishment
is more successful today than even five years ago.
Longleaf may appear slower-growing initially, as it
builds up reserves and develops its taproot while in
the grass stage, but with the spurt of growth it has
following the grass stage, it catches up with loblolly
and slash. Its long-term health and the quality of its
wood products make it an economically viable
strategy for sustainable forestry.
Elizabeth Sandler, American Forest Foundation
better understood. Using better seedlings and
Eucalyptus plantations in Brazil cover the
high ground in former rainforest
M A R K E T C H A NG E S
The market for forest goods like wood fiber has declined in the U.S. in recent years. This
has been sharply felt by Southern landowners who adapted their management to take
advantage of good pulp prices. The drop in prices to current low levels is a result of a
number of factors, including new cheap sources from Latin American countries like Chile
and Brazil. Eucalyptus plantations in these countries are managed on seven-year
rotations and produce pulp so cheaply that transport costs to the U.S. do not diminish
competitiveness with domestic supplies. This does not mean the end of the pulp market
in the U.S., but it does possibly spell the end of profitable, short-rotation pine
plantations.
Faced with these new market conditions, many landowners have decided to shift their
management focus to the production of sawtimber and poles over longer rotations.
Management for sawtimber and poles should not affect revenue over the long-term,
but it will require more careful planning, as income to support your forest will be
spread out over a longer time period.
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35
Other risk factors definitely favor longleaf over slash or loblolly. Longleaf is the most
insect, disease, fire, and wind-resistant of all the Southern pines. For example, a 2005
study that evaluated the damage in south Mississippi after Hurricane Katrina found that
longleaf pine was more likely to be uprooted and less likely to break off along the stem
than either loblolly or slash pines. Trees with broken stems deteriorate more quickly and
must be salvaged immediately to get any value, resulting in a glut of salvage wood on
the market and low timber prices. Uprooted and partially root-sprung trees do not
deteriorate as quickly, providing a longer window in which to salvage the trees. They
can often be salvaged after the initial wood-glut that follows storms, thus bringing
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
better prices.
Longleaf pine produces high quality sawtimber and poles.
Longleaf grown primarily for sawtimber or poles also offers flexibility in dealing with
market conditions. A longleaf landowner who waits for better market conditions
will increase the value of his investment while he waits. A short-rotation loblolly or
slash landowner loses potential growth if he or she has to wait for more favorable
market conditions before thinning.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
POLES
Pine poles have historically been the highest-valued wood product in the
Southeast. While pulpwood prices are currently low, the pole market has
remained strong and poles continue to bring a premium price. On average, pole
prices are about two times higher than sawtimber prices and in some cases 10
times higher than pulpwood.
Pine poles are often the best trees in the stand with no visible defects. Pole size
and specifications vary; talk to your consulting forester or a pole specialist to
learn more about assessing the potential of your stands to produce poles.
During the heyday of the pulp market, longleaf could not compete with returns
provided by loblolly or slash on short rotations. One study has shown that longleaf is
more financially competitive than previously thought – over longer periods. Longleaf has
several qualities that make it more competitive over a longer time frame – the wood is
heavier and of higher quality and longleaf stands produce more high value poles. In a
comparison of equal-aged stands (each 39 years), only eight percent of the loblolly and
12 percent of the slash trees were graded as poles, compared with 72 percent of the
longleaf, with very little difference in height or diameter.
Another analysis done by silviculturalist Fred White compared the returns from longleaf
grown for 66 years with two successive 33-year rotations of loblolly. The returns from
longleaf were comparable and resulted in more frequent payments to the landowner.
The longleaf stand was managed for pine straw, pulpwood, poles and sawtimber while
the two loblolly rotations were managed primarily for pulpwood with a final sawtimber
harvest. The analysis showed that longleaf produced as much financial return as the
loblolly, generated more frequent payments and had economic advantages not shared
by loblolly pine.
Longleaf also has the potential to provide other sources of income beyond timber
products. Many forest owners realize considerable income raking pine straw that is
used for landscaping. Others have followed the model of hunt clubs and profited by
leasing their forest to those seeking a high quality hunting experience.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
37
Pine Straw and
Wildlife
Pine needles serve many
important purposes in the
forest. As these needles
decompose, nutrients are
uptake by trees and other
vegetation. In addition, the
litter may serve as food for
many animals, such as
earthworms, beetles and
Environmental Impact RC&D
recycled back into the soil
and become available for
Longleaf pinestraw bales
even some birds. The
needles also insulate the soils from temperature extremes and help reduce erosion
during heavy storms. The water-holding capacity of the needles, one of the reasons
they are used as mulch, makes water available for trees for longer periods of time.
Due to the many benefits of pine needles, they have become a popular product (pine
straw) for landscaping. This valuable and renewable product from longleaf, can
potentially earn landowners up to $200 per acre. Harvesting, which often occurs in the
winter, can start when the stand reaches roughly 7 years, although needle production
typically peaks at year 15. The economic benefits of pine straw raking need to be
weighed against potential ecological impacts. Hand raking rather than mechanical
raking is recommended. Mechanical equipment used to rake the straw can damage
gopher burrows. In addition to equipment, raking frequency needs to be considered.
Repeated raking of pine straw (every 1 to 2 years) may effect the health of a forest
stand, reduce available litter needed to carry prescribed fire through a stand, and could
negatively impact vegetation in the forest understory, reducing the wildlife value of a
stand. A moderate approach to raking (perhaps every four or more years) can still
provide economic benefits but may reduce the ecological impact, by allowing more
litter to build up between rakings and reducing impacts to the forest understory.
E S TA B L I S H I NG L O NG L E A F P I N E
Great strides have been made in the last five to ten years to increase success rates for
longleaf establishment. One thing is clear – longleaf requires very specific conditions
during its early stages for successful establishment on a site. Researchers have worked
diligently to refine management techniques that will increase success rates for longleaf.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
The following summarizes important considerations for establishing longleaf through
artificial regeneration.
Site Suitability
To determine if a site is appropriate for establishing longleaf, a forest landowner
should always start by identifying the site’s soil type. A Natural Resources
Conservation Service (NRCS) agent or other qualified resource professional can
help determine your soil type and provide soils maps that contain a wealth of
information. Past land
uses and recent weather
L O B L O L LY A N D S L A S H
trends are also important
While loblolly will grow in most Coastal
to consider.
Plain soils, it does best on soils with poor
surface drainage and a deep surface clay
Longleaf prefers well-
layer with a firm subsoil within 20 inches of
drained to moderately
the soil surface. Productivity for loblolly
well-drained, light-colored
decreases as soil drainage increases. Loblolly
sandy soils that are acidic
does poorly on deep, well-drained soils.
and low in organic matter.
Slash pine does best on moist soils that are
Under a fire regime, it will
sandy with a layer of organic material
grow right to the edge of
(referred to as spodosols). Hardpans, an
wetlands. Where intensive
impervious layer of soil that restricts the
weed control or fire is
downward movement of water, are
used over time, longleaf
common on many of the soils where slash
can be reestablished on
grows well.
some of these more
productive loamy soils.
Site Preparation:
Site preparation is the practice of preparing an area so that planted pines will thrive.
Site prep is critical to the successful establishment of seedlings as the process removes
vegetation that would otherwise compete with the young pines as they seek to
establish themselves. Controlling early competition is most important when attempting
to establish longleaf. Planted longleaf pine seedlings are not good competitors for
resources (light, water, nutrients, etc.). Intense competition from hardwoods and other
pines can lead to failure if not properly managed through fire and/or herbicidal
treatments.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
39
When working in area with an existing gopher tortoise
population, care should be taken during site preparation. If
possible, avoid mechanical site preparation and instead
utilize prescribed fire. If mechanical site preparation is
necessary, burrows should be clearly marked and a 10 to 25foot buffer should be established around all intact burrows.
When planting pines, landowners are faced with
three scenarios: cutover sites that have been
harvested, old agricultural fields, and planting
within existing stands.
Cutover Sites:
On all cutover sites, some site preparation is
necessary to control competing vegetation
before planting pine seedlings. In some cases,
where the previous forest was maintained
with fire, a prescribed fire in the late summer
or early fall before a winter tree planting may
be the only site preparation necessary to
control competing vegetation and eliminate
any leftover woody debris from logging.
Where hardwood trees and brush resprout
vigorously, mechanical treatments and/or
chemical site preparation using herbicides may
be needed in addition to prescribed fire to
help establish a new forest stand.
Mechanical site preparation uses heavy
equipment to chop, shear or root out hardwood brush, old stumps and other
debris left over from logging. Advantages of mechanical site preparation are that
the site is cleaned up and very accessible for machine planting. Disadvantages
include poor control of resprouting from roots, increased chance for soil erosion
and potential elimination of desirable native understory vegetation. In areas where
intact native groundcover vegetation persists, an effort should be made to avoid
mechanical site preparation.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Chemical site preparation typically
does a better job of eliminating the
woody brush competition found on
cutover sites. The use of herbicides,
followed by fire, typically causes less
soil erosion and creates more open
sites. This, in turn, allows for
consistent and precise planting,
which will improve seedling survival
and growth regardless of which
species of pine is planted.
Chemical site preparation can also
keep more of the native herbaceous
community intact.
For example, most native perennial
legumes (high-value wildlife foods)
are tolerant of two of the commonly
used herbicides, hexazinone and
imazapyr. Following chemical site
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
preparation using these products,
Longleaf planted in a clearcut site
these legumes usually have reduced
coverage the growing season after
application, but then they recover
and bloom profusely two to three
growing seasons after treatment.
Native warm-season grasses are
tolerant and show similar responses
to another commonly used chemical,
triclopyr.
All herbicides do not work well on all sites. Factors such as soil texture, drainage
and vegetation to be killed influence product selection and application rate. Also,
a follow-up site preparation burn is needed four to six weeks after herbicide
treatment. When considering chemical treatment, seek professional guidance
from a licensed commercial applicator and a Registered Forester.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
41
Agricultural Sites:
Since the mid-1980’s, USDA Farm Bill cost-share programs have encouraged
planting pines on marginal agricultural land. With their early fast-growth
characteristics, it is usually easier to plant loblolly and slash pine on agricultural
fields. In most cases, these fields can be planted during the winter after the
agricultural crop has been harvested.
That is not the case with longleaf. Longleaf pines’ slow initial growth, coupled with the
aggressive, competitive nature of most agricultural weeds, requires stronger measures.
The basic prescription for planting longleaf pine in agricultural fields is:
(1) Site preparation based on the weeds on the site;
(2) Rip or subsoil the site prior to planting to a depth of at least 12 to 18 inches to
eliminate any hardpans in the soil;
(3) Scalp the rows to be planted;
(4) Plant either bare-root or containerized seedlings off-center from the scalped
row as early in the planting season as practical;
(5) Monitor stand for post-planting herbaceous weed control as needed.
Site preparation is
critical to success. It is
much easier to control
many of the aggressive
agricultural weeds prior
Scott Roberts, Mississippi State University, Bugwood.org
to planting than after!
Ripped soil on former agricultural site
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Planting Within an Existing Stand:
This situation provides a landowner
with the greatest possible flexibility
and opportunity to minimize site
preparation costs. Plans for the future
stand are made before removal of the
existing stand, providing a chance to
control unwanted vegetation well
before harvesting. For example, a
hardwood understory can be
completely removed with a series of
well-timed prescribed fires. In some
markets, larger hardwood trees that
are not suitable for wood products can
be removed as a fuel or fiber source
and the stumps can be chemically
treated to prevent resprouting.
Pre-harvest planning also provides the
option to use either natural or artificial
regeneration. Natural regeneration can
be used when the current trees on the
option with agricultural fields or with
cutover sites. To ensure successful
natural regeneration, the harvest can
be timed to coincide with a good seed
crop. Good seed crops are sporadic
with longleaf pine, occurring every five
to seven or more years. With loblolly
and slash pines, good seed crops are
Jessica McCorvey, Joseph W. Jones Center
site have good form, but it is not an
Longleaf pine planted within an existing loblolly stand
two out of every three years.
Another option with natural regeneration is to establish the future stand prior to
the removal of the existing stand. This can be done as an even-age system where
all the trees are removed at once, creating a future stand of trees with only one or
two distinctive age classes, or by moving toward an uneven-age system where part
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
43
T R A N S I T I O N I NG T O L O NG L E A F
Many family forest owners are interested in restoring native longleaf pine
because of its higher wildlife, recreational and aesthetic values when
compared to other Southern pine species. However, they may fear losing
wildlife habitat and income opportunities for 20 years or more if they
clearcut existing stands and replant with longleaf.
This doesn’t have to be the case. There is a simple strategy whereby
landowners can, over time, transition their even-aged loblolly (or slash) pine
stands to uneven-aged longleaf. Transitioning timber stands to longleaf can
meet the needs of landowners with multiple objectives and conservation
interests, while providing solid cash flow from timber management.
A Basic Example:
A 15-year old, 50-acre loblolly pine plantation that was planted with 726
trees per acre. The transition starts with the first thinning when the loblolly
plantation is around 15 years old. At this time, logging begins as follows: 20
open spaces are created in random locations across the stand by cutting
down all trees in half-acre patches, creating a total of 10 acres of open
space. In the remaining 40 acres, the stand is selectively thinned by logging
about one-third of the trees. This two-step process creates a “thick and thin”
pattern that prepares the stand for future sustainable management.
The open patches will be treated with an herbicide to control competing
growth and then planted with containerized longleaf seedlings at 7’X10’
spacing. Prescribed burning is used on a two-year rotation to continue to
control competing vegetation.
This process is repeated every ten years until all the loblolly is removed and
replaced with longleaf. This will carry the last of the loblolly to age 55 while
the longleaf stand will have trees from one to forty years old. At the end of
the conversion process, there is a stand of longleaf pine with five separate
age classes. The older classes allow uninterrupted flow of timber revenue. As
the longleaf becomes merchantable, the landowners may selectively harvest
two-thirds of the previous ten years of growth.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
of the overstory trees are removed and the trees in the understory become a new
age class within the stand. A true uneven age system will exist when there are
three age groups in the stand. These management systems are discussed in more
detail in the following chapter.
If you are converting loblolly or slash stands to longleaf, utilizing prescribed fire is
an effective way to control any unwanted pine seedlings of these two species.
Longleaf seedlings benefit from frequent fires, as long as they are not used during
the candelabra stage of growth which occurs when the seedlings are approximately
3 to 6 feet in height. During this stage, the bark is still thin, and the terminal bud is
still within flame height of normal surface fires. Once the seedling reaches a height
of 6 feet, it becomes fire-resistant again.
Stocking Density
After site preparation, the next step is planting. You first need to decide how many
trees per acre (TPA) to plant in order to meet your goals. Tree density determines
the amount of sunlight that reaches the forest floor and affects the health of
understory trees, as well as the trees themselves. It also plays a major role in when
a stand is thinned.
If management for the gopher tortoise and other wildlife is your primary objective,
a stocking density of between 300-450 TPA will benefit the gopher tortoise for the
longest period of time (if
managed properly after
establishment), as an open
canopy will persist for a
longer period of time. If
planting at this density, a
healthy herbaceous
understory should already be
established as sufficient fine
fuels are needed to carry the
undesirable midstory woody
vegetation.
Laurel Barnhill, SC DNR
fires that are need to control
Stocking density can impact the herbaceous ground cover.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
45
Trees planted at a wider spacing tend to develop more limbs and wider growth
rings. If managing for both timber production and wildlife objectives, a higher
stocking density, between 450- 600 TPA, can still benefit the gopher tortoise,
however, gopher tortoise habitat structure persists for a shorter period of time. In
terms of timber production, a higher percentage of trees will likely grade out as
poles in these more densely planted stands. In addition, at higher densities, there
will be more pine straw to carry fires that are necessary to control undesirable
midstory woody vegetation.
While seedling survival is
often good for high quality
containerized longleaf stock,
there is generally some
mortality after the first
controlled burns are
conducted. It may be
advisable to plant at a
slightly higher density than
your target stocking to
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
avoid needing to fill in with
Longleaf and loblolly stands both planted at roughly 600 trees per acre
seedlings at a later date.
Landowners should talk
with a resource professional
to determine the stocking
density that best meets their
goals and is also appropriate
for the specific site conditions
on their land.
Planting Longleaf: Containerized vs. Bare-root Seedlings
If you decide to plant longleaf pine, a decision must be made on whether to plant
bare-root or containerized seedlings.
Bare-root Seedlings:
In areas where reputable tree planters exist that specialize in planting bare-root
longleaf, landowners can pay significantly less for seedlings by using this option.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Advantages of planting bare-root longleaf seedlings (when compared to
containerized seedlings) include:
(1) Lower cost per seedling; (2) Greater tolerance of deep planting; (3) Greater
availability in some areas; (4) Some planters have more familiarity with handling
and planting bare-root stock.
Disadvantages include:
(1) Lower survival when planted improperly; (2) Poor storage; (3) More difficult to
plant, either by hand or machine; (4) A shorter planting season.
Bare-root longleaf seedlings may be planted between mid-December and April 1st,
as long as soil moisture and weather factors are favorable. Planting early (in
December and January) is better as this allows for greater root growth, helping the
newly planted seedlings to better tolerate spring droughts. Avoid planting during
periods of low soil moisture and dry weather as well as during times of freezing
temperatures, low relative humidity and high wind associated with the passage of a
strong cold front.
Bare-root longleaf seedlings do not tolerate shallow planting. Depending on soil
texture, plant the seedlings so the terminal bud is between one-half to one inch
deep after planting. This will allow for some soil settling and movement after
planting, but it will be deep enough so as not to expose the root system.
Plant only good quality bare-root longleaf seedlings; they should have a minimum
root collar diameter of 0.4 inches in diameter and a stout, 6-inch tap root with six
or more well developed, primary lateral roots. The root system should be highly
fibrous and reddish-brown in color. Seedlings should be planted within two days
after pickup from the nursery. Do not stack seedlings when transporting them from
the nursery to the planting site. Also, do not place bare-root longleaf seedlings in
cold storage. Get them from the nursery and plant them as soon as possible--bare
roots should not be exposed to the air for more than five minutes and they should
be protected from all heat sources.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
47
Containerized Seedlings:
Containerized seedlings now make
up more than 85% of all longleaf
seedlings planted.
Advantages of planting containerized
longleaf seedlings (in comparison
to bare-root seedlings) include:
(1) Generally higher survival;
(2) Lower cost per surviving seedling;
(3) Easier to hand plant; (4) Better
and longer storage periods; (5) Wider
planting season.
Disadvantages include:
(1) Higher cost per seedling; (2) Less
tolerant of deep planting; (3) Bulkier
and more difficult to handle and ship.
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
availability in most areas; (6) Longer
A containerized longleaf seedling
Just because a seedling is containerized does not mean it is a high-quality
seedling. Quality containerized seedlings have dark green needles, root collar
diameters of 0.25 inches or greater, fibrous roots that are light brown in color with
numerous white tips that show mycorrhizae (a beneficial root fungus)
development. Two good indicators of seedling quality are plugs that remain intact
after removal from containers and plugs that remain firm when held horizontally.
Plant containerized seedlings early. In years in which there is adequate soil moisture,
seedlings can be planted as early as September and October. In most years,
containerized longleaf seedlings will do better if planted in November and December.
The earlier planting dates allow for greater root development before the spring
growing season, helping the seedlings tolerate periods of dry weather. Containerized
seedlings may be able to tolerate drought better than bare root stock.
Unlike bare-root seedlings, containerized longleaf need to be planted at shallow
depths. Studies have shown shallow-planted containerized seedlings survive better
and initiate height growth sooner than deeper-planted ones. Some rules of thumb
for planting depth are:
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
(1) Level sites – plant the top of the plug slightly above the soil surface, about onefourth to one-half inch;
(2) Scalped sites – top of the plug should be 1 to 1.5 inches above the soil surface;
(3) Wet sites – on wet sites, use six-inch
plugs and plant them with the top
two to three inches exposed.
T H E L O NG L E A F A L L I A NC E
The Longleaf Alliance was established in
1995 to coordinate partnerships among
private landowners, forest industries, state
and federal agencies, conservation groups,
researchers, and other enthusiasts
interested in managing and restoring
longleaf forests for their ecological and
economic benefits. It encourages the
establishment of functional longleaf forest
ecosystems in today’s Southern forest
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
environment. The Alliance also serves as a
Prescribed fire being used in a longleaf stand.
clearinghouse of information on longleaf
and the longleaf ecosystem. Membership is
comprised of ecologists, foresters, wildlife
biologists, land owners, and land
managers. To learn more about The
Longleaf Alliance, visit
www.longleafalliance.org, email
After Planting
[email protected], or call 334-427-1029.
Following planting, seedlings should be
monitored to ensure they are not impacted by
brown-spot needle blight. If blight is present, in
most cases you will want to run a prescribed
In addition to killing the blight, this fire will
control competition from grasses. You should
strip head (set a series of lines of fire upwind of a
firebreak) fires to avoid holding heat on the buds
of longleaf in the grass stage.
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
burn through the stand one year after planting.
Young longleaf in an unburned stand can suffer
from brown-spot needle blight.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
49
USDA Forest Service Archive, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org
A longleaf seedling stand developing in an overstory opening
Pine Ecosystem Conservation
Management
This section provides additional information about harvesting and management
practices that can create beneficial habitat for the gopher tortoise and other
wildlife. Prescribed fire, hardwood midstory control, and invasive non-native species
control are all important management tools that help conserve the health and
productivity of your forest. Understanding their benefits and how to use them
effectively will help ensure that you achieve your desired goals.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
S TA N D M A NA G E M E N T O P T I O N S
When examining the overstory, the density of trees per acre (more commonly
referred to as basal area and expressed in ft2/acre), provides an easy way to
understand how much competition exists for resources (light, water, nutrients, etc.)
among trees within a given area. When basal area is lower, you generally have
fewer trees that grow faster. When basal area is higher, trees tend to grow slowly.
As basal area increases, less light reaches the forest floor, reducing or even
eliminating ground cover and, therefore, negatively impacting wildlife habitat.
The target basal area for your stand also depends on the site index, which is a
relative measure of forest site quality based on the height (in feet) of the dominant
trees at a specific age, usually 50 years. Stands with higher site indexes can support
higher basal areas and still remain very productive, with light being the limiting
factor. As a general rule of thumb, a basal area range between 50 – 80 ft2/acre can
can support a healthy understory for the gopher tortoise and other wildlife. For
comparison, longleaf pine stands managed for sawtimber production are usually
kept in the 70 - 90 ft2/acre basal area range, while stands managed to maximize
quail habitat usually range from 30 – 60 ft2/acre. A forester can help determine the
ideal range for your management goals.
When managing for the gopher tortoise, the basal area should always be kept low
enough so that enough sunlight is reaching the ground to allow grasses and forbs
to grow. Midstory shrubs must
also be controlled to ensure
adequate sunlight reaches the
ground. To enable fire to be
utilized, careful attention must
Therefore, too low a basal
area or canopy cover can be
detrimental as not enough
pine needles will accumulate.
Establishing a basal area
spectrum, from a high point
when thinning is required to
the low point that is reached
Ron Masters, Tall Timbers Research Station
also be paid to the fine fuels.
A basal area of 60ft2/acre in a mature pine stand.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
51
once a stand is thinned, can guide in promoting tree growth for sawlogs and
timber as well as creating gopher tortoise habitat.
Another way to determine if habitat is sufficient for the gopher tortoise is to
examine the percentage of canopy cover and herbaceous ground cover. The table
below, developed by the Florida Fish & Wildlife Commission, provides some general
guidelines. It is important to keep in mind that site conditions and landowner goals
will dictate the best management regime.
Table 1: Recommended structural characteristics and fine frequency for plant communities commonly
used by the gopher tortoise (Modified from Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission, 2007).
PLANT
COMMUNITY
FIRE
REGIME
MAX. %
CANOPY COVER
MAX. %
SHRUB COVER
MIN. %
GROUND COVER
Dry Prairie
1-3 yrs
<10
<10
50
Sandhill/Upland
Pine Forest/Oldfield
Pinelands
2-5 yrs
50
30
40
Flatwoods
2-5 yrs
60
50
50
Scrubby Flatwoods
3-7 yrs
40
60
30
Scrub
7-12 yrs
40
60
15
There are basically three long-term options available to a forest owner (of longleaf,
loblolly, or slash) who wants to manage a stand to improve habitat for the gopher
tortoise and other wildlife. In rare cases, a stand could be left uncut, managed with
fire and other treatments, and provide wildlife benefits. However, most stands can
provide benefits only if trees are thinned and selected to accelerate growth. One
method is to impose an uneven-aged harvest regime. Another is to manage on an
even-aged schedule. Advantages and disadvantages exist for each choice.
No Harvest
The “no harvest” option might seem like the most beneficial to wildlife, but this
would only hold true under ideal initial conditions (appropriate basal area, preferred
species composition, etc.) and for certain species. A major disadvantage of this
option is that it does not provide much income to help with maintenance or
burning costs. This makes it an unaffordable option to the majority of landowners.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Uneven-Aged Management
Uneven-aged management involves selectively harvesting individual trees or groups
of trees with some frequency over time leading to the creation of several age
classes and tree sizes within a stand while always maintaining the overstory or
forest canopy. It is thought that this management method most closely resembles
the natural population dynamics of longleaf pine ecosystems (disturbances such as
lightning or windthrow creating small gaps). This strategy produces high value
products, and can maximize income over time while retaining a diversity of habitat
for wildlife. The landowner relies on natural regeneration to replenish the forest as
individual trees are removed over time. This avoids the expense of planting when
done successfully. Although this allows flexibility in determining the timing and
intensity of harvest, this method can be more costly to implement and also calls for
more sophisticated management techniques.
Under an uneven-aged management strategy, harvesting is used to maintain a
desired basal area and age (diameter) class distribution. To begin, current timber
volume and its per acre growth rate must be known. Based on this, and the
desired basal area and age class distribution, a percentage of the annual growth is
removed periodically. To achieve this distribution, individual trees (single-tree
M A NA G E M E N T A N D R O TAT I O N L E NG T H
How many years after planting should you harvest? Under even-age management,
at 35 years you should have the potential for a healthy economic return from poles
and sawtimber, especially if at least one thinning has occurred. Ideally, harvest will
occur when pole or sawtimber prices are high. Under uneven-age management, the
stand is perpetual, but the length of time until a tree is harvested for sawtimber or
poles is also a consideration. If a stand consists of loblolly or slash it should be
harvested before the trees are much over 80 years of age. Beyond that, the trees
start to suffer from aging and timber value may be lost. On the other hand, longleaf
pine timber improves with age (up to 200 to 300 years) and could conceivably be
harvested by your grandchildren or great grandchildren around the time they are
considering retirement options.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
53
William D. Boyer, USDA Forest Service, www.forestryimages.org
Uneven-age longleaf stand
selection) or small groups of trees (group selection) are selectively harvested. Within
the diameter classes, decisions on which trees to remove are made relative to an
individual tree’s position, dominance, health and growth. Diseased trees and those
with poor growth form or vigor are removed first.
Group selection is most commonly used in uneven-aged longleaf pine management
and group selection sizes of 0.5 to 1-2 acres can be utilized. To prevent stand
degradation, the application of group selection requires the expertise of a forester
experienced in uneven-aged management as more frequent, but smaller cuts, are
required to maintain a desired basal area. Without guidance, diameter cutting
(cutting all trees larger than a predetermined size, rather than using tree age as
criteria) or "high-grading" can result in a stand of inferior trees.
Natural regeneration in the created openings is a critical component of unevenaged management. Group selection creates openings that are conducive to pine
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
regeneration. Under this management system, there is a greater diversity of
habitats with small, scattered patches in various stages of plant succession over
a small area. Group selection may be more aesthetically appealing to some as it
minimizes visual impacts that are associated with some even-aged management
strategies. Stands with a variety of age classes are less prone to suffer extensive
damage from insect outbreaks, disease or low-intensity fire because often only
one age class of trees is likely to succumb.
If an adequate number of seedlings are present, leave the areas you intend to
regenerate out of your burning schedule for at least one season. Longleaf pine
seedlings need protection from fire until they are at least one year old.
Even-Aged Management
An even-aged management strategy entails either clearcutting, a seed-tree cut, or a
shelterwood cut, once market size is reached. Regeneration is achieved by planting
trees after clearcuts, or naturally when doing seed-tree or shelterwood cuts. For a
landowner interested in maximizing profit, planting provides an opportunity to utilize
genetically improved trees. The long-term benefits to wildlife can be substantial from
even-age management, and the early successional conditions post-harvest offer
valuable habitat (albeit temporary) to an entirely different suite of important species.
Longleaf seeds fall from the cones from mid-late October through November.
The seeds are the heaviest of Southern pines and often don’t fall far from the
parent tree. Seed production in longleaf pine is variable from year to year. Good
seed crops (mast years) often occur every five to seven years. Watch for good
Drue DeBerry
seed years as they create an excellent
opportunity for naturally regenerating longleaf
pine stands. Also, because longleaf seeds need
bare mineral soil to germinate, utilizing
prescribed fire or mechanical means to expose
the soil prior to seed fall is important.
Longleaf pine cone
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
55
The most common form of even-aged management involves planting trees after the
final harvest, but natural regeneration is another option for those who can be patient
in reestablishing a stand. A seed tree harvest removes most mature stems in a large
harvest but leaves 4 to 10 trees per acre to provide seeds to establish a new stand. The
shelterwood system gradually removes trees in two or more heavy cuts.
Due to the fact that longleaf pines are sporadic seed producers, a shelterwood
system is most likely to lead to successful natural regeneration. Under this
management, the initial cut should be done roughly five years before the planned
harvest date and should leave approximately 30 ft2/acre of well-spaced, high-quality
trees. Seedlings establish themselves while these trees are still standing and the
overstory trees are not harvested until after this establishment. Another
management option is to utilize an irregular shelterwood system, where a few
mature trees are left on every acre following the final harvest to create structural
diversity. If mature trees are left over repeated rotations, eventually an uneven-aged
stand will be created.
During stand development, improvement thinning can provide a source of income
and also help control stand density and promote greater health and vigor in
remaining trees. Diseased or improperly formed trees can be removed during
thinning and increased growing space can be created for “leave” trees. Conducting
thinning prior to canopy closure helps ensure that stands continue to provide
wildlife benefits by
allowing sunlight to
continue to reach the
William D. Boyer, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org
forest floor.
56
Longleaf stand following
shelterwood cut and
prescribed fire.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Even-aged management creates stands of uniform habitat. If sufficient acreage
exists, the creation of stands of varying age classes can help provide greater habitat
variety for wildlife. Following a harvest, critical early-successional habitat is created
but there may be short-term detrimental impacts on certain wildlife species.
Additionally, utilizing prescribed fire for several years following a harvesting can
also be difficult due to lack of pine needles and other fine fuel. However, this
management requires less frequent entry into stands for timber harvesting than
uneven-aged management and is a more simple management application. The
challenges to the landowner lie primarily in successful regeneration of desired
forest conditions. Even-aged management also maximizes fiber production (though
not necessarily income) rather than high value products over time.
I M P R OV I NG A N E X I S T I NG L O B L O L LY O R
S L A S H S TA N D
You may find it impractical to consider converting any of your stands to
longleaf in the near future. As with most things, timing is essential.
However, if you manage your stand by following many of the
recommendations made throughout this handbook, you can provide very
significant benefits to wildlife. In fact, the first landowner to enter into a
Safe Harbor Agreement for the gopher tortoise provides significant
benefits by managing loblolly stands.
All of the species featured in this brochure can persist, and in some cases
thrive, in well-managed stands of these other pine species. Even redcockaded woodpeckers sometimes live and nest in loblolly woodlands. The
principles of beneficial wildlife management are similar to those for
longleaf. Maintenance of a low stocking density, elimination of a woody
midstory, and use of fire (or in some cases herbicides) to maintain a healthy
ground cover will improve wildlife habitat. Some details of application will
differ from longleaf management, so you should seek the advice of a
forester when modifying your management plan.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
57
Bob Franklin, Clemson University Extension
Growing season prescribed fire
Conservation Forestry
Practices
Regardless of the harvest strategy chosen by a landowner, there are ways to
improve most existing forest stands. Careful consideration of existing conditions
and potential stand improvements at the beginning of any management regime
can improve the trajectory of conditions over time. The overstory, midstory, and
understory must all be examined in this process.
PRESCRIBED FIRE
A midstory in a healthy longleaf pine forest should be essentially non-existent, save
for occasional young longleaf trees. Controlled burns can reduce a moderate
amount of woody growth, but dense growth has the potential to carry a fire hot
enough to kill adult trees. In those situations, consider mechanical removal or use
of herbicides first, then follow by an appropriate burn regime.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
As noted throughout this handbook, the most important force and management
tool to create or maintain healthy pine conditions is prescribed fire. Most of the
plants and animals unique to the Southern forest have evolved with occasional hot
(growing season) burns as well as cooler (dormant season) burns that control
hardwoods and maintain the herbaceous layer.
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
Dormant season prescribed fire
There are a number of considerations, however, in creating a useful fire
management program. Remember, there is an art to the science of prescribed
burns. When you first start as a novice, talk with other landowners to learn from
their experiences and seek the help of a Certified Burn Manager. When a seasoned
veteran, share what you learned with your neighbors. A written burn plan is often
the first step to a successful prescribed fire. The plan should outline the prescription
for your stand and your objectives. Pre-planning of firebreaks, natural or manmade, should also be included in the plan. Contact a local consultant or your state
forestry agency for pre-planning assistance.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
59
Timing of Prescribed Fires
The first issue to consider is timing. The time of year you choose to burn influences
the intensity and effectiveness of the burn. Prescribed fire can be used in both the
dormant and growing season, with the time of year influencing the intensity and
effectiveness of the burn.
Dormant (cool) season fires are conducted in the winter when temperatures are
cooler, plants are dormant, and the weather is relatively stable. Historically, natural
resource managers have used prescribed fire primarily during the dormant season.
During this time, weather patterns are more predictable, and prescribed fires and
associated smoke are more easily controlled. Cool season fires reach lower
maximum temperatures than growing season fires, reducing the potential for pine
damage. However, improper use of fire can kill trees even during the cool season.
In addition, cool season fires will not stimulate most herbaceous groundcover
plants to flower and set seed.
Growing (warm) season fires are conducted in the spring or summer after leafout when temperatures are warmer, plants and trees are active, and the weather is
less stable. They can improve habitat in ways dormant season burns cannot but
should only be used where cool season fires have already reduced fuel levels.
Why Use Prescribed Fire During the Growing Season?
The main benefit from these burns is the excellent hardwood control that results.
Once hardwoods leaf-out, both stems and roots are more likely to be injured or
killed by fire. Winter
burns tend to only topkill hardwoods, and often
do not even do that, but
lower limbs. Top-killed
trees re-sprout vigorously
each year and may do so
for decades. Moreover,
annual winter burns
USDA Forest Service Archives, USDA Forest
Service, www.forestryimages.org
rather merely prune the
Growing season prescribed fire
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
provide sprouts from top-killed hardwoods a full growing season to recover from
fire, and the many surviving root systems produce larger numbers of sprouts after
each fire.
Growing season fire stimulates the growth of herbaceous vegetation, especially
bunch-grasses and legumes, so crucial to brood-rearing species like bobwhite quail
and wild turkey. This vegetation provides good cover for turkey poults and quail
chicks, as well as laying hens of both species. Insect populations, which make up
most of the diet of these young birds, also increase as result of the fires. Wiregrass
blooms and produces viable seed best after growing season burns, and many
wildflowers thrive after such burns.
Land managers are often leery of growing season burns because it has not been
the traditional time of year to burn. But that tradition may have had more to do
with the convenience and ease of burning than anything else. Historically, many of
the lightening strikes that would ignite
wildfires occurred during the warm
summer months and many of the plant
and animal species native to the longleaf
ecosystem evolved under these
conditions. An understandable concern
about destroying bird nests also causes
people to avoid growing-season burns.
When considered from a population or
Drue DeBerry
ecosystem level, rather than focusing on
Effective hardwood control
from a growing season fire
individual animals or nests, the clear
benefit of these burns outweighs any loss
of nests. Additionally, many groundnesting species evolved within this fireprone landscape and will usually renest
and have increased reproductive success in subsequent years, due to improved
habitat conditions. Also, due to the fact that fire does not burn uniformly
across a landscape, it does not always destroy nests. Another factor to
consider is that dormant season burns may expose some birds associated with
grass-shrub vegetation to unnecessary predation by hawks and owls, since
many of these raptors are migrating northward through the state at that time
of year.
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61
R E S T O R I NG WA R M - S E A S O N G R A S S E S
To maintain or restore the open understory structure required for the growth of
native warm-season grasses, prescribed fire is the best management tool as it
reduces litter build up, sets back succession, increases nutrient availability and
stimulates herbaceous growth.
In areas lacking appropriate understory species or with limited seed banks, it
may be necessary to establish native warm-season grasses and other herbaceous
species through propagation from local seed sources. A number of steps are
essential for successful reintroduction: competing grasses must be controlled
using herbicides and/or mechanical means and the seed bed must be prepared
properly, based on the planting method (e.g., burn if deep thatch is present and
you are drilling seed; disc if you are top-sowing). You may need to amend the
soil based on results of soil tests. Planting needs to occur in mid-April through
early June, and seeds must be planted at the right depth.
A Combination of Growing Season and Dormant Season Fires
While growing season fires are more challenging than dormant season
fires, most biologists will argue that they should be incorporated into management
plans if a landowner wants to maximize the health and diversity of the forest
understory. Research indicates that a combination of periodic May-June growing
season fires interspersed with late-winter dormant season fires may be best for
increasing overall diversity and abundance of insects. If only dormant season fires
are used, some understory plants will be favored while others are excluded.
A growing season fire may require more planning, precautions, and the use of a
variety of burn methods to accomplish burn goals than a dormant season fire. In
some fuels it can be difficult to get fire to carry after spring green-up, and the
possibility of killing desirable trees may be greater. Prescribed fire managers
unfamiliar with burning outside winter months should consult a Registered
Forester, Consulting Forester, or Certified Wildlife Biologist who has the appropriate
experience and expertise.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Drue DeBerry
Repeatedly burning in the winter can lead to a less diverse ground cover – often bracken fern,
sometimes referred to as “fire fern,” which has low wildlife value, will dominate.
Frequency
Frequency is a second issue to consider. Some years you will miss a season because
conditions are either too wet or too dry. Depending on conditions, you will usually
have enough fuel built up to set a second burn one to three years after the
previous burn. You need not burn at the first opportunity, but if you do not burn
one year you may be unable to burn the following year due to unfavorable
conditions. If you wait more than seven years, the fuel buildup can potentially
accumulate enough to create a fire that is difficult to control – a dangerous
situation.
More productive sites require shorter burn intervals (2-3 yrs) while extremely xeric
(dry) sites, such as those in the sandhill region, can tolerate longer burn intervals
(4-6 years). Consult with your forester to figure out the best plan for your forest.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
63
Types of Prescribed Fire
In addition to when and how often you burn, how you burn determines the
intensity and severity of prescribed fire. Prescribed fires are generally one of three
types: head fires, backing fires, or flanking fires. Deciding which type of fire to use
depends upon objectives, fuel, wind and moisture conditions, and the need to
manage smoke.
Head fires, which are
set to burn with the
FIREBREAKS
wind or upslope, are
Firebreaks are natural or constructed barriers that
relatively high-intensity
are kept free of woody fuel to stop or check fires.
and quick-moving
Permanent firebreaks such as roads or trails are safe
fires. They have
to strip disk without risk of damaging trees. Disking
greater flame lengths,
disturbs the soil which encourages legumes to grow,
faster rates of spread,
attracts insects, and creates bare soil. Natural plants
greater smoke
or planted food plot seeds in fire lanes provide
volumes, and burn
forage for wildlife like the Northern bobwhite.
cooler at the ground
surface than backing
fires or flank fires.
They are often ignited in strips (called strip head fires) to speed the burning and
provide the desired intensity. Due to their intensity, these fires can be more difficult
to control; however, lower overall burn costs can be expected per acre of burn. To
help ensure that a head fire will not escape, burn out a strip downwind with a
backfire wide enough to control the head fire.
Backing fires back into the wind or burn downslope. Fire is started along an
established barrier such as a road, plowed line, stream, or wetland and allowed to
burn into the wind. These fires burn with lower flame heights and lower intensity,
and move through the stand at slower speed than head fires. Backing fires are
generally the easiest way to burn because they are more easily controlled. Overall
burn costs per acre will be higher because these burns take longer to complete.
Flanking fires are set moving parallel to and into the wind. They are generally used
in combination with other burning techniques. For example, flanking fires can be
set perpendicular to backfires and be used to speed the process of burning. Where
flanking fires merge, fire intensity increases, but not as much as it does with strip
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
David J. Moorhead, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org
Strip-heading fire lines
head fires. This method of prescribed fire can stand little variation in wind direction,
requiring expert crew coordination and timing.
Cautions
A few situations that require special care when using prescribed fire are worth
mentioning. Large trees can be damaged or killed if a stand has not had a fire for many
years. The buildup of litter around tree bases encourages fine roots to grow into the litter,
making larger trees more susceptible to root damage. Applying a conservative prescribed
fire plan will restore the ability of large trees to withstand fire. Burning in these stands
should be conducted when the litter is saturated and weather conditions are cool, to
avoid the fire from smoldering for many hours. Multiple low-intensity burns when the
litter is wet are often needed to reduce litter buildup. Anytime a significant fuel load
(amount of flammable biomass) has built up, a conservative approach to the
reintroduction of fire is essential and will decrease the likelihood of fire becoming a foe
instead of a friend.
Past land-use should be taken into account before using prescribed fire. It is often
difficult to conduct growing season fires on forestlands that have previously been in
agriculture, due to the absence of adequate fuels to carry the fire. In these
situations, cool season burns may be the only option until fuels increase.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
65
Safety
The final issue is the most important – safety. If a fire gets out of control, it can
destroy property or, even worse, threaten human lives. Smoke threatens public
safety by impacting visibility on roads and reducing air quality. Safety is critically
important, and landowners are very strongly advised to use the services of
professional burn crews to keep a fire contained.
Georgia’s Prescribed Burning Act
Most Southern states have recognized through legislation the importance of
prescribed fire to maintaining healthy forests and wildlife habitat. The public good
outweighs the negative aspects, so legislation seeks to preserve a legal
climate that will not discourage prescribed burning.
The Georgia Prescribed Fire Council was established in January of 2007.
The Council is comprised of representatives from various agencies as
well as private landowners who use prescribed fire to manage their
lands. They are engaged in fire advocacy across Georgia, working to
protect the right and encourage the use of prescribed fire and also
promote public understanding of its benefits. Visit www.garxfire.com to
find out more about how you can become involved.
Prescribed Burn Manager Certification: The Georgia Forestry
Commission offers training for individuals interested in becoming a
Certified Burn Manager. The program enhances the skills of land
managers and acquaints burners with state regulations. Several one-day
training sessions are scheduled throughout the year. Attendees receive a
comprehensive study manual and instruction in a number of subjects
such as fire behavior, fire weather and fire tactics. Following the
training, applicants must then pass a written test and also submit an
affidavit stating they have at least 2 years experience conducting
prescribed burns and also have been in charge of a minimum of five
prescribed burns in order to become a Certified Prescribed Burn
Manager. Information can be found by visiting the Georgia Forestry
Commission website at www.gfc.state.ga.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Georgia law recognizes prescribed burning (referred to as prescribed fire in this
handbook) as a valuable and beneficial forest management tool and spells out the
rights and responsibilities of forest landowners. The Georgia Prescribed Burning Act
(Ga. Code Ann. 12-6-145 – 12-6-149) authorizes and promotes the continued use
of prescribed burning for community protection, silvicultural, environmental, and
wildlife purposes. In Georgia, use of prescribed fire is considered a right of a
landowner. Landowners must obtain a permit prior to burning and are
recommended to use a certified prescribed fire professional when conducting a
prescribed fire. Permits can be obtained online at the Georgia Forestry Commission
website (www.gfc.state.ga.us).
The Georgia Prescribed
Burning Act also provides
important liability
protection for landowners.
Georgia Code Section 126-148 4b states: “No
property owner or owner’s
agent conducting an
authorized burn under this
part shall be liable for
Michelle Isenberg, BASF
damages or injury caused
Comparison of a treated and untreated hardwood midstory
by fire or resulting smoke
unless it is proven there
was gross negligence in
starting, controlling, or
completing the burn.
I N T E G R AT E D A P P R OAC H E S T O H A R D WO O D
M I D S T O RY C O N T R O L
While prescribed fire is an important management tool for the maintenance of a
healthy forest, when Southern forests are fire-suppressed for several years (or even
several rotations), it can be dangerous, and in some cases, ineffective, to use fire
initially. In these situations, chemical and mechanical treatments can be excellent
methods to get a forest stand and understory back into shape so that periodic
prescribed fire can eventually be reintroduced. In areas where prescribed fire is not
possible due to safety issues, these treatments may be the only option for
mimicking the effects of prescribed fire.
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67
Hardwood midstory control can be implemented in pine stands, mixed
pine/hardwood stands and hardwood stands. It is important for a landowner to
assess the value these types of treatments will have in reaching their objectives. Not
all forests will benefit from hardwood midstory control treatments, so it is always
important to know the effects of these treatments before spending resources and
money on the treatment.
Mechanical Midstory Treatments
Mechanical mid-story treatments have become very popular in recent years. The
word “Gyro-Trac” has become popular among forest and wildlife managers.
Regardless of the brand of cutting or mulching machine that is used, mechanical
midstory control treatments can provide immediate results.
Mechanical midstory treatments are generally conducted by contractors, as the
average private landowner is not likely to purchase their own equipment to
conduct large-scale midstory
control work. Mulching and cutting
machines can clear trees and
vegetation in a midstory area, and
a good contractor can avoid larger
James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org
crop trees and even be species
A brushsaw is used to treat the
hardwood midstory.
selective in some circumstances.
Costs for these types of treatment
are typically $700 to $2,000 per
acre.
Mechanical midstory treatments
provide immediate results, but they
do not permanently control
hardwood competition or the
composition in a midstory. In
general, a mechanical midstory
treatment will need to be followed by herbicidal treatments or periodic prescribed
burning to reduce the hardwood rootstock component and release grasses and
native forbs. Also, in heavy midstory areas, the treatment can add a lot of biomass
to the forest floor, creating a thick layer of mulch and debris, which will need to
break down or be burned off to release the understory plants.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Herbicide Midstory Control
The greatest impact from midstory
Foliar treatment refers to the application of
treatments using herbicide can be
chemical to the leaves of the target plant.
accomplished when some disturbance has
Basal bark treatment is a method that
opened up the stand to sunlight and
applies chemical on the bark of a standing
hardwoods have sprouted sufficiently to
tree/shrub. The chemical and its binding
uptake the herbicide. Herbicide treatments
agent are absorbed through the bark into
provide landowners with a tool to select
the plant, where it kills the living cambium.
the kind of plants that are going to
Cut stem methods apply herbicide directly
recolonize a site. Herbicide hardwood
onto a recently cut stem. Dye should be
midstory control is valuable across the
added to mark the treated stumps. Hack
range of management objectives, from
and squirt methods involve using a hatchet
intensive timber management to
or machete to cut into the bark of the tree,
quail management, but the
and applying a concentrate herbicide
treatment selectivity will vary
solution directly into the cambium.
depending on the desired plant
composition outcome. Typical costs
for general herbicide treatment are
$60 to $150 per acre.
The following are some
approaches to utilizing herbicides
Broadscale Application of
Herbicides (Selectivity due to
herbicide spectrum)
Every herbicide has a spectrum of
plants that it controls well, and
plants that it does not control
well. A landowner can use a
broadcast herbicide treatment to
control undesirable vegetation,
while releasing desirable plants.
James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org
to alter the midstory.
Application of a broadscale herbicide
to control the hardwood midstory
The herbicide rate or
concentration will also have a significant effect on the treatment impact.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
69
Example 1: Arsenal AC herbicide controls hardwoods like sweetgum, maple and
yellow poplar very well, but Arsenal AC does not control blackberry, legumes or
Southern yellow pines. For a midstory treatment in a loblolly stand, a treatment can
be made with Arsenal AC by ground or over-the-top by helicopter that will control
undesirable hardwoods, and release blackberry brambles or legumes.
Example 2: Garlon 4 herbicide can reduce hardwood resprouts, but does not
impact grasses. In a thinned pine or hardwood stand, a treatment can be made
with Garlon 4 by ground that will reduce the hardwood component of the
understory, while releasing grasses and allowing for recolonization by native forbs.
Example 3: Velpar ULW is extremely effective at controlling oak competition on
sites with sandy soils, but does not control many native grasses or shrubs like
blueberry. In a thinned longleaf pine stand, a treatment can be made with Velpar
ULW by ground or over-the-top by helicopter that will control oaks, while releasing
the longleaf, native grasses and shrubs.
Backpack & Hack-and- Squirt
Treatments (Selectivity due to
James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org
herbicide placement)
Even broad spectrum herbicides can
be used selectively by directing your
treatment only to hardwoods or
plants that you want to control.
Example 1: In a quail savanna that
has excellent native grasses and
forbs in place, Arsenal AC can be
applied to the foliage of sweetgum
A backpack sprayer is used to spot treat hardwoods.
and other undesirable hardwoods
through a directed spray backpack
treatment.
Example 2: In a bottomland hardwood area, Chinese tallow or other undesirable
trees can be controlled by individual stem hack-and-squirt treatments using
products like Arsenal AC, glyphosate or Garlon 3A.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Time of Application (Selectivity due to timing)
Certain foliar active herbicides can be used in a forest stand during seasons when
desirable species are dormant, but undesirable hardwoods are susceptible to the
herbicide treatment.
Example 1: In a bottomland hardwood stand with a heavy infestation of Chinese
privet, a broadcast treatment of glyphosate can be used in winter to control the
privet infestation, while maintaining safety for desirable hardwood regeneration
and crop trees.
Example 2: Even though longleaf is a sensitive species, over-the-top treatments of
Arsenal AC can be used in fall on young longleaf stands to control undesirable
hardwoods while maintaining safety for your longleaf.
The control approach you use will be based upon site conditions and your
management goals. Due to the variable situations that landowners are faced with,
it is useful to get on- site advice from an expert before undertaking mechanical or
chemical control.
C O N T R O L L I NG I N VA S I V E S P E C I E S
Non-native invasive species are those plants, insects, or other organisms that do
not naturally occur in a specific area and when introduced are able to outcompete
native species for resources such as nutrients, light, physical space, water or food.
These species cause economic and ecological harm. For landowners, eradication of
invasive species requires precious time and resources. However, because invasives
are one of the top threats to species diversity, controlling these species is of utmost
importance to the health and diversity of your woods. In this handbook, we
mention a few of the damaging invasive plant species and insects but there are
many more invasive plant, insects, and wildlife species that are also of concern in
Georgia.
How or why a species becomes invasive is not fully understood. It is likely that
specific traits of a species (such as fast growth, rapid reproduction, and ability to
tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions) aid an invasive plant in
establishing and spreading in a new environment. Lack of natural predators can
further aid in the spread of these species and their ability to replace native
vegetation.
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71
The best defense against invasive plants is constant inspection of right-of-ways,
streambanks, and internal roads and trails followed by effective control measures at
first appearance of new arrivals. Early detection and treatment will minimize efforts
and costs that come with treating well-established plants or full-blown infestations.
In some cases, smaller infestations may be controlled using hand pulling or, for
woody species, by cutting or girdling. However, careful use of herbicides is often
the most effective way to control and eradicate invasive exotic plants. Eradication
of invasives can be difficult. It is not uncommon that the landowner ends up
spending time and money trying to do the work themselves, only to end up
contracting with a professional after a couple years of less than satisfactory results.
When a treatment does not adequately cover the infested area, invasives regrow
into the treated areas, and the progress is lost. An herbicide strategy for areas with
large invasive infestations can include several years of sequential treatment to
achieve a successful eradication.
Consult with your local forester or Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) agent
to learn more about controlling invasives. All
chemicals should be mixed and applied by
trained and certified persons, paying careful
attention to all directions and precautions
listed on the chemical containers and on all
appropriate Material Safety Data Sheets. The
state or federal offices that you contact to
learn about cost-share assistance programs
eradicating invasive species; these species pose
such a threat there are often special technical
and cost-share assistance programs set up to
fight them.
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
will also provide valuable information on
Cogongrass in bloom
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Cogongrass
Cogongrass is an invasive, perennial grass that produces dense stands reaching
heights of four feet and can grow in a wide range of soils from rich sandy loams to
poor sands. This alien species grows best in full sun but will thrive in deep shade
and will persist during severe droughts or through periodic inundations. An
identifying characteristic of the plant is the off-set midrib on the leaves.
Cogongrass has numerous attributes that contribute to its extremely invasive
characteristics. This grass blooms early in the spring and each plant can produce up
to 3,000 seeds. Seeds are very light and can be dispersed by the wind for a
distance of 15 miles or more. Although seed germination rates are generally high,
seed viability is relatively short. Cogongrass also reproduces by rhizomes
(underground stems) that can produce numerous shoots thereby invading a
substantial area in a very short period of time. Once established, the spread of
cogongrass increases at an exponential rate.
Although cogongrass has a relatively high rate of natural spread, mechanical
spread is accelerating the problem. Landowners and contractors spread cogongrass
across the landscape by moving contaminated soil and equipment while
conducting normal management
practices such as timber harvest
and the construction and
maintenance of food plots,
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
roads, and fire lanes.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
The off-set midrib is an
identifying characteristic
of cogongrass.
73
Infestations from this alien plant can have serious implications for resource
management. Dense stands of this grass prevent native seeds from reaching
mineral soil and they also cause significant stress on forested stands by competing
for available moisture and nutrients and literally growing through the roots of
native trees. Cogongrass is also allelopathic, meaning it produces its own chemical
enzymes that prohibit the growth of other vegetation in areas where it establishes
itself. Additionally, cogongrass burns at extremely high temperatures (842° F) and
dense stands, if ignited through prescribed fire or wildfires, can cause significant
loss of forest products.
Cogongrass adversely affects numerous species of wildlife. Unchecked it will not
only displace the native vegetation that wildlife depend upon but will create stands
so dense that many ground-dwelling animals find it difficult to impossible to
penetrate. Few insects feed on cogongrass and large infestations create “biological
deserts” that have no value as brood-rearing habitat for quail and turkey or as
foraging grounds for numerous songbirds. Intensive control measures should be
implemented to retard the growth and spread of this noxious pest.
In Georgia, cogongrass has been
documented in 20 counties, primarily
Currently, cogongrass is best controlled
in the southwest region of the state.
in forested habitat with applications of
herbicide. Control has been achieved
If you find cogongrass on your property,
with 2 percents solutions of glyphosate,
contact your local Georgia Forestry
with 1 to 1.5 percent solutions of
Commission office. You can also report
imazapyr or with a mixture of both
potential cogongrass sightings online at
herbicides. Best control is achieved
www.gfc.state.ga.us/ForestManagement/
when herbicide is applied in late
Cogongrass.cfm.
summer or early fall prior to plant
dormancy. However, treated areas
A GFC representative will inspect potential
should be closely scrutinized and
cogongrass sites. If they are confirmed to be
retreated as needed to eradicate this
cogongrass, a chemical eradication program
noxious weed. The potential spread can
will be initiated at no expense to the
also be reduced by carefully cleaning
landowner. Avoid mowing or disking through
any equipment that has become
or near a known or suspected cogongrass
contaminated prior to transporting to
spot since this could move seed or root
another field or location.
fragments to other areas.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
S A N D P I N E : A P L A N T E D T H R E AT
Sand pine (Pinus clausa) is a native of Florida and a small portion of southern
Alabama. There are two distinct varieties of sand pine. One has cones that only
open and release seeds following fire (known as serotinous cones) while the
cones on the other variety will release their seeds with or without fire. Sand pine
grows quickly on the deep, well-drained sandy soils where other commercial
pines struggle to survive or to reach merchantable sizes. As a result, sand pine
has been widely planted in sandhill habitats well outside the natural range,
including within states where it is not a native species. While a native of the
United States, this tree has invasive characteristics due to its ability to spread into
forestlands adjacent to where it is planted.
Fires occurring at frequent intervals, such as those that maintain longleaf pine
habitats, are deleterious to both varieties of sand pine, as the tree’s bark is thin
and provides poor insulation. However, fire suppression in many areas has
enabled sand pine to grow into natural habitats adjacent to plantations of this
off-site species. These sand pines grow quickly and prolifically, soon becoming codominant with native pines or scrub oaks, and because of their limbiness and
dense needle clusters, they crowd out a significant amount of sunlight that once
reached the ground, resulting in a drop in both herbaceous plant diversity and
abundance.
Prescribed fire at regular, relatively frequent intervals (2-5 years) is the best
method for controlling the establishment of young sand pines. Additional efforts
must be undertaken to reduce mature trees and stop their recruitment as they
are not as susceptible to low-intensity fire and may not be killed even with a
frequent burn rotation. Further, if the fire gets into the crown, depending on the
sand pine variety, the scorched cones may unleash excessive amounts of seeds.
Thus, it is recommended that mature trees be mechanically removed. If the trees
are of merchantable sizes they can be clearcut, ideally with some profit.
Although much less economically palatable, smaller trees can be removed either
with a precommercial thin, using a mulcher or brown tree cutter, or by hand.
Allowing small trees to reach merchantable sizes before cutting will come at a
great ecological cost and is not recommended. No good herbicide option exists
at this time.
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75
Red Imported Fire Ants
Red imported fire ants (Solenopsis
invicta) are aggressive stinging ants.
They are most easily identified by the
large mounds they build, which can
6 to 8 inches in diameter. They prefer
to establish nests in open areas such
as fields and pasturelands, where
sunlight reaches the ground. Unlike
native red ants, red imported fire ants
(RIFA) aggressively swarm upon
disturbance of their mounds, quickly
running up grasses to surfaces to sting
the disturber. In addition, the mounds
of RIFA will have a single entrance
only while native ant mounds often
have multiple entrances.
USDA APHIS PPQ Archives, USDA APHIS, www.forestryimages.org
range in size from 10 to 24 inches and
Red imported fire ants
These ants were introduced from South America to the United States in the midto-late 1930s through the port of Mobile, Alabama. Since that time, they have
infested over 320 million acres throughout the Southern United States and
California and New Mexico. In Georgia, they are found throughout the state
except in the mountain areas. In addition to the impacts to human health, red
imported fire ants have caused economic and ecologic harm.
Damages to electrical and farm equipment and crops are common. Southern
states already infested by the species suffer damages totaling more than $1
billion per year.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Wildlife impacts are numerous. The
hatchlings of reptiles, such as the
gopher tortoise, are particularly
impacted by RIFA. The ants can not
penetrate tortoise eggs, however, as
soon as the eggs crack open, RIFA can
enter and sting and consume the
hatchling. In one study, predation by
RIFA decreased hatchling survival by
27%. Adult tortoises and turtles can
be attacked while laying eggs and in
some cases will abandon nesting
attempts. The young of Northern
bobwhite and other ground-nesting
birds can also experience significant
mortality due to fire ant depredation.
White-tailed deer fawns and other
mammals can also be attacked by
RIFA, leading to blindness or injury.
Individual mounds can be treated with a number of commercially
available insecticides to control individual colonies. Broadcast application
of bait-formulated insecticides, which are taken up by worker ants and
taken back and redistributed throughout the colony, can also be used.
Widespread infestations of RIFA are nearly impossible to control. For this
reason, constant surveying and inspection of your property (particularly in
open areas) can help control establishment and spread of RIFA. The
development of biological control agents, which utilizes native predators
of RIFA (from South America) is currently being tested. Organisms under
consideration include a decapitating fly and a protozoan disease (fire ant
disease). The development of a viable biological control organism may
offer hope for larger-scale control.
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Phillip Jordan
The red-cockaded woodpecker is the only bird of the Southern pine forest
protected under the Endangered Species Act. Its rarity is based on diminishing
habitat and its need for mature longleaf pine forests maintained by regular fire.
Regulatory Assurances
for Forest Owners
Fire-maintained, Southern pine forests produce both ample wildlife populations
and income from timber harvests. Some landowners worry, however, that
managing Southern pine forests in ways that benefit rare wildlife can also result in
increased regulation under the federal Endangered Species Act if, as a result of
good land stewardship, endangered species take up residence on the property.
Since the Act prohibits destruction of occupied habitat, many landowners fear that
doing good by endangered species may cost them the flexibility to manage their
property as they wish.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Indeed, most Southern landowners have heard stories of other landowners who
have prematurely harvested timber or otherwise changed management on their
land so as to avoid creating habitat for red-cockaded woodpeckers or other
federally-endangered species.
For this reason, the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS) has developed regulatory
tools that encourage forest owners to conserve wildlife habitat while still producing
timber products. While the gopher tortoise is not currently federally listed in
Georgia, it is currently under consideration for listing. Because of this, family forest
owners who want to undertake management that benefits the gopher tortoise but
have concerns regarding management flexibility should discuss entering into a
Candidate Conservation Agreement with Assurances (a CCAA described below)
with the USFWS. Another regulatory tool also described below, the Safe Harbor
Agreement (SHA), is available to landowners who manage for listed species such as
the red-cockaded woodpecker.
CANDIDATE CONSERVATION AGREEMENT WITH
ASSURANCES
A CCAA is the tool of choice when a landowner wants to address the conservation
needs of a species that is at-risk, but is not federally listed as endangered or
threatened. The voluntary agreement details conservation and management
activities (e.g. prescribed fire) that will significantly benefit a particular species.
Landowners entering into CCAAs receive assurances that their conservation efforts
will not result in future regulatory obligations beyond those they agree to at the
time they enter into the Agreement.
In almost every case a single landowner’s activities will not create sufficient habitat
to ensure the future of a species, so the rule of thumb USFWS asks with regard to
a CCAA is: “What if a number of landowners throughout the range of the species
engaged in the same management activities?” If the collective conservation benefit
across the landscape will significantly contribute to the recovery of the target
species and ideally the elimination of the need to list it, then USFWS decides that a
CCAA is worth pursuing. In effect, this provides landowners an opportunity to
demonstrate that their conservation efforts can keep a species from becoming
endangered.
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SAFE HARBOR AGREEMENTS
Safe Harbor Agreements are an excellent tool for landowners when federally
threatened or endangered species are present. It was first developed in the North
Carolina Sandhills for the red-cockaded woodpecker. Under the program,
landowners agree to protect existing populations of endangered species and to
undertake proactive conservation measures to benefit those species. For the redcockaded woodpecker, landowners might agree to use prescribed fire, plant longleaf
pine, protect mature trees as possible nest sites, drill artificial cavities, or conduct
other activities that benefit the woodpecker. In exchange, the landowner receives an
assurance from USFWS that if the population of woodpeckers on the property
increases, the landowner will not be subject to additional regulation under the
Endangered Species Act.
While a Safe Harbor Agreement is not available for the gopher tortoise in Georgia
(as it is not federally listed), in 2000, a Safe Harbor Agreement for the red-cockaded
woodpecker was developed for landowners in Georgia. To date, 24 properties with
a collective total of 146,354 acres are enrolled. Safe Harbor has been well received
by landowners. Over 600,000 acres of Southern pineland in Georgia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Texas, and Virginia are enrolled in the program. This
collective area contains more than a quarter of all red-cockaded Woodpeckers found
on private lands.
Safe Harbor is a voluntary program and landowners can opt out at their own
discretion. Many landowners find they provide a useful insurance policy that allows
them to be good stewards of their land without having to worry that they might run
afoul of the Endangered Species Act. Nationwide, well over 4.2 million acres are
enrolled in over 20 states for a variety of endangered and threatened species. Safe
Harbor is benefiting 62 endangered and threatened species because landowners are
able to roll out the welcome mat for rare animals and plants while continuing to
manage their lands for timber, crops, and/or livestock.
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Ricky Layson, Ricky Layson
photography, bugwood.org
Native ground cover.
R A R E , T H R E AT E N E D ,
A N D E N D A NG E R E D
SPECIES
For a current list of species at-risk
in Georgia contact the Georgia
Department of Natural Resources
(GA DNR), Nongame Conservation
Section at 2065 U.S. Hwy 278 SE,
Social Circle, GA 30025-4743, phone
(770) 918-6411 or (706) 557-3032 or visit
www.georgiawildlife.org/conservation.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
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Drue DeBerry
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
A local resource professional providing technical assistance.
Conservation Incentives and
Technical Assistance
There are a number of cost-share programs to assist forest landowners with the
conservation practices described in this handbook. These programs are designed to
provide financial incentives for voluntary participation of landowners in conservation
efforts. The programs also recognize that conservation practices provide a social benefit
while incurring an expense to the landowner, so they help decrease these costs. The
process of seeking cost-share funds can be complex and at times confusing, but
perseverance pays off in the end. You will find that with each experience the process
becomes easier. Seek advice from your forester, local state or federal resource agency
representatives and from landowners who have successfully participated in the programs.
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Drue DeBerry
Drue DeBerry
Drue DeBerry
NATIONAL PROGRAMS
American Tree Farm System - American Forest Foundation
Nationwide, the American Tree Farm System includes over 90,000 family forest owners,
managing 23 million acres of non-industrial private forests. Landowners who enroll their
forestland in the program agree to follow a management plan that meets the American
Forest Foundation’s (AFF) Standards of Sustainability for Forest Certification, and conserve
the land's clean air, clean water, and wildlife. The Tree Farm System was recently endorsed
by the Programme of Endorsement for Forest Certification (PEFC), which will provide
forest landowners with expanded access to new national and international markets for
green products. To learn more about the program visit www.treefarmsystem.org.
American Tree Farm System in Georgia: The state chapter is administered by the Georgia
Forestry Association. Contact Carla Rapp at [email protected] or 478-992-8110.
Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Wildlife Habitat
Incentives Program, and others - Natural Resources Conservation
Service and the Farm Service Agency
The 2008 Farm Bill was recently passed and provides some exciting new opportunities for
forest landowners. The USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) and the Farm
Service Agency (FSA) administers several cost-share programs for conservation outlined in
the Farm Bill. The guidelines on many of these programs are being developed. The
information provided below provides some basic information and guidance; you should
check with your local NRCS or FSA office for specific details. Cost-share programs that are
most likely to be of interest to forest landowners include the Environmental Quality
Incentives Program (EQIP), the Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program (WHIP), Conservation
Reserve Program (CRP), and the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP).
EQIP and WHIP fund conservation practices such as invasives control, tree planting,
prescribed burning and others. At the state level, state working committees determine
which practices are eligible for funding and then distribute the funds to counties where
the funds are then distributed to landowners. At the county level, working groups
determine which practices will take priority in the application process. In the past, EQIP
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83
and WHIP provided cost-share up to 75
percent of the costs of conservation practices
Forest landowners
and required an agreement that the improved
interested in playing a role
area would be properly managed for 1-10
in the implementation of
years (EQIP) or 5-15 years (WHIP). These
the Farm Bill provisions in
guidelines may change with the new Farm
their state should contact
Bill. To find out if cost-share assistance is
their State Conservationist
available for the conservation practices you are
at the NRCS to learn about
interested in, contact your local NRCS office.
applying for membership
The CSP provides payments for landowners to
Committee.
on their State Technical
commit to higher levels of conservation
practices by providing annual stewardship
payments for implementing specific practices that benefit soil, water and air resources.
Only forestland that is incidental to an agricultural operation is eligible. In addition, in
order to be considered for CSP, landowners must already be addressing one resource of
concern and plan to address another resource of concern during their 5-year contract.
The CRP program, administered by FSA, provides annual rental payments and cost-share
assistance to establish long-term, resource conserving covers on eligible lands. In Georgia,
many landowners have utilized CRP funds to plant longleaf on unproductive agricultural
lands.
The new Farm Bill also includes a Forestry Title. This title authorizes a number of exciting
forestry initiatives including comprehensive statewide forest planning and investment in
the development of forest biomass energy technology. It also provides funding for the
Healthy Forests Reserve Program, which helps private forestland owners protect
endangered species and for the Community Forest and Open Space Program, which
provides matching funds to help county or local governments or non-profits to work with
willing sellers to purchase private forests threatened by conversion to non-forest use.
www.nrcs.usda.gov
Partners for Fish & Wildlife - U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
The Partners for Fish & Wildlife program provides technical and financial assistance to
private landowners through voluntary cooperative agreement. The program encourages
landowners to restore and enhance ecosystems to improve habitat for fish and wildlife.
Priorities for funding include programs that impact migratory birds, anadromous
(migratory) fishes, and threatened and endangered species.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Priority projects in Georgia include longleaf pine habitat restoration, riparian and stream
restoration, and threatened and endangered habitat restoration. Landowners maintain
management practices/restored habitats for approximately 10 years. Some projects may
require a more long-term agreement.
Individual landowners can become involved by contacting the Partners for Fish & Wildlife
program. A biologist will meet with you to discuss your needs, the opportunities available,
and assist you as possible. If your project meets certain criteria, the USFWS may share or
pay some of the costs. www.fws.gov/partners
STATE PROGRAMS
Forest Stewardship Program - Georgia Forestry Commission
The Georgia Forestry Commission administers the Forest Stewardship Program (FSP),
which is funded by the U.S. Forest Service. A primary focus of the FSP is the development
of comprehensive, multi-resource management plans that provide landowners with the
information they need to manage their forests for a variety of products and services.
Participation in the FSP is open to any family forest owner who is committed to the active
management and stewardship of their forested properties for at least ten years. Another
component of the FSP is Georgia Recognizes Our Woodland Stewards (GROWS) which
provides a forum for members to exchange ideas on how to manage this resource more
effectively in Georgia. To learn more about the landowner programs offered by Georgia
Forestry Commission visit www.gfc.state.ga.us/ForestManagement/LandOwnerPgms.cfm
Current Use Valuation Assessment (CUVA) Program - Georgia
Department of Revenue
Georgia offers landowners with bonafide forestry or agricultural lands a reduction in local
property taxes through the Conservation Use Valuation Assessment (CUVA). The reduced
assessment is based on the productivity of soils, rather than the Fair Market Value. To
receive this reduced assessment, the landowner must sign a conservation covenant with
the county agreeing to keep the land in its current use for 10 years; landowners who
break these covenants can face significant financial penalties. There is a minimum acreage
to enter the program (usually 10 or 25 acres, depending upon the county), and no more
than 2,000 acres can be enrolled (unless it is forestland property that qualifies under the
new amendment, described on the following page).
In 2008, a constitutional amendment was overwhelmingly passed in Georgia that will
establish a new class of CUVA for large forestlands. A Forestland Conservation Use
Valuation will be available for landowners who have more than 2,000 acres of forest
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85
lands. To receive the lower assessment, landowners must have a minimum of 200 acres
and sign a conservation covenant for 15 years. For more information on CUVA,
landowners should contact their local county tax assessor office.
Southern Pine Beetle Prevention and Restoration - Georgia
Forestry Commission
State forestry agencies administer the Southern Pine Beetle Prevention and Restoration
program (SPBPR). It is designed to encourage forestry practices that enhance the health
and vigor of existing pine stands, which can prevent damage caused by Southern pine
beetles, and to reforest areas previously affected by the beetles. SPBPR provides
educational and financial assistance to non-industrial private landowners. Landowners
must maintain cost-shared practices for 10 years after installation.
Landowners Guide to Conservation Incentives - Georgia
Department of Natural Resources
This recently updated guide provides a comprehensive overview and comparison of
available assistance. It can be downloaded from www.georgiawildlife.org/
landownerprograms_conservation.aspx. Hard copies can be obtained by contacting the
Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources Division, Nongame
Conservation Section at 478-994-1438.
Georgia Forestry Association
The Georgia Forestry Association (GFA) is a leading advocate for forestry in the state of
Georgia. The GFA has a membership of more than 2,100, including private landowners,
forest products companies, loggers, and other forestry community members. Membership
provides access to a wide range of legislative and technical resources and information.
GFA works to fulfill that mission by providing information, education, forums and other
support to promote the responsible use of our forests for the benefit of all Georgians.
www.gfagrow.org
University of Georgia Cooperative Extension - Warnell School of
Forestry and Natural Resources
The University of Georgia Cooperative Extension (UGA Extension) provides forest resource
services through outreach, instruction, and research programs. Programs focus on forestry,
wildlife, fisheries, and water resources. Outreach includes newsletters, publications and
various workshops on natural resource topics. The Georgia Master Naturalist program, a
hands-on environmental education program that explores habitats and ecosystems of
Georgia, is administered through UGA Extension. www.warnell.uga.edu/h/publicservice
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Southern Regional Extension Forestry
The goal of the Southern Regional Extension Forestry Office (SREF) is to identify, prescribe,
and implement a mix of education and technical services that increase the efficiency of
forestry programs in the southern United States. The SREF provides regional programming,
representation, promotion, and communication role within the forestry and natural
resource communities regionally and nationally. They have a comprehensive website that
provides access to a variety of publications related to pine management and a wide range
of forest management topics. www.sref.info
EMERGING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES MARKETS
Forests provide communities with important benefits besides timber, including clean water
and air, recreational opportunities, and wildlife habitat. Historically, landowners have
received little or no value from providing these forest-based ecosystem benefits. As with
any asset, failure to properly assign value, essentially assigns a value of zero. Not
surprisingly, things that are valued too low get replaced, often times, in the case of forests,
with housing developments, roads, and strip malls. Recently, economists, foresters,
environmentalists, academics, and other stakeholders have been promoting a solution to
this problem in the form of Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES). This idea is built
around the business principle that ecosystem services can be bought and sold through
ecosystem markets. These markets could offer exciting financial opportunities for forest
landowners. To learn more about ecosystem markets, the following websites are
recommended:
American Forest Foundation: www.forestfoundation.org/ccs_conservation.html
Forest Trends: www.forest-trends.org
USFWS: www.fws.gov/ventura/esprograms/hconservation/cbanks.pdf
Watershed Agricultural Council: www.nycwatershed.org
Environmental Defense Fund: www.edf.org/page.cfm?tagID=53
State of the Voluntary Carbon Market: www.ecosystemmarketplace.com/
documents/acrobat/StateoftheVoluntaryCarbonMarket18July_Final.pdf
Chicago Climate Exchange: www.chicagoclimatex.com/content.jsf?id=242
Georgia Carbon Sequestration Registration: www.gacarbon.org
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Drue DeBerry
A bald cypress swamp
Conservation Easements
A conservation easement is a highly effective and increasingly popular tool for
protecting working forests and other important lands and natural resources in
Georgia.
It is a legally-binding voluntary contract between the landowner and either a
qualified land trust organization or government agency that protects the
conservation values of the land – including forest land – in perpetuity. Each
easement is unique, but easements typically prohibit most industrial uses,
residential subdivisions, large parking lots, billboards, and surface mining. Uses
and activities that do not impair the conservation values of the property are often
allowed, such as timber management, farming, maintaining existing residences,
fishing and hunting.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
RESPONSIBILITIES OF
THE EASEMENT HOLDER
A qualified land trust or government agency is
the recipient of the easement and has the right
and responsibility to enforce the terms of the
easement. For example, if a future owner tried
to do something on the property that violated
the conservation easement, such as building a
strip mall, the easement holder can have it
stopped (by going to court if necessary). The
easement holder has the right to periodically
inspect the property. The holder may have
other rights specifically agreed to in the
easement. The holder’s primary obligation is to
make sure the terms of the conservation
easement are adhered to.
Conservation easements can help prevent forest fragmentation.
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89
A property with a conservation easement
can be sold, or it can be given to the
owner’s heirs. However, an easement is
recorded at the court house and thus
applies to all future owners of the property.
Signing an easement does not mean that
the public has access to the property unless
the easement explicitly allows it, and most
do not.
A permanent conservation easement
Valuation Assessment (CUVA) program (see
page 85).
Laura Dunleavy
allowing forest management is compatible
with enrollment in Georgia’s Current Use
A regularly-burned longleaf pine stand
T I M B E R M A NA G E M E N T
P R OV I S I O N S
Most conservation easements in Georgia (and elsewhere) allow timber
management, including the harvesting and sale of timber products, but the specific
terms and conditions vary. Easements often require that timber management be
conducted in accordance with a written plan and the easement holder may be
given the authority to review and approve the plan before timber operations can
begin. Conservation easements may impose restrictions on removing trees in
riparian buffer areas, wetlands and other sensitive parts of the property.
Landowners should seek an easement holder whose philosophy matches theirs so
that together they can develop a long-term plan that can help the landowner and
his or her family reach their financial and conservation goals.
C O S T S A N D TA X I NC E N T I V E S
The most significant costs associated with conservation easements are usually the
fees incurred in consulting with the landowner’s attorney and financial advisor.
Signing a conservation easement is an important decision and should be done only
after carefully considering all of the implications. Other costs may include a before
and after appraisal (this must be done in order to receive Federal and state tax
benefits), title examination, a baseline documentation report, and a conservation
and/or forest management plan. Most land trusts request a one-time, tax
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
deductible contribution to a separate stewardship fund that is held in trust and
used to help meet the cost of monitoring and enforcing conservation agreements.
The Internal Revenue Service requires that easement holders have the
demonstrated financial ability to enforce the terms of the easement in perpetuity.
Both Congress and the Georgia General Assembly have provided significant
tax incentives to landowners to enter into conservation easements protecting
their properties. These include potential Federal and state income tax deductions
in the amount of the reduction in the property’s fair market value resulting
from the conservation easement and a Georgia land conservation income tax
credit. A “public benefit test” applies, and deductions and credits are subject
to certain limits.
The 2008 Farm Bill renewed increased tax incentives for conservation easements
through the end of 2009. The incentives raise the deduction for donating a
conservation easement from 30% of their adjusted gross income to 50% and
increases the number of years over which the deduction can be taken (from 6 to
16 years). It also allows those who qualify as “farmers and ranchers”, including
landowners who receive at least 50% of their income from the sale of timber, to
deduct up to 100% of their income. The Community Forest and Open Space
Conservation Program and Healthy Forest Reserve program also provide benefits
to eligible landowners interested in entering into a conservation easement.
Interested landowners should consult carefully with an attorney, C.P.A. and
appraiser who are knowledgeable in this area of practice to determine the
availability and extent of the tax benefits of a conservation easement.
FO R M O R E I N FO R M AT I O N
The first step is to locate a land trust or government agency that will work with
you to protect your land. The Georgia Land Trust Service Center maintains a list of
land trusts operating in Georgia at www.gepinstitute.com/landtrust, and can assist
you in finding a suitable match (call 706-546-7507). The Georgia Forestry
Commission also holds forest conservation easements; for information, go to
www.gatrees.org or call their Forest Legacy Program manager at 706-542-9939.
The State also maintains a web site (www.conservegeorgia.org) with additional
information on land conservation, conservation easements and the Georgia Land
Conservation Tax Credit Program.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
91
Randy Browning, MFWF/USFWS
Natural regeneration of longleaf
The American Forest
Foundation
This handbook was produced by the Center for
Conservation Solutions, the national conservation
program of the American Forest Foundation.
Chartered in 1982, AFF began with the purpose of developing and administering
programs that encourage the long-term stewardship of the environment and our
natural resources. AFF is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit committed to creating a future where
North American forests are sustained by a public which understands and values the
social, economic, and environmental benefits they provide to our communities, our
nation, and the world.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
We are supported by individual contributions and by grants from foundations,
government agencies and corporations. Strong and diverse partnerships and
committed volunteers in every state drive our programs. With this support, we are
working to help landowners keep their family forests as forests.
The American Forest Foundation works to stop the loss of healthy and productive
forests. Half of the forest in the United States is comprised of small, family-owned
properties. Our outreach and education programs nurture and promote the power
of private stewardship on America’s family forestlands--forests that provide clean air
and water, carbon sequestration, green space and critical wildlife habitat; that ensure
a sustainable supply of wood and paper products; that support rural economies; and
enrich our quality of life. American Forest Foundation's programs prepare citizens to
make thoughtful, reasoned decisions about the future of forests, and related natural
resources (www.forestfoundation.org).
To achieve its mission, we implement programs and initiatives through three
Centers. The Center for Conservation Solutions provides tools and resources to
cultivate and support a network of conservation and research partners who can
advance AFF’s conservation goals; its primary program is Forests for Watersheds
& Wildlife. The Center for Family Forests maintains, supports, and mobilizes a
robust community of forest owners – along with a diverse, nationwide network of
organizational partners – all committed and able to help sustain multi-generational
stewardship; its primary program is the American Tree Farm System. The Center for
Environmental Learning undertakes both formal and non-formal education
programs for youth and families, as well as information and outreach activities
aimed at other targeted audiences that can influence the climate for sustaining
forests; its primary program is Project Learning Tree.
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
93
Project Partners
The handbook is part of an initiative that brings together conservation partners and
family forest owners to conserve and create forest habitat for the gopher tortoise
and other declining wildlife of the Southern pines.
The Georgia Forestry Association is the leading
advocate for forestry in the State of Georgia. GFA is an
issues oriented organization that provides leadership,
environmental education, information, forums, and
other support to promote the responsible use of
Georgia’s forests. www.gfagrow.org
G E O R G I A FORESTRY
C O M M I S S I O N
The Georgia Forestry Commission provides leadership, service,
and education in the protection and stewardship of Georgia’s
forest resources. www.gatrees.org.
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources works to
sustain, enhance, protect and conserve Georgia’s natural,
historic and cultural resources for present and future
generations, while recognizing the importance of promoting
the development of commerce and industry that utilize sound
environmental practices. www.gadnr.org
The USDA Forest Service is the federal leader in providing
technical and financial assistance to landowners and resource
managers to help sustain the nation’s forests and protect
communities and the environment from wildland fires.
www.fs.fed.us
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
Conservation Forestry
Awareness Sign
Every landowner who decides to modify their management to improve
conditions for the gopher tortoise and other wildlife makes a great
contribution. But the greatest benefit comes from landowners’ efforts as a
community. For this reason, you will greatly multiply the impact of your efforts
if you interest your neighbors and friends in the conservation management
strategies in this handbook. You can raise awareness of this conservation
initiative by filling out the enclosed Conservation Forestry sign application.
If you are following the conservation practices described in this handbook,
please let us know. We will send you a 12” by 18” aluminum sign.
Let your neighbors know that you are making a difference and helping
the gopher tortoise and other wildlife!
To receive a Conservation Forestry Awareness sign you can also apply online at
Drue DeBerry
www.conservationforestry.org.
Gopher Tortoise Habitat Conservation Sign
Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia
95
References/Suggested
Further Reading
Boyer, W.D. Longleaf pine: natural regeneration and management. 1999. Alabama’s Treasured Forests, 7-9.
Browning, R.W. et al. 2004. Restoring and Managing Longleaf Pine: A Handbook for Mississippi Landowners.
Mississippi Fish and Wildlife Foundation. 53 p.
Cox, J., D. Inkley, and R. Kautz. 1987. Ecology and habitat protection needs of gopher tortoise (Gopherus
polyphemus) populations found on lands slated for large-scale development in Florida. Florida Game and Fresh
Water Fish Commission, Nongame Wildlife Program Technical Report No. 4, Tallahassee, Florida. 75pages.
Dickens, D.E, B.C. McElvany, D.J. Moorehead, and M. Frye. 2007. Growing poles in Southern pine stands. Georgia
Forest Productivity, No. 010R-07. www.bugwood.org/productivity. 10 p.
Diemer, J. E. 1986. The ecology and management of the Gopher Tortoise in the southeastern United States.
Herpetologica 42:125-133.
Duryea, M and Edwards C. Pine straw management in Florida’s forests. University of Florida Cooperative Extension.
Circular No. 831. Retrieved May 21, 2008 from, www.sfrc.ufl.edu/Extension/pubtxt/cir831.html
Epperson, D. M. and C.D. Heise. 2003. Nesting and hatchling ecology of Gopher Tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus)
in southern Mississippi. Journal of Herpetology 37, 315-324.
Franklin, R.M. 1997. Stewardship of Longleaf Forests: A Guide for Landowners. Longleaf Alliance Report No. 2.
The Longleaf Alliance, Solon Dixon Forestry Education Center, Andalusia, AL. 44 p.
Gopher Tortoise Council www.gophertortoisecouncil.org/
Harris, A.H., J.S. Kush, R.S. Meldahl, and J.M. Varner. 2001. And the winner is…longleaf pine: Response of
planted pines to various cultural treatments 39 years later. Longleaf Alliance Report No. 5, 129-131.
McIntyre, R.K., Jack, S.B., Mitchell, R.J., Hiers, J.K. and Neel, W.L. 2008. Multiple Value Management: The
Stoddard-Neel Approach to Ecological Forestry in Longleaf Pine Grasslands.
Moore, J.H. Managing the Forest and the Trees: A Private Landowner’s Guide to Conservation Management of
Longleaf Pine.
Powers, J.S. Is Longleaf Long Gone? Outdoor Alabama. Retrieved May 15, 2008 from www.outdooralabama.com/
hunting/articles/longleafgone.cfm
Snyder, S. A. 1993. Drymarchon corais. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online].
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory
(Producer).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1990. Gopher Tortoise Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Jackson,
Mississippi. 28 p.
Van Lear, D.H. et al. 2005. History and restoration of the longleaf pine-grassland ecosystem: Implications for
species at risk. Forest Ecology and Management 211, 150-165.
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Pine Ecosystem Conservation Handbook for the Gopher Tortoise in Georgia