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Interview with
Oscar Castro Neves
Virtuoso guitarist, composer, arranger, producer, Oscar Castro-Neves
knows it all when it comes to music. He came to this world
in good company: Oscar was born on May 15, 1940, in Rio de
Janeiro, one of triplets in a highly musical family. When he was 16,
his first recorded song,“Chora tua tristeza”, became a hit in Brazil.
Soon he emerged as one of the founding figures of the musical
movement that became known as Bossa Nova, along with Antonio
Carlos Jobim, João Gilberto, Carlos Lyra, Roberto Menescal and
many other artists of an exceptional generation, whose talent still
delights innumerable admirers worldwide.
Oscar had a remarkable participation in Bossa Nova’s first concert in
the United States, on November 22, 1962 at Carnegie Hall in
New York. From that point on, he became one of the main
promoters of Brazilian music in America. As leader of his own
band, he toured in company with the Dizzy Gillespie Quintet, the
Stan Getz Quartet, the Lalo Schiffrin Trio and the Laurindo de
Almeida Quartet, and recorded with Quincy Jones, Ella Fitzgerald,
Herbie Hancock, Barbra Streisand, Paul Winter, Dave Grusin,
Toots Thielemans, Harry Belafonte and Michael Jackson. In 1971,
he joined Sergio Mendes’ Brazil 66 and as guitarist, musical
director and vocal coach. He has recorded more than 15 albums
and appeared with the group in every major city of the world.
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Oscar produced “Soul of Tango”, with cellist Yo-Yo Ma,
which won the 1999 grammy award for best classical crossover.
”Leaning into the night”, with guitarist Ottmar Liebert,
also remained on the Billboard classical crossover charts
for nearly a year. Oscar’s film scoring credits include
“Blame it on Rio”,“Gabriela”(featuring the music by
Antonio Carlos Jobim),“LA Story”,“He Said, She Said”,
“Larger Than Life”, and many others. For six years
he produced a night devoted to Brazilian music
at the Hollywood Bowl In Los Angeles, California.
He is currently composing and performing the music for
the new Julia Louise Dreyfus TV series “Watching Ellie”.
His extraordinary musical achievement has won the admiration
of the public and the applause of his peers, not only for his
musicianship and distinctive guitar style, but also for his unique,
sophisticated harmonic concepts and the exquisite texture
and color of his orchestrations. But this is not enough
to define the man. What impresses me most about Oscar
is the human dimension, his joie de vivre, the courteous
way he addresses everyone, his warm devotion to his family
and friends. It is a pleasure to be around him. I have been
his fan for many years and took great pleasure in organizing this
interview, in which Sergio Mielniczenko also participated.
Ambasador José Vicente Pimentel
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I remember going over to his house and feeling ecstatic,
filled with enthusiasm for the way he did things,
the clean harmony, such precision. Without exaggeration,
when I got home I was so excited I ran a fever!
JVP – Oscar, to start with, tell us how you composed
“Chora Tristeza”, your first great hit?
OCN – I composed “Chora tua tristeza” (Cry Your Sadness)
inside a bus, playing with intervals. Then I ran home
and took my guitar to play the harmony I had been
hearing since I got on the bus. The lyrics were later written
by Luvercy Fiorini, an architect who was a good friend of
mine and became my partner in
“Menina feia” as well. At about the same time I wrote
another song with Ronaldo Bôscoli titled “Não faz assim”,
which was recorded by the “Garotos da Lua” (Boys from
the Moon), the group in which João Gilberto took part.
JVP – It was the second half of the 50s and Brazil
was in a very good mood. Juscelino Kubistchek,
elected president, promised 50 years of
development during his 5 year term. It was against this
optimistic background that Bossa Nova
was born, and you became a founding father.
OCN – It was a happy Brazil, there was hope in the air.
This atmosphere created a certain naiveté.
Bossa Nova is naïve, a little boat, the sun, the sea, the
illusions,‘I lost my girlfriend but I will get her back
tomorrow...’ Bossa Nova was born and conquered the
world thanks to a series of factors. First because of the
quality of the tunes, composed by wonderful musicians,
but also by the favorable mood of the country and the
spontaneity that prevailed. We played the music we
wanted to play. That music, which I call urban samba, was
being made by a group of middleclass boys and girls who
played guitar for fun. We all became good friends.
JVP – What kind of music did you listen to?
OCN – All kinds. At the age of 14, I discovered jazz - the
harmony that makes jazz so rich. I listened to Charlie
Parker, Dizzy Gillespie and Stan Getz. Among the
guitarists I remember Barney Kessel. At home, we often
listened to Bach, Stravinsky and the impressionists
Debussy and Ravel. I naturally developed an ear for
harmony. When I played with my family at home, and we
played all the time, we searched for a richer harmony.
Suddenly we found out that other musicians were striving
to reach the same goals. People of the caliber of Jobim and
Menescal.
JVP – During the 30s, as João Máximo and
Carlos Didier tell us in their excellent biography
of Noel Rosa (*), there was a group who got
together in Vila Isabel and played and composed
a lot of samba. At the end of the 50s, there was
another group in Copacabana ….
OCN – That’s right, a group that was bound by a
camaraderie which maybe would not be possible
today, since music became a business, an
industry so big that people are now isolated,
compartmentalized. Do you know how I met
Tom? My brothers and I had a band that we called
“The Castro-Neves Brothers”. One day, Mário, my
oldest brother, picked up the phone and called Tom:“
Tom, this is Mário Castro-Neves”.“From The
Castro Neves Brothers? I know you guys.
How’s it going? What can I do for you?”“
We are working on some music on a piano in
our garage. Would you like to come over, have
a beer and chat?”. Standing near the phone,
I heard Tom shouting to his wife:“Teresa, is there
anything going on tonight? There isn’t”?
And resuming the conversation with my brother:
“Listen, I am going to take a taxi and will be
there in a minute.” He came by, drank some beer,
listened to a few songs and played some. And that’s how
a lifetime friendship started. I was 16 and he was 30. I
remember going over to his house and feeling ecstatic,
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filled with enthusiasm for the way he did things, the clean
harmony, such precision. Without exaggeration, when I
got home I was so excited I ran a fever!
JVP – At that time, Tom was already a great name,
wasn’t he?
OCN – Tom was huge. The entire person was huge.
Not only the composer, not only the piano player,
but also the charismatic leader, the story teller, the one who
knew all breeds of birds and fishes.
Everything about Tom was fascinating. That was
a time of great unity. We were always playing each
other’s songs.“Listen to the last song of Menescal,
Tom”, and Tom would find it great. We were enthusiastic
about each other. In my dreams
I imagine that the impressionist
movement must have been
this way. Baudelaire was
Debussy’s friend, who was
friends with Ravel. And we were
the same way.
JVP – There were also some
great female artists, such as
Nara Leão…
OCN – Nara, above all,
was a sweetheart. Little
more than a teenager,
she dated Ronaldo Bôscoli. Her
parents Jairo and Tinoca lived in
a beautiful apartment with a
huge room facing Copacabana beach.
Back in those days dance parties were very trendy,
but at our gatherings nobody danced. We played guitar
and sang until the sun rose. Nara’s home was perfect
for that since they were always ready to receive us.
That is why when somebody asked:
“Where are we going today?”, usually the answer was:
“Let’s go over to Nara’s”.
JVP – She had a unique style and an amazing repertoire.
OCN – You take any record of Nara and the music selection
is irreproachable. Besides she was a sweetheart. It was very
sad when she passed away. I had flown down to Brazil to
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play at the Free Jazz Festival. To play at home is something
else, it is a pleasure and, at the same time,
it is very dangerous. To play at Carnegie Hall is easy,
but if I am going to play in Brazil I want to be
at my very best. I was with a wonderful, first class band,
but I was worried. Nara sent me a cable,
“I won’t be able to attend. All my love”. I called her
back,“It is such a pity that you can’t come. I’d be so
pleased”, and that was it. She didn’t tell me anything,
but she was already very sick and would die
one month later. If I had known I would have
made a greater effort to see her. I still feel sad. I thought
“I’ll see her later”, but I didn’t.
JVP – When did you all realize that Bossa Nova
could hit it big?
OCN – Tom was already the great Tom, but the rest
of us were there basically to have fun. No one really
worried about being successful. There was a
photographer, Francisco Pereira, who had a very good
sound recorder. It was a thrill to go to his place
and record some tunes. João Gilberto was always there.
At that time, a good recorder was somewhat unusual. One
day at Francisco’s I played “Chora tua tristeza”
on my guitar. Alaíde Costa, a well known singer, listened
to it and asked me to play it again. She was making a
record, and to my amazement she asked me if she could
record my song. I had never thought anyone would ever
consider recording it. I did not even know how to write
music. I was so thrilled I ran to Carlos Lyra’s home
because his mother was good at solfeggio. I sang the
melody, she wrote the keys, I put the harmony
and asked Nelsinho do Trombone to make the
arrangement. A few weeks later, they called me
from the studio. When I listened to all that chords,
I was really moved. My own tune orchestrated!
JVP – How old were you when you composed that song?
OCN – I was around sixteen. Soon after the release of the
record, I woke up and heard the milkman passing under
my window and singing that song. I went down to the
street on my pajamas and shouted “Hey, you, that tune is
mine”. The guy looked at me as if I was mad and
mumbled something like “yeah, sure, I know” and snack
out. In a short period of time,“Chora tua tristeza” had 50
recordings. Agostinho dos Santos, Maysa, everybody
recorded it. I didn’t receive a penny, but that’s OK.
JVP – João Gilberto made a huge impact with
“Desafinado” and “Chega de Saudades”, didn’t he?
OCN – Oh yes, he did. João Gilberto single handedly
invented the Bossa Nova beat. Samba is a composite,
an amalgam of various percussion instruments.
João took the rhythm of samba and, to use a expression
I like to use, decanted its essence. He made it simple
and at the same time magic when he added his voice.
The first ingredient of the recipe is the decanted
rhythm invented by him. The second is the equilibrium
between voice and guitar. The guitar was a perfect
instrument, since it is more delicate than the piano and
could be integrated to the volume of João’s voice.
The note he sang complemented the chord. He sings
a note and does the swing so that there is a balance
between tune and guitar, so that when the harmony
is changed, the result is harmonic. For instance,
in this note (he sings and follows with the guitar)
the equilibrium is so good that you notice all of the
harmonic changes. João mastered that balance.
The first time I listened to João, it was as if a window
was opening up. From that moment on, music
would never be the same again. João had the talent
as well as the personal conviction and so he influenced
all of us. I am sure that my music wouldn’t be the same
without him. Not only mine, but also Tom’s,
Menescal’s, Carlinhos’, everyone’s.
JVP – What a group: Tom, João Gilberto, you, Roberto
Menescal, Carlos Lyra... How did you meet Menescal?
OCN – Menescal tells a story that makes me blush, but it is a
good story anyway. He was one of the guys that
was invited by Mario to play at our garage. I was working
at a bank. One day I came back home and found my
brother playing with a guy I had never seen before.
I still had my suit and tie on, but I was so
eager to play that I didn’t care. I took the guitar from
Menescal’s hands without even asking for it…
I do not quite remember that, but when I ask
Menescal if I actually did that, he replies:“Yes you did!”
That was the way we met. I am extremely fond of
Menescal, he is a remarkable person and was an essential
figure in the Bossa Nova movement. The same
goes for Carlinhos Lyra whose songbook has so much
class, no other can compare.
JVP – The first and historic recording of Bossa Nova
was by Elizeth Cardoso, in the LP
“Canção do Amor Demais”…
OCN – That was the only time João Gilberto followed
somebody else in a recording.
JVP – …but at that time, the hits in Brazil
were mostly melancholic, laments about broken
hearts to be listened to in a dimly
lit night club. Ruy Castro, in his new book
“A onda que se ergueu no mar” (*),
has some interesting insight: bossa nova took
Brazilian music away from the
night club and opened it up to the sea.
OCN – Right. There was a night club type of music,
which was for adults, whereas Bossa Nova was
music for people who were too young to hang out in
night clubs. I used to go to nightclubs in disguise.
I often went to a jazz bar called Little Club, at
Beco das Garrafas, in Rio, just to listen to Dolores Duran.
When the police arrived, the pianist usually left and
I would take his seat, since nobody asked for the pianist’s
ID. When police got out, the pianist would return and
Samba is a composite, an amalgam of various
percussion instruments. João took the rhythm of samba and,
to use a expression I like to use, decanted its essence. He made it
simple and at the same time magic when he added his voice.
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I would go back to my seat. I did not even drink.
I went there only to listen to Dolores. I was interested in
nothing else but her music. At that time I told my mom
that I had changed my mind and would no longer be a
doctor. We founded a musical academy in a house that
belonged to a friend of Carlinhos’. Carlinhos, Menescal
and I gave guitar lessons. Besides, I had a dance mix. I
survived with the money we made playing at parties.
We played everything: bolero, Italian rock’n roll…
JVP – Meanwhile, Bossa Nova was becoming
popular. The movement was born in Rio,
but it seemed that Brazilians were ready for
it from north to south.
OCN – and many American
musicians as well. At that
time, Herbie Mann had already
been recording in Brazil,
Paul Winter had finished
a tour sponsored by the State
Department, discovered Bossa
Nova and stayed in Brazil
for 6 months. Winter
recorded with Luisinho Eça,
with Menescal and things
went smoothly from that
moment on. A disc jockey called
Felix Grant took
various albums to Washington
and the bossa nova gospel began
to spread.
JVP – Several American singers recorded albums
that featured Brazilian music, such as
Nat King Cole, Sarah Vaughn, Lena Horne,
Sammy Davis Jr and Billy Eckstine,
just to name a few.
OCN – Those who went to Brazil fell in love with Brazilian
music. That was the kind of music jazz players wanted to
do. There is an interesting observation, the fact that bossa
nova is a decantation of the complexities of samba made it
easier for Americans to play it. Samba’s rhythm was
difficult (at least, at that time it was). Today they can play
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everything), but the bossa nova appealed to jazz
musicians. That, along with a rhythm that could be
reproduced, helped Brazilian music to travel well.
JVP – Then came the Stan Getz album,
in March of 62…
OCN – Charlie Byrd convinced Stan Getz to
do that album. Byrd was a classical guitarist.
He had studied with Segovia. To him, bossa nova
was a piece of cake.“Desafinado”, by Stan Getz,
sold really well. Getz, by the way, was always
very cool with me.
JVP – There are however several stories about
his bad temper. A funny one is that during the
recordings, Stan played a chord and, seeking
reassurance, asked Tom Jobim:“How was it?”
And Tom, unperturbed:“Stan, have another scotch.”
OCN – There are a lot of stories, but the truth is that
“The girl from Ipanema” became a world hit.
I heard that Norman Gimble did not want to use
the word Ipanema in the English version, saying that
nobody would know what it was about. Tom
was adamant:“No Ipanema, no song”.
Nowadays, everyone knows where Ipanema is.
JVP –-Traduttori, traditori. They are always a
problem, but I like the English version of
“Ïnsensatez (How insensitive)”. Ruy Castro,
the Brazilian writer of whom I am an admirer,
states in his book “Chega de saudade”(*)
that João Gilberto created the beat just to sing
the tunes he liked, the way he liked. Ruy Castro
is doing something similar, he has found a way to tell
the stories of people he likes, by writing the bios
of João Gilberto, Tom Jobim, the soccer player
Garrincha, the playwright Nelson Rodrigues…
Ruy Castro considers Gene Lees to be the best
American translator of Bossa Nova’s lyrics.
OCN – Gene Lees was born in Canada and these
days lives in Ojai, California. He worked extensively with
Tom. I enjoy talking to him. He is very educated.
“Samba of the Jet” was the first version he did for one of
Tom’s tunes. It was actually the first version he ever made.
Gene told me that he was at the hospital, in Brazil,
with a broken leg and wrote to Tom, whom he had just
met in Rio. He had gone to Brazil in 1961 together
with Paul Winter for that tour sponsored by the
State Department. According to Gene, at the end of the
tour, they asked him to return to Washinton to
do the financial accounting, so he filled a shoebox
with receipts and threw it on the officer’s table. …
He was also very young at that time.
JVP –-The success of Stan Getz and Charlie Byrd
with “Desafinado” opened the door to the
Carnegie Hall Concert.
OCN – Sidney Fry, a former seamerchant that had
fallen in love with Brazil, obtained the publishing rights
of several Brazilian artists and invited them to play a
concert in New York. I was invited, because
Fry wanted to promote an album he had recorded with
me, which was titled “Oscar Castro Neves Big Band Bossa
Nova”. However, it was impossible to invite every
body, so he just promised that whoever was in
New York would be included in the concert. That was
when the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Brazil entered the
picture, thank God. The head of the cultural
division, Mario Dias Costa, who had been put in charge of
the musicians’ trip, obtained the tickets from
VARIG – Brazilian Airlines with Rubem Berta …
and the rest is history. Everybody went.
JVP –-Tom used to say that “Brazil is not for beginners”,
as a way to mock a certain tendency of minimizing the
works of those who become successful.
According to the news that first arrived in Brazil,
the concert had been a failure…
OCN – Under the circumstances, it was quite successful.
Great American musicians were in the front rows.
The show had an American segment. Stan Getz played, as
well as the Gary MacFarland’s Ochestra and the
Lalo Schifrin Trio. Back in 1962 the mixing boards
we have today did not exist. We had three microphones
at Carnegie Hall, one to record the show, another for the
audience and a third one to broadcast live to a radio
station. Every performer had a mountain of cables in front
of him. If you add to that the fact that for two hours the
audience heard nothing but Portuguese, then you will
conclude that the reaction was wonderful. It just so
happened that the newspapers were on strike and so we
did not get much of a press coverage.
JVP – Many performers were ill prepared for a show of
such magnitude. They say that that Tom was wearing
a polyester suit when he got off the plane in a cold
November day in New York...
OCN – I rehearsed them for two days, since no one
had brought his band. Menescal says that he only
sang once in his entire life before a live audience and it
was at Carnegie Hall. I do not remember very well,
but I think there was an article of 5 or 6 pages
published in O Cruzeiro, the most popular Brazilian
magazine at that time. It would be worthwhile to
research the archives to take a look at the original text,
which was not very nice to us. It was titled “Bossa
Nova Out of Tune at Carnegie Hall”,
or something like that. Maybe the press was not
invited. I am just guessing, but if Fry could not pay
tickets for the performers, then he wasn’t able to pay
for the Brazilian press either.
JVP –Despite the fact the Brazilian music had already
received international acceptance, the Carnegie Hall
Concert was important for opening it up to the
international market.
OCN – In Europe, the movie “Black Orpheus” opened many
doors when it was awarded the Palm d’Or at Cannes. In
We had three microphones at Carnegie Hall, one to
record the show, another for the audience and
a third one to broadcast live to a radio station. Every
performer had a mountain of cables in front of him.
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the United States there has always been a certain
fascination about Brazil since the days of Carmem
Miranda and her “south of the border” style with those
ornaments and bananas. Brazil has charisma,
and Bossa Nova added sophistication and talent to that.
Tom Jobim was a complete musician. João Gilberto
was wonderful, and there were many more extraordinarily
talented people. Soon,“Samba de Verão
(Summer samba)” by Marcos Valle was number 3 on the
Billboard charts, on Walter Wanderley’s recording.
JVP – Marcos Valle was 20 years old that time...
OCN – He is still 20. I was with him a short while
ago and he still remains 20 years old.
JVP – Bossa nova opened
up minds and markets in
Brazil as well
OCN – Nara took a very
opportune artistic decision.
She recorded some songs by
traditional composers who lived
in Rio’s poorest neighborhoods,
or in the poorer cities of the
Northeastern region
of Brazil, such as Zé Ketty
and João do Valle. Nara
made the bridge between
generations. She promoted
a revival of those great creators.
Of course Menescal and
Ronaldo Bôscoli couldn’t
be in that same album, but there were no hard feelings
between them. Nara and Menescal had been
friends since childhood. Carlinhos Lyra belonged to the
National Student Union, so he became involved with the
so-called protest music, which was his political truth. I was
a politically alienated person. There is this void in my
youth. I was only interested in music. Carlinhos was older
than me. He did not talk about politics with me.
He was an activist, to use a term of that epoch. That
moment in Brazil seemed to be special. There was
such a fantastic musicality and a permanent camaraderie. I
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like to look back and remember how wonderful life
was and how great those relationships were. I keep
my friends and from that viewpoint it is as if nothing
has changed in my life. I am proud when I go to
Brazil and feel that those people are still friends
of mine. In spite of the distance, our friendship has not
suffered and that makes me happy. Menescal is very special
to me and is always there when I need to talk
to him. I am very grateful for that.
JVP – There were businessmen sensible enough to believe
in the new generation of musicians.
OCN – Aloysio de Oliveira and André Midani were
two of them, both extremely important to bossa nova.
Aloysio had been the leader of the “Bando da Lua”.
He had dated Carmen Miranda and came with her
to the United States. When he returned to Brazil,
he became the artistic director of Odeon and founded
the label Elenco. Aloysio launched Tom Jobim’s carrier
as an arranger, as well as João Gilberto, Alaíde Costa,
Elza Soares and an enormous list of talented singers.
Odeon competed with Phillips, headed by André Midani,
another essential name in the history of Bossa N
JVP – After the concert at Carnegie Hall, several
musicians decided to try their luck overseas.
OCN – The same group had a second concert in Washington
DC, sponsored by Roberto Campos,
the Brazilian Ambassador to the US at the time.
And then many people returned to Brazil. I had a deal
with Sidney Fry, so I stayed a little longer. I went to
California on a tour and played with the Dizzie Gillespie
Quintet, the Lalo Schifrin Trio, the Stan Getz Quartet,
the Laurindo de Almeida Quartet with Bud Schank,
Ray Brown and Shelley Man and my own group,
with me at the piano (not the guitar), my brother
Iko at bass, a drummer named Roberto Pontiel and the
guitarist Henry Willcox. Today, one has become a
doctor, another one a lawyer, the third an architect and
I remain a musician. Soon after I struck a contract with
the Waldorf Astoria and played at the Empire Room.
There was a sign up front that read:“Oscar Castro Neves,
The King of Bossa Nova”. Actually, I just played for people
to dance. Finally, I went back to Brazil
to get a divorce from my first wife. I didn’t return
to the U.S. until 1967.
JVP – You mean that you stayed in Brazil for 4 years, from
1963 on. What did you do during that time?
OCN – I became an arranger. There was a recording
company, RGE, whose owner, José Scatena,
was producing a singer from the São Paulo
state called Ana Lúcia. He invited me to arrange the tunes.
I had never written to orchestra. Actually
I didn’t even write music well. I asked
a friend to help me. He wrote a part to fagote
and taught me to count with my hands to draw
the rhythm. I went home, wrote the arrangements
and became an arranger.
JVP – Talk about your life in the US from 1967 on.
OCN – I came with Aloysio de Oliveira and the
group Quartet in Cy. I was the arranger, the fifth Cy.
I had an agreement with the group. Since I wrote
everything they sang, I got one fifth of everything,
even if I did not participate in the shows. Let’s say
that they had a performance on Globo TV,
along with an orchestra and they did not need me.
They were singing what I had composed, so I was the 5th
Cy. This friendly relationship lasted for a long period.
We are still very close. We came to the US for
the first time in 67, along with Marcos Valle, to do a guest
shot in the Andy Williams Show, a variety program in
which Caimmy and Tom had already taken part.
We took the opportunity and made a record for the
“Reprise” label, called “Revolución con Brasilia”, a
Warner Brothers’ idea. I was told about the title only
after the record was made. The repertoire was
completely Brazilian: Chico Buarque, Tom, my tunes,
everything was Brazilian. The title is bad, but the LP
is very good. The Cys are great. Sonny Burke,
who was Sinatra’s producer at Reprise, produced it. After
that, I returned to Brazil. In 68, the Quartet,
Aloysio de Oliveira and I came back to the US to appear
in a TV program that failed, the “Carol Burnett Show”.
Aloysio sold the “Elenco” and came to the US with us.
He was married to Cyva. Then, two of the girls
went back to Brazil and the group came to an end.
I was beginning to record with Sérgio Mendes in a studio.
I thought I should stay in the US. I had never
thought about staying.“I’m going to stay for one more
recording, I am going to stay one more month.”
Today, I look back and realize that I have been living here
for 34 years. Aloysio made fun of that:“Oscar, if
you stay here for 3 years, you feel that you have
to go back to Brazil; if you stay for 7 years, you still
“have to go back”, but if you stay for more than 7
years, you won’t go back”. That was it. Half
of us is what we do, isn’t it? I was professionally well
and my career began to provide me some happiness. I
began to orchestrate movie scores. In Brazil I had
studied arrangements with Moacyr Santos.
I worked on that and began to wear different hats.
I produced some recordings and was
musical director of shows. When a telephone was not
ringing, another one rang so that I could
pay my bills at the end of the month.
JVP – How was it to direct the Brazilian
nights at the Hollywood Bowl?
OCN – That was very interesting. I wanted to sell the idea of
a Brazilian show to the Hollywood Bowl
and the answer was “we are interested only if you bring Mr.
Jobim. We have tried several times and did not get him”. I
said:“Look, for me it is very easy to call
Mr. Jobim. However, I cannot force him to say yes.
I began to orchestrate movie scores. In Brazil I had studied
arrangements with Moacyr Santos. I worked on that and began to
wear different hats. I produced some recordings and was musical
director of shows. When a telephone was not ringing...
17
With him it’s not so easy, but I will try”. That was in the
same time I was producing Toots Thielemans’“Brazil
Project 1” and “Brazil Project 2”. The idea was to open the
show with Toots and the repertoire of the two projects, i.e.,
Ivan Lins, Eliane Elias, Dori Caimmy and to let Tom close
the show. I called Tom and he said “So Oscar? How much,
which day?“, etc. I gave him the information. Tom always
reacted like: (whispering) “Ah, Oscar, I don’t know...”.
I have a wonderful story. I was in Rio, doing
“Blame it on Rio” – by the way, I met Laurie, my wife,
during that time – and the telephone rings:“
Mr. Neves? (he imitates somebody speaking German)
This is the artistic director
of Vienna Symphony.
We would like to invite
Mr. Jobim to a presentation”.
I explained that it was easy
to talk with Tom but not
so easy to get him to agree to
something. I asked,
“What’s the date?” He told
me that it was to take place
in three years. I called Tom
and he (imitating Tom,
whispering):“ Ah, Oscar,
you’re kidding. I don’t know
even what I’ll be doing
tomorrow, much less in three
years. Talk to your friend and
tell him that maybe
I will go, but how can I know? I replied to the
German guy:“Listen, are you allowed to keep an date open
three years from now?”“I’m Herr Direktor”,
of course I am”.“Why don’t you keep a Wednesday
open and we’ll talk to Tom closer to this date?”.
And Tom performed there (laughs).
JVP –Did he come to the Hollywood Bowl?
OCN – He came and it was so good that I produced the
Brazilian nights at Hollywood Bowl for 6 years.
Now, the team has changed.
JVP – Now you are writing a TV show.
Talk a little bit about that.
OCN – I am composing the musical track to a sitcom
with an actress that is very famous here
Julia Louise Dreyfuss, known as Elaine of“Seinfeld”.
In this new program - the producer, Brad Hock,
is her husband - she is Ellie, a character that is a singer.
I organized an excellent jazz group to work
on the program sound track. She sings some
of my compositions and Brazilian songs.
In the first episode she sang “Summer Samba”
by Marcos Valle. In the sitcom, her boyfriend is a
guitarist and I play for him. It’s a lot of fun.
JVP – In one of the episodes, your name is cited
as a synonym of high quality and sophistication.
It is the proof not only of your prestige, but also
of the acceptance of Brazilian music in the US.
OCN – In the United States, California and Nova York
are the places where Brazilian music is more
prestigious. There has been a renewal of Bossa Nova and,
at the same time, other artists such as Caetano Veloso,
Gilberto Gil, Milton Nascimento have become great
names in the world music scenario. In California,
the acceptance is clear. Even in smaller clubs t
here is always somebody singing “The Girl from Ipanema,
Summer Samba, How Insensitive” and so on.
Brazilian music is one of the more accepted kinds
of music here; it is already part of the daily life i
n California. I agree with you. The use of music is
the easiest way to promote the Brazilian
In the United States, California and Nova York are the places
where Brazilian music is more prestigious. There has been
a renewal of Bossa Nova and, at the same time, other artists s
uch as Caetano Veloso, Gilberto Gil, Milton Nascimento ...
18
culture here and it can be a way of increasing business
as well. Here, and in Europe too, it is very comm
on that big companies bring good performers to play at
conventions where music is one attraction for the
people who attend and for everybody else. Music
is an essential part. Toots Thielemans, for instance,
is always doing presentations not only for Belgian
companies, but also for IBM, American Airlines,
and Continental Airlines. The musical part
of these conventions is a great business. I still have not seen
this happening with Brazilian companies.
It would be interesting if they considered this possibility.
If the tool is good, why not use it?
JVP –That would be useful. There are a lot of music
lovers among the businessmen that certainly
would be interested in attending an
event where they could watch musical
presentation of Brazilian artists. In California,
Brazilian music is a calling card; it is more
associated with Brazil’s image than coffee.
OCN – In California, in the United States and all
over the world, Bossa Nova takes advantage of two factors.
One is the revival movement, i.e., the
return of old hits from the classic Bossa Nova.
The second is the retro movement; i.e.,
the bossa with “loops”, samplings, remixes,
drum machines, the new Bossa Nova of Bossacucanova
and Bebel Gilberto. Bebel’s CD sold well in Europe
and here as well. I went to see Bebel’s show in
San Diego and it was sold out. Bebel even said,
“Wow, there are people here younger than me!”
JVP –Oscar, tell us about your new CD.
OCN – I am working on two CDs. One is still in the
beginning stages and the other is very simple, open and a
little bit shameless. I am even singing.
JVP – Is that the first CD in which you sing?
OCN – Yes. I don’t consider myself a singer, but I like
to sing some tunes as a “trobadour”, because of
the lyrics or the harmony of the song. I am working
on a compilation of international music, with
American, Brazilian and Italian songs and
I’m singing everything with a Bossa Nova beat. Basically
it is a CD for voice and guitar and as I play various
instruments. I will insert some color,“overdubs”
and I would like to have one or two guests.
Maybe Dave Grusin, a pianist friend of mine, and
Charley Bisharat, a violinist. It will be a simple
Bossa Nova CD. I will surely sing “Águas de Março”,
“Les Feuilles Mortes” and “My Foolish Heart”.
By the way, the name of the CD will be
“My foolish heart”. I am a romantic.“My foolish heart”
is a wonderful tune, with a personal history...
I have chosen the tunes I like. I am adjusting them
to my tune and I do my best. The other CD i
s more orchestrated, with that band I played in
Ojai and in the Marina del Rey show.
In those shows I played only Jobim. In the CD,
beyond Jobim, I will add some original songs.
JVP –Do you have any idea how many songs you have
already composed?
OCN – Oh, no. After composing I shelve it.
I don’t know. I should be more organized, but
I wear so many different hats: composer, guitarist,
pianist, arranger and producer. I travel a lot.
The time, the tranquility and the concentration
that are necessary to compose are not always
with me. However I do not consider myself t
o be a barren composer. My plate is full. My life is like
that, full of things. I am an eclectic person.
I am happy with music. It has given me a lot.
Music gives me much more than I give to it. I should be
more dedicated to music with a capital “M”.
Perhaps next year...
Bibliography:
Ruy Castro, Bossa Nova: The Story of the Brazilian Music That Seduced
the World.
Ruy Castro, A onda que se ergueu no mar. Novos mergulhos na Bossa Nova.
Companhia das Letras, 2001.
João Máximo e Carlos Didier, Noel Rosa. Uma biografia. Editora
Universidade de Brasília, 1990.
19
Ricardo Cravo Albin
MPB:
Provocation
Dorival Caymmi
22
The Brazilian’s ability to incorporate different
cultures – in my opinion – is Brazil’s most original contribution to the history of civilization in this
millennium. Brazilian music is the most stimulating
and provoking proof of this statement.
Something else should be observed, though: popular
music from other countries like Germany, France, Portugal,
Spain, Russia, Italy, Scandinavia and many others
(except for the U.S., where jazz has developed with special
strength) is much more discrete. There, indeed, it is
evaluated from a modest cultural point of
view. Why? Because they do not have the rejuvenating
flame, not only of miscegenation,
but also of a young country like Brazil.
It is not only by incorporating the word “popular”
that MPB (Brazilian Popular Music) can exhibit, with big
exuberance, its best and most noble configuration:
the solidarity that it proposes. Moreover, it has
been fulfilling this solidarity throughout the past century.
But, some will say, there is a bit of exaggeration
from passionate commentaries when they give such level
of social-cultural importance to a set of songs
and artists of the people. Yes, it would be an
exaggeration if there were no revitalizing data called
miscegenation within MPB.
It is always useful to remember that our popular
music comes straight from – and is indissoluble
from – the interracial encounter that ended up
creating the mulatto nation that we are.
Photo: Mario Thompson
Photo: Mario Thompson
of integration
Photo: Mario Thompson
Cartola
In my opinion, MPB was born in the exact moment when,
in any given slave quarter, the Indians started to follow the
same footsteps of the captive blacks, and white colonizers
liked to be penetrated by the magical singing of those beautiful black women. Such amalgam that has been slowly and sensually matured for more than four centuries has resulted in
some rhythms such as:“choro”,“maxixe”,“frevo” and “samba”,
that were created in Rio de Janeiro 100 years ago.
Since then, these past 100 years were opened by
Slavery Abolition (1888) and Republic Proclamation (1889)
and have seen the consolidation of a cultural revolution which
has redeemed us: the dramatic rising and formatting
of mulattos’ civilization in Brazil. With it is the consolidation
of its first daughter: the dearest and most embracing MPB.
The history of the past 100 years is that of prejudice and
snobbery from the official culture, carved into bourgeoisie and
oligarchic aristocracy. Two exceptions to general prejudice
should be taken into account, because they involve two
women. They used to live under the oppression of their husbands. First of all, composer Chiquinha Gonzaga, daughter of
24
the Emperor’s Marshal. She had the courage
to abandon a marriage and set her own house, where
she used to teach, not only piano, but also guitar, which was
considered an evil instrument. Second, I would like to mention a rare pioneer – a cultured lady (she was a painter and a
designer), Nair de Teffé (also called RIAN).
She was married to former President Marechal Hermes da
Fonseca and had the courage to open the Palace of Catete,
in 1912, for parties of MPB. They were attended
by poets and popular musicians, like Catulo da Paixão
Cearense and Anacleto Medeiros.
Even though, many sufferings imposed to musicians
and poets of the people were being spread through the streets
of Brazil. Sufferings that – as it was witnessed by pioneers
of samba and “choro”, like João da Bahiana, Pixinguinha,
Donga and Heitor dos Prazeres – would end up
with street arrests. They were guilty for the sin of
carrying a guitar that was considered as belonging only
to black people and impostors. Or, they were forced
to enter through the back door of Hotel Copacabana
(Rio de Janeiro) because they were musicians and
“most of all, they were black”. This happened around the
1920’s, even after Oito Batutas de Pixinguinha had successfully excursioned to Paris, the cultural center
of the daring behavior of the “années folles”.
In reality, I believe that, only in the 19th century the
first big names of MPB appeared. They would
form the basis of what is being considered, with pomp
and circumstance, the Brazilian Popular Music-MPB.
It should be highlighted that popular music was
a creation that is contemporary to the emerging of cities.
It should be clarified that popular music can only
exist or be developed whenever there is a group of people with
a common interest. In the first three centuries of colonization
there were definitive types of musical forms:
chants for Indians’ ritual dances and slaves’ drumming,
which are both rituals. Their fundamental basis is percussion,
like drums, “atabaques”,“tantãs”, clapping, whistling, etc.
There were the songs of European colonizers who were
wealthy and used to live in Medieval Times of the 12th and
14th centuries. Besides this type of music, what was preponderant was, surely, the religious hymns of priests.
Still to note are the military parties of the rude
Portuguese soldiers that were living here. They were
the first orchestral groups that were heard outdoors in Brazil.
A music that is recognized as being Brazilian started
to appear when the interinfluence of those elements produced
a result. This has happened more clearly and with a
bigger historic configuration when the population of the cities
started to widen and to occupy a larger area. In this geopoliti-
cal chart, the cities of Salvador, Recife and
Rio de Janeiro had a strong black influence.
Those populations that were spread throughout the cities
called for new types of leisure or cultural production.
And, such production was represented, in the popular music
field, by initial genres like “lundu” and “modinha”.“Lundu”
is basically black in its cadenced rhythm, and displayed people’s simplicity in its lyrics, which, most of the time, made comments about daily life on the streets.“Modinha” –
basically white in its form, like European music – displayed
more lyrics to sing about the love given to muses
that were almost always unattainable. From such configuration started to appear the first people
to assume the so-called popular music with high priority. That
is, with the exclusiveness of embracing a musical qualification
that could be sang, played, or even danced
out of the aristocratic ballrooms, as well as, in the streets,
squares, bandstands or in the poorest ghettos.
One of the very first characters of popular music
in such context was Xisto Bahia, who retook the tradition
of Domingos Caldas Barbosa. His ironical “modinhas”
were taken to the Portuguese court in the 18th century and
had been transformed in heavy songs. This happened
when D. João VI came to Rio, in 1808, running away from
the crisis formed by Napoleon Bonaparte, in Europe.
By that time, some romantic poets started to write
poems to be transformed into songs, not only by school musicians, but also by simple guitar players.
One of those, which is one of the most prolific, is Lagartixa,
nickname of well-known Raymundo Rebello.
His songs rapidly won over the anonymous street guitars.
I believe that Xisto Bahia was one of the most complete composers and was the most popular of the
beginning of MPB in Brazil. Xisto, who was a guitar player,
composer and actor, started his career in Salvador,
where he was born in 1842. He played in front of
an emerging medium class. Right after this, in Rio,
he became co-author of Arthur Azevedo and received
applauses from the Emperor. As the empire ended,
Xisto encountered misfortune: he had been abandoned and
died in poverty. From that time on, tragedies such as poverty
would reach the majority of the people’s musicians.
25
In the 19th century the music that the elite used to listen
to was, in general, operas, operettas and light ballroom music.
The mulattos that came from the lower class generally
played and listened to the lyrics with hand clapping and guitars. A smaller middle class – which was beginning to be
established by the second empire – only listened to
European music, that is, light music from the elite’s ballrooms.
Polka had arrived in Brazil in 1844, as well as waltz, schottische, square dancing and mazurka. Within this reality, a ray of
light appears: mulatto Joaquim da Silva Callado. He created
the first instrumental group of a refined character, typically
from Rio de Janeiro, and popular in Brazil:
“choro”. The word “choro” initially indicated only a gathering
of musicians but later became the name of a musical genre.
The creation of “choro” represents a magic moment of interaction and mixture of races in Brazil, because it is a result of the
geniality and creativity of the Brazilian mulatto.
The new genre, a stimulating music, free and invigorating,
used to be played based in modulations and melodies that
were so elaborate that they required from the players
big talent and competence. And, many times, a virtuality
that most of them did not possess, to a point that editors didn’t even want to publish Callado’s work, although he was
awarded by the Emperor with the “Ordem da Rosa”,
in 1879. Right after that, he died from one of the epidemics
that reached Rio de Janeiro one hundred years ago:
Rio was unhealthy and without a sanitary sewage system.
Among all pioneers, two individuals would be
highlighted: Chiquinha Gonzaga and Ernesto Nazareth.
From 1877 until a little while before her death,
Chiquinha was the first big author of popular music in Brazil.
She wrote 77 theater plays and more than 2,000 compositions. Among those, there are some jewels like tango “Corta
Jaca” and modinha “Lua branca”. Chiquinha had enough time
and courage to embrace the noblest causes
of her time, like abolitionism. Many times she would knock
on doors to raise money for these causes. Revolutionary
Francisca also dictated fashion style. She designed her
own dresses, smoked cigars, became headline news and fell
into indecency. She transformed her life in such a
pioneering and brave way that it is unsurpassable until now.
By request of the carnival group “Rosa de ouro”,
26
Chiquinha composed in 1899, the first carnival march
(music style):“Abre alas”. She also founded SBAT (1917)
and died in Rio at 89 years of age, surrounded by an aura
of not only being a myth, but also an icon of social transgression. She consolidated popular music.
As important as Chiquinha – and maybe even bigger
from a strictly musical point of view – Ernesto Nazareth
was the son of a modest middle class family.
A good piano student, he launched the first Brazilian tango,
“Brejeiro”, that, in reality was almost a “choro”.
This is how his career started and he became the most original composer of Brazil. According to Mario de Andrade, he is
popular and erudite at the same time. However, Nazareth
despised popular music but was obliged to play
it in plebeian places, like cinema lobbies – although
he could be heard by prominent people like Darius Milhaud,
who was inspired by him to compose some of his pieces.
Rui Barbosa was another individual that was very
famous and often listened to him at cinema Odeon.
Within this line followed by the first popular composers
for the growing middle class, I would like to mention
another person who I consider of great importance:
Catulo da Paixão Cearense. His prestige was solidified
in the first years of the century with the beginning
of the mechanical recordings. Through the old records
of Casa Edison, sang by Mario, the prestige of Catulo
would not stop growing. To have an idea about his influence,
he was the first one to introduce the guitar – a time when it
was considered an evil instrument – into the National
Institute of Music, in a rumorous audition (1908)
bravely produced by Maestro Alberto Nepomuceno.
The most famous composition of Catulo is
“O luar do sertão”, (1910, and it was recorded by Mário,
for Casa Edison). It is considered the national hymn of
Brazilian hearts. Such a famous piece brought the
definitive glory to his author and also a “serious dislike”.
He once told Mario Cabral, a piano player and researcher of
MPB about the big dispute with guitar player João
Pernambuco, who considered himself the author of the song.
Such fact is strongly denied by Catulo. Actually, Catulo
was not only an extraordinary musician, but also
the author of a small set of interesting pieces. One “choro”
Caetano Veloso
Photo: Mario Thompson
that stands out is “Sons de Carrilhão”.
While Catulo was a great success in the Capital of Brazil –
the shy Rio de Janeiro that was becoming a modern city –
(“when Rio was being cleaned from the imperial
garbage” according to Carlos Drummond de Andrade),
in 1912, a young boy appeared. He played the
flute better than anyone. This virtuous boy would become
heir of all musical tradition inaugurated and cultivated
by Nazareth, Chiquinha, Callado, Patápio and Catulo.
He would also be – at least in my opinion – the
founder and father of all music to come: he was
Alfredo da Rocha Viana Filho, Pixinguinha.
Pixinguinha was the author of a big set of work pieces
in which we find one of the most famous songs of all time,
Carinhoso (with lyrics written by João de Barro, Braguinha).
He formed many musical bands and the most famous was
“Os Oito Batutas”. He was the first one to tour outside
Brazil (1922, to Paris). He took with him:
28
samba, “choro”,“maxixe”… all of those were spiced with the
Brazilian soul: mulatto and wild. Maestro Alfredo Viana
was also the first Brazilian musician who was already successful as a flute player, composer and orchestra conductor. He
arranged orchestras for carnival sambas and
“marchinhas” in the Golden Age of MPB (1930’s).
Samba would raise from music based in percussion
and hand clapping, produced by black people and could
be called “batucada”, and even “lundu” or “jongo”.
The word samba has its origin in Africa (Angola and Congo)
and is probably originated from the word “semba,”
which means “belly touch”, that is, the lascivious encounter
of men and women’s bellies in dances of old “batuques”.
It can also mean sadness, nostalgy (maybe from missing their
land, Africa; like the blues in the U.S.). The word samba
was published for the first time (02/03/1838) by
Father Miguel do Sacramento Lopes Gama in magazine
Carapuceiro, in the State of Pernambuco.
He had mentioned that there was a new
type of dance, but not a very interesting one.
Besides the circles of “capoeira” and “batucada” that were often performed in streets and
squares of the neighborhood, they also had
success with celebrations
and parties that took place at the houses
of Tias Baianas, mainly at Tia Ciata’s and
mulatta Hilária Batista de Almeida,
the most celebrated one.
During this time, in the houses
of Tias Baianas, not only the birth of samba,
but also the first names of its history were
noted. The oldest of all is mulatto
José Luiz de Moraes, nicknamed Caninha,
because when he was a kid he used to sell
sugar cane in the Central Railroad of Brasil.
In this same heroic phase of samba’s birth,
another name rises: Heitor dos Prazeres.
He was born in Praça XI, a very typical
place of Rio, and died there too.
Heitor began his career as a primitive
painter, in 1936. He was successful inside
and outside of Brazil. Queen Elizabeth
once asked, as he was exhibiting his paintings in London, ”Who is this amazing
painter?” Heitor received a prize at the first
Biennial of São Paulo and spent most of his
life as an office boy working at the old Department of Culture
and Education. Carlos Drummond was his confidant and
public admirer and was the one who got him the job. Samba
was registered as a specific musical genre when the fourth of
those pioneers, Ernesto Joaquim Maria dos Santos, nicknamed Donga, son of Tia Amélia
and also a participant of the parties at Tia Ciata’s recorded one
of the songs he wrote with the carnival columnist
of a famous newspaper “Jornal do Brasil”,
Mauro de Almeida. The song was based on a popular subject
and both named it “Pelo Telefone” (By phone).
At the beginning of the 1920’s, another very interesting musician appeared: José Barbosa Silva. He was
immortalized by samba’s history as Sinhô. He was born
in downtown Rio de Janeiro
(at Riachuelo Street) and since he was a kid
he was part of the bohemians of the city.
Sinhô was entering popular music’s
history as the first professional of samba.
His popularity reached such high levels that
a simple title like “King of Samba”
clearly showed the enormous prestige
that he had between the years of 1920 and
1930, when he died. The greatest of all
Sinhô’s hits was “Jura” which was recorded
simultaneously by Aracy Cortes,
the biggest star of musical theatre in the
20’s and 30’s, and also by a young singer
from Rio’s high society, Mario Reis.
Sinhô, his guitar teacher, launched
Mario into the musical career.
By that time, the 1920’s, musical theatres
of Praça Tiradentes were the biggest communicator for launching popular music.
This was before the appearance of radio.
A group that lived in a famous middle
class area, Estácio de Sá, in the 1920’s,
finally founded samba – into a
form that is the one we currently know.
This group of composers
(bohemians and hustlers) used to hibernate
during the day and flourished at night in
the bars “Café Apolo” and “do Compadre”. The leader
of the group was Ismael Silva. This group entered
MPB’s history by consolidating the rhythm of urban
samba from Rio, which until then was influenced by “maxixe”,
in its formal structure-like “Pelo telefone” and almost
all pieces of work made by Sinhô.
Ismael Silva should be credited for having been
one of the founders of the urban samba from Rio de Janeiro.
That’s how he became known and admired in the
following years. He also founded the first school of samba,
“Deixa Falar” (1928), which he organized along with
Rubem Barcelos, Bide, Baiaco, Brancura, Mano Edgar
and Nilton Bastos. “Deixa Falar” was launched in the
Carnivals of 1929, 30 and 31. It had not only the form,
29
30
Thanks to the strong force and vocal strength of
Luis Gonzaga, the rhythm “baião” would be maintained
in the 1950’s – the decade of samba-canção – and it
would also determine the appearance of dozens of interpreters
and composers. The most important one is Jackson do
Pandeiro. He had a perfect rhythm sense for another type of
music: the ”côcos” (musical genre from the northeast of Brazil
that is faster than “baião”) that has never been imitated, neither before him, (Manezinho Araújo, Jararaca and Ratinho,
Alvarenga and Ranchinho), nor after him ( João do Vale,
Alceu Valença, Xangai, Jorge do Altinho, Elomar or the
newest Chico César). The force of his music was strong
enough to launch names, such as Tom Jobim,
João Gilberto and Vinícius de Moraes.
Bossa nova was preceded – and actually provoked – by the
series of samba songs that flooded the 1950’s and transformed
MPB into a “noir” (black) river of tears and pain.
Many of those songs were written by talentented individuals
such as Antônio Maria, Lupicínio Rodrigues, Dolores Duran
or even Caymmi, Braguinha and Ary Barroso.
They were outstanding among the “noir” mediocrity.
At the end of the 1950’s, bossa nova was created as a
reaction to the process of stagnation in which popular music
found itself. It had been invaded by foreign rhythms,
especially by boleros, merengues, rumbas and commercial
American songs, like chá-chá-chá, rock, twist
and merengue. There was still a series of Brazilian versions,
and sambas of bad quality, where little talent and
vulgarity were always present.
Therefore, bossa nova would appear not only as a
reaction to that state of things, but also to integrate the fever
for novelties that were being brought to the development
of the country. JK’s government was promising
fifty years in only five, and started to build Brasilia and to
open roads to implement big industrial parks. Brazil was living euphorically in the last three years of the 50’s.
At that period of time new ideas would appear in other artistic areas: in the movies, the beginning of the
new cinema; in poetry, the concrete poets; in painting,
the new figuration. Within popular music, such general
process of renewal would find its way within bossa nova.
Historically, 1958 can be determined as the year
Photo: Mario Thompson
but also the charm of a smaller group of dancers that characterizes the structure of a carnival block.
In reality, samba schools have expanded from the creation
of two others that would follow “Deixa Falar”:
“Mangueira” of “Cartola”, and “Portela” of Paulo da Portela
and Heitor dos Prazeres. They also became
Samba Schools. They would gather well-known
individuals that would promote the Samba Schools
through a strong loyalty to its colors.
From the 1930’s on, there was a glorious phase of radio
in Brazil, introduced by genius Edgard Roquette Pinto
(a modest and captivating hero who, at the beginning of this
century, still had not received the recognition he deserves),
who developed the political sharpness of statesman Vargas.
Radio (1923’s) and electrical recording (1928’s)
made possible the flourishing of the golden age of MPB,
in the 1930’s. Many talented professionals
were launched from the four corners of the country,
especially in the Rio-São Paulo region. During the golden
age also appeared, among others, Ary Barroso, Zequinha
de Abreu, and mainly, Carmen Miranda.
Carmen was a tropical flame who naively entered
Hollywood, which had been standardized in the 1940’s.
Precisely in 1945, as a farewell to conflict, emerges a unique
composer, an important one within MPB: Luiz Gonzaga.
An exceptional individual who participated in the settings
of a national culture closer to Brazilian roots.
He sustained Brazilian rhythm and origin throughout
the times of crisis of MPB when there was an invasion
of North American music and of music
imported through the U.S. that was spread throughout
the world, including Brazil.
This phenomenon is easy to understand as we analyze
the fact that the U.S. came out of the Second World War
as a winning country that was expanding worldwide, stimulated by a huge international export of its powerful industrial
park. Behind it, was the leisure industry that represented the
consolidation of the North American
culture in the world: movies, records and
popular music, with all of its fashion. It was even more seductive due to brilliant marketing campaigns
that were always directed toward the youth.
when three individuals were united in three different sectors
of the musical creation: João Gilberto-the rhythm,
Antonio Carlos Jobim – melody and harmony, and Vinícius
de Moraes – lyrics. The most important of all
(to bossa-nova, of course) is João Gilberto, a guitarist from
Bahia. He brought the malice and the restful indolence
of his land. He created bossa nova, a new beat, different
from the usual and common way of playing guitar.
It would give samba a slower beat, sweeter, or with more
“water”- as some critics would say. The first encounter
of the three musketeers of bossa-nova (April of 1958) happened with the recording of the album
“Canção do amor demais”, by Elizeth Cardoso. There
were twelve songs by the new duet: Vinícius and Tom.
In two of the songs there was João Gilberto’s guitar,
mainly in samba “Chega de saudade”
(the other one was “Outra vez”).
The history of festivals in the 60’s brings stars like
Chico Buarque, Edu Lobo, Milton Nascimento, Caetano,
Gil, Ivan Lins, Gonzaguinha, João Bosco. They were all
32
stimulated and ready to fight official censorship that was intolerable between 1968 and 1985, although it had started
in 1964. Military intervention provoked an immediate mobilization of musical sectors (of universities or college-bound
individuals), which had its center at the CCP
(Center for Popular Culture) of UNE
(Students National Union). There were composers like
Carlos Lyra, Edu Lobo, Geraldo Vandré, Sérgio Ricardo,
besides cinematographers: Gláuber Rocha, Carlos Diegues,
Joaquim Pedro and Leon Hirschman. They were
the last ones that were integrating the “new-movie”
revolution that passionately used MPB in sound tracks.
This was also a time for maturity and reflection of those
young middle class musicians and writers in
relation to the large mass of music that was still hiding in the
slums and suburbs of Rio de Janeiro. And some professionals
that had been forgotten were again appreciated, such as:
Cartola and Nélson Cavaquinho, from glorious
“Mangueira” (a School of Samba), or Zé Keti, from “Portela”.
With the return of samba, the success of record
Photo: Mario Thompson
Daniela Mercury
sales should also be highlighted. This happened
from the success of Martinho da Vila, Beth Carvalho, Alcione,
Clara Nunes and Paulinho da Viola, in the beginning of the
following year, 1970, despite the heavy atmosphere created by
the military regimen.
It is important to recognize the arrival of Brazilian rock
in the 1980’s, even though it was with some insecureness.
It was through young poets like Cazuza and Renato Russo,
that the pioneer works of Rita Lee, Raul Seixas and
Tim Maia were continued.
All history of the initial century of MPB, solidified
by passion and having society as a solid basis,
started dying out in the beginning of the century.
Those last years set and gave continuity, with eloquence,
to the whole work of MPB that is, current and undoubtedly,
the number one product of the country’s cultural agenda.
Are we better or worse in terms of popular music?
To remove myself from sin and from the temptation
of individualized criticism, I would say that MPB is going
well, despite a few issues.
Initially, one should highlight a historic fact that I consider relevant: the expansion of grand parties, either traditional
or new. In that decade, both assumed a new dimension
that was never seen before. They are celebrated
and they exist from the existence of popular music.
That is, those songs that have a definite author
(because folkloric music is based in the tradition
of the anonymous). The parties or concerts were for
audiences that were born at the borders of society
and used to reach different levels, thus stimulating
a very rare social solidarity. Therefore, it is very
valuable to a country like Brazil that has enormous
social contradictions and differences.
Samba Schools of the Special Group of Rio constitute,
since the 90’s, the greatest spectacle of the world:
its 50,000 dancers are applauded by 80,000
people in two nights and seen on TV by millions in Brazil,
and from different places around the world.
Scholars affirm that the leisure industry is developing very
fast throughout the world. It also generates many jobs
and is one of the biggest moneymaking industries out there.
One in every 16 professionals that are employed
in the world works in activities linked to leisure.
Only in Brazil the leisure industry is receiving investments
of approximately US$5 billion up until the year 2000.
Musical tourism emerges in this context, as an activity that
should be prioritized. All over the world, tourism
generates around 212 million jobs, besides the fact that it is
the sector of smallest investment concerning job creation.
Therefore, the oldest popular expression that defines
Brazil as being “the country of carnival and soccer”
should be thought of in economical terms.
For almost four centuries, Carnival from Rio de Janeiro
was like a Portuguese celebration of carnival.
Only in the second half of the 19th century it received other
European influences, not only from Portugal.
Until the third decade of the 20th century, Carnival
has developed without the interference of public power.
With the failure of traditional economic basis of the party
formed by the solidarity of groups and newspapers that sponsored the event and “Livros de Ouro”
(Golden Book), Carnival started to be managed by the power
33
of the people. For that reason, the party never
brought to the city any economic benefits.
Even the transformation of the Samba School
parades into a paid spectacle did not produce financial returns
to the State, due to a lack of professionalism.
In the 1980’s Carnival from Rio had lost the diversity
that characterized it since the beginning of the
century. It was reduced to the seduction of the
main parade of the Samba Schools.
Carnival industry of the city of Rio de Janeiro
started to work effectively when the rehearsal block
Samba Schools received the candidates for the contest
of sambas (songs), between August-September.
At that time, started the preparation of Carnival within warehouses. From January on, Carnival industry
warms up by practicing in courts and tents.
During such period, there wasn’t a good organization
within the sectors that were responsible for the Carnival
industry (Embratur, Riotur, Turisrio), Schools of
Samba (LIESA) and Tourism Agencies (ABAV).
There was no communication between those entities
that were able to plan, for example, touristic
packages during Carnival preparation.
It is important to say that the group of composers
of the Samba Schools of the Special Group (Group I)
and Access Group (Group II), record CD’s and sell approximately one million copies per year. Likewise,
there is a Special Group of Samba Schools from
São Paulo. Although they sell less and have less prestige,
they are actually arising.
As for parties of the masses that have been consolidated
in the past years, it is important to mention the seductive
Parintins (a monumental spectacle in the Amazon jungle)
and the energy of the “micaretas” and winter
carnivals in almost all of the states of the northeast of Brazil.
34
Popular music is the most pure when produced by
groups of “frevos”,“maracatus” and “sambas”
which give those parties the essence, substance and appropriate settings for the event.
Regarding the rhythms that are typical – we actually
have never celebrated Carnival as we should,
as this is an extraordinary treasure that can enrich any nation
– those are still being enjoyed. How can we not feel happy
with the return of “forró”, in 97/98, guided by
Alceu Valença, Elba Ramalho and Lenine. It brought the energy of the northeast and has the State of Pernambuco
as its center. It is because of and through them
(the “cocos”,“emboladas”,“xotes”,“xaxados”,“baiões” and
“toadas”, besides “cirandas”,“maracatus” and “frevos”)
that the rhythms have returned.
Also revived in Rio rhythms like pagodes and sambas composed by Martinho da Vila, Ivone Lara,
Zeca Pagodinho, Lecy Brandão, Beth Carvalho
and Alcione, as opposed to a lower level of music that was
being imposed by recording companies to the media.
During the last years, the leaders of the 60’s generation
still created thousands of spectacles and mainly seductive
records, like Chico Buarque, Caetano Veloso,
Mílton Nascimento, João Bosco, Ivan Lins, Djavan, throughout Brazil and abroad.
Country duos of wide penetration with large masses
of people got the attention of the media and
reconciled the parts that were falling apart. Thus,
Xitãozinho and Xororó, Zezé de Camargo and Luciano or
Leandro and Leonardo - the latter duo was tragically
undone due to death of Leandro, in June of 1998 – began
to receive wide sympathy that was previously
denied to them and exclusively directed to stronger talents,
like Sérgio Reis, Renato Teixeira, Pena Branca
and Xavantinho or Almir Sater.
Photo: Mario Thompson
Paulinho da Viola
Also, in the 1990’s, especially between ‘93 and ’98,
some symptoms of new mixtures appeared in Bahia,
the main spot of Brazil’s acceptance of different cultures.
From the appearance of “axé-music”, emerge some individual
talents like Daniela Mercury and Carlinhos Brown .
They had many followers, including successful bands, like “
É o tchan”,“Mel”,“Netinho”,“Cheiro de Amor”, etc.
They are the legitimate founders of lambada.
But, how could we talk about music without reserving
an honorable space for the Brazilian musician? The first
Brazilian instrumentalist that was blessed in the world
since Pixinguinha, the flute player, he
was a genius who should be considered the Father of MPB.
He was the first one, actually, (along with Os Batutas)
to travel through Europe to show samba
and “choro”, that had been recently created by
our mulatto-genius (Paris, 1922).
Whenever the Brazilian musician travels abroad,
he/she often remains there. There is a historic complaint
that the musicians are not given the prestige they
should be given in Brazil. For a long time, I have heard
complaints from important people, such as
Waldir Azevedo, Jacob and Pixinguinha, Sivuca,
Altamiro Carrilho, Luiz Bonfá and even Tom Jobim
and Baden Powell. And even from young people like
Leo Gandelman, César Camargo Mariano, Carlos Malta,
Hélio Delmiro, Nonato Luiz,
Guinga and Rildo Hora. All of them complain that
there are few opportunities to play, record, expose
and show instrumental music in Brazil. At least,
comparing to other country’s, to where they often travel.
But, why does this happen to such a
stimulating music? There are many reasons for
the musicians’ complaints in this sense: to start with,
the great seduction of lyrics: the writers and
poets are very much into our reality, our desires
and dreams.
Additionally, this is a subject that is almost chronic,
I would like to remind that Radamés Gnatalli
made a comment when I went to pick him up one
morning to take him to the Museum of Image
and Sound, for a historic deposition
of posterity. He was talking to two young students
that had come to seek for his teachings. The Master
was straight to the point and dramatically honest:“ – Listen,
sons, in order to play my music you will have
35
Photo: Mario Thompson
Milton Nascimento
to import from the U.S. because I have
never edited anything here.” This happened
at the end of the 60’s. Nowadays,
the situation has gotten better, but even
still the effort to edit continues. Therefore,
it is important to nurture the
musician who is an essential character of MPB.
And the recording labels are becoming more valuable as times go by – the
labels (more or less independently) preferably
record musicians’ CDs in a studio,
or in live public concerts.
Regarding the recording industry in Brazil,
we should celebrate a big step in sales
over the past thirty years. To have
a better idea, we should take a look
at the following numbers, supplied by
ABPD – Brazilian Association
of Record Producers: in 1972, 15,492,652
records were sold; in 1984 the number of sales went up to
36
43,996,565; and, in 1996, 94,859,730
in the whole country. In other words,
there was a big increase.
All of the money earned with records in
Brazil involved an amount of
approximately 1 billion dollars in the
beginning of the century, even with the economic
crisis. The market is responsible for 8,000
direct jobs and 55,000 indirect jobs in areas such
as shows, radio, retail, graphics,
publishing and designing, and all correlating
segments in the industry.
One of the significant statistics of the 1990’s
was that of progressive increase of the
percentage of Brazilian artists’ records.
As opposed to what always was
believed would happen, the proportion
of national recording artists with a repertoire,
went over 50% in 1995 and has now reached almost 70%
of all recordings in the country.
Is it generosity of the multinational industry
of records toward Brazilian culture or distinction with the
musicians, authors and interpreters
who make music in Brazil and apply the Portuguese
language to express themselves? It is simply a market law;
I should say a delicious imposition of the Brazilian
consumer who prefers to listen to music of one’s own
country and to confirm one’s powerful national identity.
Thus, the export of Brazilian music also grew,
especially in Latin America.
The most consumed Brazilian rhythms abroad,
from 1966 until today are: bossa nova,
(Chico, Caetano, Gil, etc) the so-called authorial music,
which is called MPB
(rock, pagode, axé-music and country music)
by the recording companies by mistake.
Regarding Music Festivals – not necessarily those
competitive and daring ones from the 60’s ...
they should be back, why not? - but the ones that
promote the encounters of people that are linked
to music for an exchange of information, workshops, teachings, courses and auditions should also
receive distinctive and special attention.
From the Winter Festival of Ouro Preto,
the erudite (directed by Jose Maria Neves) and the
common ones (supervised by Toninho Horta),
Brazil appears in Music Festivals, in the decade of 1990, especially in the State of Paraná, where
there are many artist encounters, lead by the
solidification and respectability of the
Festival of Londrina. There are festivals in other
states, many of them stimulated by the cultural action
of FUNARTE that also edited a valuable collection
of books about music, its composers and interpreters.
Actually, regarding books written about MPB,
the 90’s were very generous: there has never been so much
material about the theme, which, nowadays is an
object of academic interest by universities and schools
of different levels. The times of pioneers are behind.
In the 60’s there were interested researchers like
Ary Vasconcelos, Vasco Mariz, Lúcio Rangel, Sérgio Porto,
Sérgio Cabral, Marília Trindade Barbosa, Eneida,
Edison Carneiro, Mozart de Araújo, Almirante,
Guerra Peixe, Renato de Almeida, Albino Pinheiro, among
others. From 1995 on, books and thesis about MPB
increased 200%, according to FUNARTE.
The final years of the 20th century, therefore,
were amazing for MPB. Now it is clear that a new
generation has arrived to proliferate the final 100 years
that are the most important ones for our music:
the turbulent, fast, and rich 20th century.
The best part of the beginning of the millennium is
that all of the musical generations live in harmony.
After all, these singers have polished the precious legacy
of Nazareth, Chiquinha Gonzaga and Pixinguinha,
Noel, Ary, Caymmi and Braguinha, Chico, Milton and
Caetano, Martinho, Cartola, Paulinho da Viola and
Noca da Portela. With the conviction that – even
with some detours and useless short cuts – popular
music of Brazil will never lose its essence. Because the foundation of its pioneers and followers is a solid one and seductive
enough to make it go on surprising and impressing the world
in the beginning of this millennium.
Ricardo Cravo Albin is a graduate in Law, Sciences,
and Language and Literature. His passion for Brazilian pop music, however,
has led him through other professional paths in Rio de Janeiro, the city
which he has adopted as his own:
he has worked not only as a researcher of Brazilian Pop Music
but also as a critic and a commentator. He represents Brazil
in international meetings on pop culture and music and is particularly
requested by European radio and TV stations for interviews
and direct broadcasts. In the past 25 years, he has been active as a
scriptwriter and director of shows and/or records on Brazilian
pop music. He’s currently supervising the
preparation of the Cravo Albin Dictionary of Brazilian Pop Music,
which contains some 5,000 entries.
37
Among the Bantos from Central Africa, drums are called
“ngoma”. It is not only the instrument, but also, metonymically,
the dancing and music put into action by the drums, and by
extension, the whole community that gathers around the
instrument for a joyful and ritual celebration. “ngoma” crossed
the Atlantic, along with its guardians turned slaves, Malungos
from Congo–Angola and from the lands of Nagô and Jêje.
“Cry ngoma, hey Angola”, presently sings the old captain from
Mozambique in a festival of the rosary in Minas Gerais, recalling
the painful crossing of the Atlantic. And in Brazil, “ngoma”,
the community of drums, creates strong links between the past
and present of Afro–Brazilians, the living and their ancestors,
Our Lady of the Rosary and Mother Iemanjá…an “ngoma”
reinvented here in body, soul, beauty and mysteries.
Olodum
41
ince colonial times, the vibrant sounds of AfricanBrazilian drums have echoed in these regions, in
cleared areas of farmlands (terreiros), through village
streets, or in churchyards, with their power to tear men away
from that dispersion in which they are forced to live. Published
by chroniclers and travelers from the 16th century on, African
festivities and rituals are often an object of prejudiced and
frivolous attitudes.“Monotonous” sounds,“lascivious” dances,
“barbarian” rituals were some of the terms used by these writers
and moralists who were undoubtedly somewhat frightened by
the crowd of blacks that such festivities were wont to gather,
crowds that could rebel at anytime against a white minority.
Paradoxically, black celebrations also constituted an attractive
leisure activity for many of the white slave owners as frequently
happened on isolated farms and sugar mills.“The ladies often
joined the circle, just like the men. They enjoyed watching the
sensual dances of the blacks and their grotesque jumps”, wrote
Freire Alemão, in 1859, regarding a batuque, or Afro-Brazilian
dance he had witnessed in Pacatuba, Ceará.
The development of such musical events is a characteristic of
S
42
black people from the colonial period and that of the empire: a
variety of dramatic-musical-choreographic demonstrations that
we currently witness throughout Brazil, between Resurrection
Saturday and Carnival. Among the infinity of regional styles of
black dances and music, it is possible to detect certain main
nuclei: the Batuques,
informally executed in recondite farmland clearings which
celebrate the memory of the communities themselves; the
Congadas, ritual sets of dance and music linked to the tradition
of black Catholic brotherhoods, the Candomblés, groups that
are organized to worship Afro-Brazilian deities; and the Urban
Samba which was developed in the first decades of the 20th
century, from a confluence of traditions.
These Communities of Drums, as we like to call them, represent
different forms of expression of blacks in Brazil. They constitute
an answer to peculiar historical and social conjunctions in which
descendents of Africans have evolved. Despite their specificities,
these Communities of Drums constantly share the same social
actors and a common spiritual universe. An essential part of this
universe is rhythm, a certain repertoire of rhythmic standards
that is reproduced, in different instrumental sets throughout the
immense Brazilian territory and the black Americas, creating
symbolic bonds with distant Africa. Rhythmic lineages that are
more resistant to time than any word or chant, and that are
brought up to date by the hands that play instruments and by
the feet that dance. The Batuques de Terreiro that are presently
taking place all over Brazil have their roots in the events of dance
and music promoted mainly by slaves living in rural areas, on
farms, sugar plantations and mining claims, but also in some
urban areas, developed in the few leisure moments the slaves
enjoyed. The “batuques” mark the presence of banto culture
brought by Africans from Angola, the Congo and Mozambique
to different regions of Brazil. Living forms of Batuques are:
Carimbo, from Pará; Tambor de Crioula, from Maranhão,
Zambê, from Rio Grande do Norte and Samba de Aboio, from
Sergipe; in Minas, they celebrate Candomblé; in Vale do Paraíba,
São Paulo, Minas Gerais and Rio de Janeiro, Jongo or Caxambu;
in the region of Tietê, in São Paulo, they celebrate the Batuque
de Umbigada, among other demonstrations... in addition to
foreign cousins, like Tambor de Yuca, from Cuba, or the Bellé
from Martinica, which are very similar to our “batuques”.
On distant farms during the time of captivity,“terreiro” parties
took place on days off, as well as on holidays and concentrated
the slaves’ experience as a group, whereas their daily routine
forced them to work on the farms separated and dispersed.
Everything took place in an African way, through chants and
body movements, to the sounds of drums. It was a time for
praising ancestors, for updating community chronicles, and to
set challenges designed to bind together through the enchanting
power of the spoken word. The metaphoric verses intoned in
those circles could only offer a more literal and innocuous feeling
to white people. That would leave white observers confused: was
it diversion or devotion? The mystery remains today, as well as
the old drums carved from a tree trunk, tuned by fire and
worshiped as true deities: Gomá, Dambí, Dambá, Quinjengue...
The dances, individual or collective, are seen now as sensual,
describing an amorous courtship that ends with belly contact –
as in the Batuque do Tietê and the Tambor da Crioula, for
example - now of sacred character, imitating the gestures of
Pretos Velhos, the African ancestors who died in slavery – the
case of Candomblé, danced among the Brotherhoods of the
Rosary in Minas Gerais and the Jongo, from Rio and São Paulo.
Always condemned by the church as being too permissive and
feared by the masters as disturbers of the social order, the
majority of the “batuques de terreiro” are still marginal these days
in relation to the dominant society, except for those which
manage to penetrate the world of tourism and shows – the case
of Tambor de Crioula and Carimbó. As the black population
spread to the cities, those ancestral dances went from the farms
to the edge of urban areas. Preserving their intra-community
character, they still take place at night in poorly illuminated
“terreiros”, or in slums outside the cities. Tenuous borders
between what is sacred and what is profane still characterize
some of these circles, as well as the secret contained in the verses
of the chants that disorient those who come from the outside.
Understand if you can, if you know... Unfortunately, this
Brazilian cultural patrimony of great beauty and profound
refinement, a living fount of history, religion, art and identity for
many African descendant communities, has been ignored by the
“large culture” and the mass media.
As opposed to Batuques, the Congos or Congadas were
accepted by the white dominant class, according to Antonil, in
the 17th century, being considered as “Honest fun” for the slaves.
Besides, they were important opportunities for those who taught
catechism, as they sought to slip edifying Christian content into
their performances, such as the adapted adventure of
Charlemagne narrating the struggles between Christians and
the Moorish infidels.
The Congada has its origins in the entourages of actors,
musicians and dancers that accompanied the Reis Congos,
representatives of the nobles of Africa in the Brazilian Diaspora
on the occasion of religious and official festivities.
Members of Catholic brotherhoods of black banto descendants
– Saint Benedit, Our Lady of the Rosary, Saint Efigênia formed such processions. They were institutions that historically
ensured black people some participation in a society that
rejected them as citizens and became important repositories of
Afro-Brazilian traditions. It was through ritual groups that were
linked to Catholic brotherhoods – congos or congadas – that
Africans and their descendants began, from colonial times, to
participate in public festivities.
Maracatús, Taieiras, Catumbis, Moçambiques, Catopês, Vilões,
Marujos are some of the names of different regional forms of
congadas. Some of them still preserve a dramatic portion, in
which embassies and fights among African kings are staged;
such is the case of the Congos de sainha, from
Rio Grande do Norte, of Congadas of São Paulo,
43
such as Ilhabela and São Sebastião, and Ticumbi
de Conceição da Barra, in the State of Espírito Santo.
In Minas Gerais especially, the Brotherhoods of
Our Lady of the Rosary still have a fundamental role in the
organization of the religious life of African descendants.
There, the Congado movement seems to grow each year,
bringing together thousands of people who come from
different locations to attend the festivities. There is a great
variety of Congadas in this State of instruments and
clothing regarding musical and choreographic styles,
perhaps a reflection of the old African ethnic division
in the heart of the Brotherhoods.
Those groups are called guards, because their function
is to "pull" the crown, that is, to accompany the Congo Kings.
They carry handcrafted drums that have two skins
tightened by strings and played with drumsticks (baquetas):
the boxes. The respect granted to the “congadeiros”
by the Minas Brotherhoods because of their instruments comes
from their essential importance to the tradition of the Rosary:
according to legend, it was the drums made by the
African slaves that were able to remove Our Lady of the
Rosary from the water through the force of their batuques,
after useless efforts on the part of the whites. That is how the
celebration of the Saint started, as well as all the traditions
of the Kingdom. "Madeira santa" (Holy wood), as they say.
The Afro-Brazilian religion known as Candomblé (BA),
Xangô (PE), Tambor de Mina (MA) ou Batuque (RS) – arose
from the mythical and ritual contributions of different
African ethnicities or nations with a preponderant influence
from the Sudanese Jêjes and Nagôs. Brought from
Western Africa (presently Nigeria and Benin) to the Northeast
capitals, beginning at the end of the 18th century, the
Sudanese usually worked as paid domestic servants and it was
easy for them to gather according to their ethnic groups.
Thus, these urban slaves were able to regroup in Brazil
their traditional religion in which the “iaôs”, initiated priests,
are possessed by deities during a mystical transe.“Orixás”,
“inquices” or “voduns”, names that the deities receive,
according to nationality or the ethnic origin of candomblé,
represent natural and social forces.
Despite the prejudice and constant police persecutions that
victimized them in the first decade of last century,
44
Candomblé “terreiros” were able to preserve, within their walls,
a series of African cultural practices such as the ritual languages,
a pantheon and its mythology, instruments, rhythms
and collections of songs, cuisine, as well as objects of worship.
Moreover, it was perpetuated among the followers of this
religion an African cosmic vision that views the world as a web
of vital and interacting forces that must be kept in balance
through specific rituals. Of course, the worship of
”orixás” has gone through many phases of different
adaptations and reinterpretations, becoming Afro-Brazilian.
The prevailing “Jêje-Nagô” ritual has been mixed with
other African and Amerindian religious expressions,
generating mixed forms of worship, such as Candomblé de
Caboclo and, more recently, Umbanda.
The concept of nation remains – cultural and no
longer ethnic – related mainly to ritual language, to the
repertoire of chants and to musical styles. At parties
or at public performances of Candomblés, the importance
of drums and their ritual percussionists, the “ogãs”,
is decisive in order to call deities to incorporate themselves
into their horses and to dance their myths among mortals.
The “ogãs” know a great variety of calls from the different nations
of candomblé – Keto, Angola, Jêje – and can dominate a
repertoire of hundreds of chants.
Musical traits peculiar to the Jêje-Nagô candomblés, such as fivenote scales (pentatonicas), remain restricted to houses of
worship while the sounds of the Congo-Angola candomblé,
along with the batuques and processions of banto origin
participate in an extra-religious melodic and rhythmic universe
that is known and publicly recognized throughout Brazil.
Among those is the samba. The Nagô religious music can only
be heard in a public and secular environment through the
“afoxés” (parties) of Carnival in Salvador, capital of Bahia.
They are called “street candomblés” and some of their
rhythmic and melodic references appear in the sonority of
Afro groups such as Ilê aiyê and Olodum.
Large Brazilian cities were points of encounter for all the
“ingomas”, Communities of Drums and Carnival, the
fundamental date of such celebrations. Samba Schools are the
main example of the confluence and fusion of the various
elements of Afro-Brazilian speech. The city of Rio de Janeiro,
capital of Brazil from 1763, has concentrated during the period
of its history a large population of Africans, principally the
Bantos that came from Congo and Angola; that
contingent grew after the abolition of slavery with the arrival
of freed slaves, attracted to that metropolis by the hope
of finding work. Not only blacks, but also “mestizos”
and poor whites migrating from Paraiban ranches, from
the farms of Minas Gerais, from the Northeast, from all over.
On the hills and in the suburbs of Rio, diverse but at the
same time unified cultural traditions were mixing: they
expressed happiness and devotion, they had within them
the strength of challenges and the reverence for their ancestors,
transmitted through their body, their voice and the drums.
These were things that belonged to blacks, a strong heritage
from those who, coming from afar, shared the same sub
proletarian destiny in peripheral neighborhoods and slums.
In this manner the several memories, affectingly preserved,
began forming a mosaic. On the one hand the “terreiro”, a
clearing where the various rituals and festivities took place:
the rhythm of the drums, the improvised chants of the old
batuques, such as the Carioca Caxambu and the Bahian
Samba-de-roda, the ritualism of the cults such as the Cabula
and Macumba, the bodily cunning of games such as
Pernada and Capoeira. On the other hand, the street:
the Cariocan Cucumbis, the Ranchos de Reis, from Bahia,
the Maracatus, from the Northeast, the Congadas, from Minas,
and all the dances making up the processions that are
characteristic of the itinerant festivals of Popular Catholicism.
They bring standard-bearers, kings and their court,
masqueraders, Bahians, and groups of portable drums beat with
drumsticks. And the fondness for colors, brightness and luxury
that has its roots in the Catholic Baroque of the Iberian
Peninsula, as well as a peculiar order or arrangement consisting
of rows that make up the huge processional parade.
Carnival, the most important date of a secular nature,
came to be the available calendar for a public celebration
of black peoples’ festivals in the large cities. In the 1920’s
the Samba Schools emerged, black voices amplified
far beyond the small community “terreiros”, of and for
the large masses of city dwellers. Struggling to legitimize
their voices within white society and obtain the visibility
dreamed of. Popular urban Opera goes to the middle
of the avenue, with orchestras of hundreds of drums,
instruments with nylon skins mass-produced by a specialized
industry. Suddenly, the discouraged lines of the white
middle class open up once and for all to the magic evolution
of the crioulo’s Samba. Avenues become sambadromes, and the
Samba, a spectacle of the masses and the media.
This text was originally written to introduce the multimedia
exposition "Comunidades do Tambor " (Communities of
Drums), set up at SESC, in Vila Mariana,São Paulo, during the
event "Percussões do Brasil" (Percussions of Brazil), in 1999.
Paulo Dias – born in São Paulo in 1960, is a musician and
ethnomusicologist. Since 1988 he has dedicated himself to the investigation
of traditional Brazilian music, especially that of African roots.
His work has been published through video-documentaries, CDs and expositions. He founded and directs the Cachuera Cultural
Association that documents, studies and divulges traditional popular
Brazilian culture. E-mail: [email protected]
45
Chiquinha Gonzaga
and the popular music in Rio de
Janeiro at the end of the 19th century
Cristina Magaldi
At the end of the 19th century, the theater attractions section of
the newspapers of Rio de Janeiro used to offer Cariocas (natives of
Rio) a large variety of options. In April of 1888, for example,
residents of the capital could choose between the preview of
“zarzuela” (comic opera) La Gran Via, Chueca and Valverde, in
theater Lucinda; the revue (parody), entitled O Boulevard da
Imprensa (Press Boulevard), by Oscar Pederneiras, in theater
Recreio Dramático; translation of comedy Tricoche and Cacolet, of
Meihac and Halevy, in theater Santana; magazine Notas
Recolhidas, by A. Cardoso de Menezes, in theatre Sant’anna; or an
orchestra concert organized by Arthur Napoleão, at Cassino
Fluminense. In July of the same year, Cariocas who liked concert
music could listen to Mendelssohn, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven
in a concert directed by Cavalier Darbilly, in theater São Pedro de
Alcântara. In August, an Italian campaign opened the season in
theatre D.Pedro II presenting many operas by Verdi and other
masters of the Italian “bel canto” (song)1.
47
S
uch proliferation of theater and musical attractions
showed the strictly cosmopolitan character of
Rio de Janeiro in the last decades of the past
century. A great quantity of genres and musical styles from
different parts of the world arrived in the city, especially
those in vogue in Paris. Brazilian composers of that period
of time, who are nowadays called “popular”, got out of that
urban tradition which was mainly cosmopolitan; their
works reflected the taste of an emerging middle class and looked
for a balance between the opera tradition, the European
concert and the music of the streets of the capital, particularly
that derived from the Afro-Brazilian tradition. By the end
of the century, the dividing line between popular music,
traditional music and erudite music was not clearly designed;
non-erudite music was that which circulated in large
quantity and through inexpensive publications.
They were simplified and designed to reach a large number
of consumers. But such distinction did not apply to the
genre or musical style: a tango, a waltz, or an opera song in
Italian equally pleased the Carioca audience.
The dances that were in vogue on the stages of Rio de Janeiro
during that period of time were the same successful dances
of the theaters of Paris, like polka, tango and “habanera” – the
last two arrived in the Brazilian capital through the route
Spain-Paris-Rio2. Therefore, the popularity of tango
in that period of time did not necessarily reflect a tendency
towards a nationalization of popular music. It reflected
the taste of the Carioca bourgeoisie, which widely attacked
the musical fashion that came from Paris. Outside the theatre,
those dances entered the living rooms of the bourgeoisie
through piano. Their status would be improved as being a
music that was worth admiration and respect.
On the stages of Rio de Janeiro, European music
and dance blended with the local styles of the black music that
was in the streets. It is important to say that the black
element of this emerging popular music did not come from
the authentic Afro-Brazilian drum circles and of“capoeira”
(typical dance). It came from the adaptation of such music
to the stage. They were made to please a bourgeoisie that was
predominantly white and that had a musical taste often
influenced by Parisians. In reality, the inclusion of dances
of Afro-Brazilian origin into the theaters of Rio reflected
48
the political moment of the country – the eminent slavery
abolition, and a special interest of the artists and intellectuals
who started to look at an Afro-Brazilian culture with
a curiosity that was almost scientific. As they appeared
on the stages of Rio de Janeiro and became a hit, remix dances
like “fandangos”,“fados”,“batuques” and “jongos” were, most of the
time, presented at intermissions, or at the end of theater pieces,
as a comic element. Thus, contrasting with pieces of
operas and lyric songs of European origin, the black
element was characterized as exotic and deviated from the
“civilized” European culture.
Popular music that emerged at the end of the 19th century,
therefore, reflected the synthesis of that music presented
in the theaters of the capital, as a result of the artistic,
intellectual and political desires of a new Brazilian bourgeoisie.
The beginning of the musical career of
Chiquinha Gonzaga (1847-1935) is an example.
She was one of the most important personalities of the Brazilian
music at the end of the 19th century. Chiquinha was a
student of Professor Arthur Napoleão, from Portugal, a good
piano player and composer of ballroom pieces. Napoleão,
who resided in Rio de Janeiro since 1868, also acted in
publication and music sales. He was also an organizer
of classic music concerts in the Brazilian capital. His presence
in the musical and artistic corners of Rio de Janeiro was
recognized by the high society, as well as by the Emperor,
who granted him with the Ordem da Rosa (an important
award). Chiquinha started her career by following the steps
of her teacher; she acted as a piano player
in ballrooms and wrote many compositions for piano
with a European style. They were played in social
and family gatherings of the upper and middle classes
of Rio. Napoleão was in charge of the publication and
distribution of the first compositions of Chiquinha,
like two waltzes for piano: Plangente and Desalento.
They appeared in a collection of dances for piano, Alegria
dos Salões, along with pieces by Strauss, Italian Luigi Arditi,
and two French pieces, by Henri Hertz and Joseph Ascher.
At the same time when Chiquinha Gonzaga was
publishing waltzes, she was also writing pieces for the theater,
like tangos and “habaneras”, with a style of those dances brought
to Rio de Janeiro by Spanish companies of“zarzuela”
(a big hit in Paris). Her tangos Seductor and
Sospiro that were published by Arthur
Napoleão in the 1880’s, appeared in
collections for piano along with pieces
extracted from opera Carmem, and a
version of“zamacueca” (Indian folksong and
dance) from Chile, written by Cuban
guitarist José White.
In 1885, Chiquinha Gonzaga wrote
a song for the opera A Corte na Roça,
with text written by Palhares Ribeiro.
The piece took place in theater
Príncipe Imperial as an operetta,
in the first act of the Brazilian customs.
The action of the operetta took place
on a farm – “fazenda das Cebolas”
(Onion Farm), in Queimados,
and had the participation of “roceiras”
and “roceiros” (people from the farmland).“In the operetta,
Chiquinha wrote some compositions that
had a Brazilian style”, wrote the critic of a newspaper,
Jornal do Comercio3. But, her “lundu” and final “cateretê”
were spicy, as the newspaper described, and pointed out
the “roceiro” – person who lives outside the urban area – not
the cosmopolitans of Rio de Janeiro. For those, they sang
during the intermission some pieces of Italian operas
and French songs, very urban and cosmopolitan.
A year later, Chiquinha Gonzaga reached her biggest hit
of all times when she composed some pieces for magazine
A Mulher-Homem, written by Valentim de Magalhães
and Filinto de Almeida. It was put on stage with big luxury
in January of 1885, in theater Sant’anna 4. The magazine
was based in a scandal that took place in 1885, when a man
that was dressed as a woman tried to get a job as a housekeeper.
Regarding such an event, A Mulher-Homem also talked and
made fun of recent political events, mainly the Senior’s
Law that freed the slaves who were older than 60 years of age.
However, the magazine had a text that was totally “carioca”.
Its 32 pieces of music included a cocktail of pieces and opera
overtures, such as La Gioconda , by A. Ponchielli and opera
Le Prophète de Meyerbeer 5. A comedy piece appeared
at the end of it: a “jongo” written by Henrique Magalhães,
called “Jongo dos pretos sexagenários”.
Cariocas had a habit to listen to these spicy
pieces as closing ones that pleased a
bourgeoisie audience. The Afro-Brazilian
element was far from the reality, and it was
seen as interesting and exotic.
Two months after the opening of
A Mulher-Homem, a new final number
was added to the magazine, called
“Um maxixe na Cidade-Nova.” For such
a final scene, Chiquinha Gonzaga and
Henrique de Magalhães wrote some songs
that described the poor side of town,
mainly a place called New City, where
“maxixe” was a dancing event for the lower
class, with the participation of black people, mulattos and
Portuguese immigrants. In the revue,“maxixe” included dances
like “fados” and “jongos”. A local critic described the new
pieces as being “compositions with a special touch, that can be
seen through rhythmic swings.”The critic ended by saying that
“maybe there is a sensual element within those dances, but one
cannot deny the charm and gracefulness that constitute a natural
component of our character and of our people”. Although
“maxixe” had been presented to the public with the specific goal
of making the population laugh and have fun, an initial
acceptance from the local critic said that an
Afro-Brazilian element described “something about Brazil”
within popular music, which European songs did not.
NOTES
1
All of those attractions were announced in the newspaper Jornal do Comercio,
from April to August of 1888.
2
Paulo Roberto Peloso Augusto,“Os Tangos Urbanos no Rio de Janeiro: 1870-
1920, Uma Análise Histórica e Musical,” Revista Música 8/1-2 (May/Nov,
1997): 106.
3
Jornal do Commercio, January 23, 1885.
4
Jornal do Commercio, February 16, 1886.
5
The names of the songs appeared in the newspaper Jornal do Comercio, of
January 13, 1886.
Cristina Magaldi is a Music and History Professor at Towson University, in
Maryland, U.S.
49
Every culture or religion has its own myths and
foundations. I am part of a quasi-religious brotherhood
that worships a dark-skinned saint whose habit – maybe
his mission – was that of softening and improving men’s
lives with his holy art. He is Alfredo da Rocha Vianna
Junior, better known as Pixinguinha. In my opinion, his
devotee will always be São Pixinguinha.
Pixinguinha
51
H
e said he was born in the zone of Piedade,
but his birth certificate shows he was born in
Catumbi. In reality, he was born in the City of
São Sebastião of Rio de Janeiro, on April 23, 1897
(and not in '98 as was believed for some time). By the way, this is
the date Brazilians celebrate a famous “Warrior Saint”
named Jorge. It was not thoughtlessly that
Di Cavalcanti had the custom of calling him
“My brother in São Jorge, my brother Pixinguinha!”
(Although some say it's insane, I can affirm that I am a witness
of a beautiful picture of Pixinga made by Di. It was there, in his
studio on Catete Street, that the painter was my neighbor).
When they decided it was a good idea to create the
Crying Day, another date could not be chosen:
the birth date of this man who was born to ennoble the genre,
gave it a format and its own language, full of undulating melodies
and rich in modulations. Who, in this life, has not been caught
whistling the song “Carinhoso”? Indeed.
Before physically getting to know Pixinguinha, I used
to listen to Pixinguinha on the radio. Most of all,
I saw him in the flesh for the very first time playing
at a carnival party at the old Galleria Cruzeiro, close to
Café Nice, on Rio Branco Avenue. During the 1940's.
Then, I really met him in the 50’s – the big event was at
Jacob do Bandolim’s house, in Jacarepaguá. Pixinga had already
had a few whiskies and was playing his mother-of-pearl
saxophone the way he enjoyed doing it. His fingers, so long,
so lovely and transparent, were like stalactites. His nails like
alabaster and an African mask sculpted in onyx or a silvery tar and his fingers used to run over the body of the instrument,
extracting absurdly marvelous sounds from it. By that time he
had abandoned the flute. Due to problems with his
embouchure: his mouth had formed fibers
and his lips wouldn’t obey as they made contact
with the flute – so the sax definitively entered his life.
But his wife, Beti, was not resigned... He had the most
beautiful style of blowing among all flute players.
By the way, this is one of the biggest issues for
52
his biographers: how to accommodate such multiplicity:
composer, instrumentalist, arranger. Difficult. The critic
Ary Vasconcellos is more realistic and objective:
“If you have 15 volumes to talk about all of Brazilian popular
music, you can be sure that it is not enough. But, if you have
space for just one word, write it down quickly: Pixinguinha”.
From the time he was a child he would play
everywhere, in theaters and at the circus. He experienced
no financial difficulties due to any lack of work.
When his father died, in 1917 (the same year the samba
“Pelo telefone” was recorded), Pixinguinha was already
financially independent. Two years later, a band would have its
debut at the Cine Palais, thus celebrating an era for our music:
Os Oito Batutas. There were Pixinga, Donga, China and
Nelson Alves – all black like him. It was in the Companhia
Negra de Revistas (Black Company of Magazines)
that he met Beti, who would be his wife throughout his life.
Black: he was a black man living in a racist society
that would question his trip to Paris with his companions, in
1922, to represent Brazil. What an insult!! But his genius
defeated all prejudices. Villa-Lobos was one of his
admirers and the musician/composer Basilio Itiberê taught
us that Pixinguinha’s counterpoint (all you have to
do is listen to his recordings with flutist Benedito Lacerda) – was
something from a Master. Speaking of Benedito Lacerda,
it is important to remember that his partnership with
Pixinguinha was merely symbolic. Pixinga
needed money and projection, which the duo provided him –
plus the partnership that was guaranteed through contracts.
The only luxury he allowed himself: drinking.
And he would sip his sacred whisky from Monday to Friday
in “Gouveia”, at Travessa do Ouvidor – where there
is a statue of him cast in bronze. It was the temple where his
friends would go to worship him, the Enchanted King. At that
place were João da Bahiana and Donga, and also Antonio Carlos
Brasileiro de Almeida Jobim who considered him a saint and a
genius and went there one day to ask for his blessing.
We can't tell which of Pixinguinha’s music is the best:
whether it is “Carinhoso”,“Ingênuo”,“Sofres porque queres”,
“Rosa” or “Lamentos”. Because he was a sculptor of
beautiful melodies that are still modern today, with that touch of
eternity that geniuses confer upon what they do. He also
invented beautiful introductions to occasionally poor
melodies that were given to him to orchestrate. Everything
he touched turned to gold. His sense as an arranger
preceded what modernists like Radamés Gnattali did
afterwards. He made motion picture sound tracks after he
exhausted his talent as an arranger and as the author
of all types of music for revue theaters of that period of time.
We can say a little more: he had an acute pictorial sense,
even in the sense of motion pictures, when he created certain
music. He produced descriptive humor in works
such as “O gate e o canário”,“Marreco quer água”,“Um a zero”. In
this last one, his musical narrative matches that of
football commentators describing players magical passes and
circumlocutions. A genius. Erik Satie would not do better.
Yes, I think I should talk about our personal relationship. It began
with a surprising request for me to be his partner in an
International Music Festival – where “Fala, baixinho” was born, as
well as a series of compositions that would widen our friendship.
It was often consolidated by many encounters that he would set
up at the Bar Gouveia, or to share with him roast meat with rust
sauce ("rusty", he would correct) prepared masterfully by his wife,
Beti. Remembering him in my house, spending an afternoon with
me is something that brings me to tears.
I was also honored to produce his last records: “Gente da
Antiga” (with Clementina de Jesus and João da Bahiana) and
“Som Pixinguinha”, both at Emi-Odeon. And I was even able to
take him to the studio to record with Divina Elizeth Cardoso a
samba that we had made together - “Isso é que é viver”.
When Mário de Andrade wanted to know everything about
witchcraft, candomblé and related phenomena in order to write
“Macunaima”, he not only consulted Pixinguinha, but he made
him a character in that rhapsody: Olelê Rui Barbosa, pockmarked Ogan, a player of atabaques [type of drum].
(As far as we know, Pixinguinha never played atabaques and,
at the end of his life he was a devoted Catholic).
And so devoted that I'm going to tell you now that he awoke
that day pensive: I imagine he had crossed himself recalling with
pleasure the visit that Jacob do Bandolim, a friend
and devotee, had paid him a few days before. He was preparing
to be a godfather at a baptism in a church in Copacabana
and he had left a message for me to be there. He was surprised
when I showed up at his house, with no prior warning…I was
missing him very much. A miracle happened: he played the flute
that he had abandoned a long time ago. We said good-bye.
“He died as a saint,” everybody would say a few hours later, when
he bid farewell to all of us within the
Our Lady of Peace Church, in Ipanema.
Bibliography:
Pixinguinha, Vida e Obra (Ed. Funarte, 1978) (Lumiar Edit. 1997).
Filho de Ogum Bexinguento (Marilia T.Barbosa/Arthur Filho. Ed. Funarte,
1978 e Ed. Griphus, 1997).
Since 1958 Hermínio Carvalho has produced hundreds of shows
for the MEC radio station: (“Violão de ontem e de hoje”, “Reminiscências do
Rio de Janeiro”,“Orquestra de Sopros”), as well as for TVE, already in the
1970s. Some of his famous TV series include “Água Viva”,
“Mudando de Conversa”,“Lira do Povo”, and “Contra-Luz”. As a directorscriptwriter, his career is marked by several hits: the “Rosa de Ouro”
musical (1965), which introduced Clementina de Jesus and Paulinho da
Viola; the concert (1968) that brought Elizeth Cardoso, Jacob do Bandolim,
Zimbo Trio, and Época de Ouro together. Also worth mentioning are the
shows entitled “Festa Brasil” (Europe, USA and Canada);“Face a Face”
(1974), with singer Simone;“Te pego pela palavra” (1975), with singer
Marlene;“Caymmi em Concerto” (1985);“Chico Buarque de Mangueira”
(1998), and other shows starring Luiz Gonzaga, Herivelto Martins,
Radamés Gnattali & Camerata Carioca. In 1999 he directed
“Clássicas” (with singers Zezé Gonzaga and Jane Duboc), and
“Sessão Passatempo”, with singer Carol Saboya.
53
Carnaval:
from the ticumbís, cucumbís, entrudo
and carnival societies to current days
Haroldo Costa
54
Photo: Mario Thompson
I defend with zeal and the deepest conviction that our
Carnival today represents the most faithful translation of
our inheritances, contradictions, perplexities and
perspectives. That is where its originality and constant
mutation reside, as well as the irresistible seduction it
wields over all who come into any degree of contact with it.
55
T
he first carnival related sounds arrived in
Rio de Janeiro not as rhythms or melodies, but as
angry shouts and debauched laughter. It was the
Entrudo. The word comes from the Latin Introito, used to
define the beginning of Lent. Emigrants from the Madera,
Azores and Cape Verde islands, first arriving here in 1723 and
spreading from Porto Alegre – named Porto dos Casais back
then - to Espirito Santo, brought with them the habit of
Carnival, very popular in Portugal and its colonies.
But it was in Rio that it grew roots, being mentioned and
described by the travelers and chroniclers of the time,
such as Jean-Baptiste Debret, who immortalized it in drawings,
even depicting the bisnaga (tube), a vital item in the pranks, so
to speak.
The brutality of the Entrudo had no bounds.
People threw flour, itching powder, soot, gum, wax lemons filled
with any liquid, even urine, at each other.
From the balconies, basins of water were poured over passersby, who couldn’t even complain, or things got worse.
There were some serious incidents, like the one involving
the French architect Grandjean de Montigny,
from the French art mission brought by King João VI,
who died as a result of a pleurisy acquired during carnival.
The police tried to restrain the excesses
of the Entrudo, but it was hard. Even with the constant
water shortages of Rio’s summers, barrels were
carried by the slaves to fill the tins that the masters and
mistresses used in the three days of merry-making.
The authorities published regulations,
but to no avail. Each Entrudo became more violent,
until it was formally outlawed in 1857. Even so,
despite the legal prohibition, it resisted some years until
vanishing for good, swallowed by other novelties
that came up. Like the Zé Pereira, for instance.
It was at 22, São José street, in the center of Rio, that the
Zé Pereira began, embodied by the Portuguese
Jose Nogueira de Azevedo Paredes, who, on a carnival Monday,
took to the streets with a huge bass drum,
trailed by other countrymen with smaller drums,
creating a commotion and drawing lively followers that soon
turned into a small crowd. The Zé Pereira became
a symbol of the carnival in Rio – and of Brazil – that
56
lasts until today. Such was its popularity that the review theatre
incorporated the good-natured character and even gave it a
musical theme, adapted from the French composition Les
Pompiers de Nanterre
(The Firemen of Nanterre). It was a huge success in the play
staged at the Fenix Theater, in 1870, with the title
“Zé Pereira Carnavalesco”, sung by Francisco Correia Vasques,
a great star of the time:
“Hurray! Zé Pereira
Who does no harm to anyone
Hurray! drunkenness
In the days of Carnival!”
The spontaneity of the streets also gave rise to the cordões, with
the participation of the black population that, until then, had
had a secondary participation in the festivities.
The origin of the cordões dates back to the religious
brotherhoods such as that of Our Lady of the Rosary,
which sheltered slaves and freemen. Thus the
first groups of Ticumbís appeared, reproducing characters
and choreography from the culture of the Congo.
Another element of the cordões were the Cucumbís,
a word that comes from cocumbe, the food served at the
circumcision of the children of the Congo blacks
and for which the groups were also known.
On those occasions dancing was a ritual that
marked two important moments, the one just mentioned,
and the funeral ceremonies.
The cucumbís went from the sacred to the profane,
and, with the rhythm provided by the shakers, xequerês, rattles,
tambourines, agogô bells and marimbas,
evolved into groups like the Cucumbis Lanceiros
Carnavalescos, Triunfo dos Cucumbis Carnavalescos,
Iniciadores dos Cucumbis and dozens of others. Little by little
the name cucumbi was substituted by the generic cordão that
spread all around the city. Many became famous, but none as
much as the Rosa de Ouro, for which, upon request from its
board, musician Francisca Edwiges Neves Gonzaga, better
known as Chiquinha Gonzaga, composed the march that
became the musical epitome of the Brazilian carnival:
“Make way, I’m coming through
I like parties, can’t deny that,
Rosa de Ouro is coming first“
Photo: Mario Thompson
Just as the cordões had the cells of the African presence, the
Ranchos, another important chapter in the history of our
carnival, brought the Portuguese presence and legacy. In the
beginning they were part of the Christmas celebrations and of
the celebration in honor of Our Lady of Penha, which was held
in October. While inside the church the Te-Deum was
celebrated, outside, among stalls serving food and drink, people
could hear the sambas and marches that were a preview of the
carnival. And meet Pixinguinha, Sinhô, Donga, João da Baiana,
Caninha and other musical artists of Rio in the early 1900’s.
The ranchos gradually changed shape and took on names like
Recreio das Flores, Kananga do Japão, Ameno Resedá, Flor do
Abacate, developing into one of the basic forces of our carnival.
As they grew, they became more sumptuous and important.
Their retinue was impressive, with military band musicians and
opera singers. They gathered up entire families and paraded for
57
in which they lived. In 1876, the Estudantes de Heidelberg,
who named their headquarters University, went out
on the streets to raise money to free a young slave who had
saved a white girl from drowning at the Icaraí beach.
In the 1888 carnival, a few months before the abolition of
slavery, a newspaper published the following:
“The group of the Pelicanos, a heroic fraction of the
meritorious club of the Fenianos, always generous
and noble, once more enhanced its well-known merits and
elevated feelings by eternally dignifying the grandiose
event of today with the restitution of a man to the state of
freedom. It is not the first time that the emeritus
carousers deserve praise or tribute. The slave emancipated
by the illustrious club is twenty years old, is called Teodoro
and will join his benefactors in the victorious carnival
parade of today. A Bravo! to the heroic crowd.”
The three great clubs, Tenentes do Diabo,
Democráticos and Fenianos, in the carnivals before the
abolition, bought slaves to free them, later presenting them in
their parades, on top of the floats, as a lesson and as
encouragement.
Photo: Prensa 3
thousands of people who elbowed each other along the
Central Avenue, later Rio Branco Avenue,
under cheers and great popular excitement. Several carnival
chroniclers described the rancho parades as medieval
processions or popular operas.
The plots they presented had titles like the Divine Comedy,
by Dante Alighieri; Aida, by Verdi; Salome,
by Oscar Wilde and Queen of Sabbath.
Dividing the preference of the people and the
press were the Carnival Societies or Great Societies,
as they were known. The forerunners were the Zuavos
Carnavalescos, later called Tenentes do Diabo,
the Grande Congresso das Sumidades Carnavalescas, later
dissolved to form the Sociedades de Estudantes
de Heidelberg, and the Democráticos. The main
characteristic of the societies is that the founders
and directors were writers, press professionals,
doctors, in short, people who were very different from those
who established the cordões and ranchos.
But, contrary to what one might think, these groups had a great
social and political commitment with the times
58
The same took place with the republican ideals.
The societies closed ranks around those who fought
to bring down the monarchy and the weapons they used were
satire and allegories. This also happened with regard to women’s
vote and the fight against the dictatorship of the New State (in
the 30’s and 40’s).
It is clear that these organizations were, in addition to being
dedicated to music and literature, vital elements in the great
conquests of our political history. This is part of the uniqueness
of our carnival.
Descendents of the ranchos and the great societies, the samba
schools, which appeared in the Rio carnival in the early 30’s,
incorporated elements of the two forms and created a
new and irresistible model. Starting in the Estácio de Sá quarter
and soon spreading all over the Mangueira hill
and the suburbs of Oswaldo Cruz and Madureira, these
associations are the synthesis of all the expressions that have
occurred since the arrival of the first slave ships and the
celebrations of the first cucumbis.
The samba schools are, I firmly believe, a historical destiny.
They are the synthesis of the country and of our people.
Fortunately, they were not born ready and finished.
Over the years, modifications occurred, which is natural.
However, they maintained their condition as
witnesses of their time and mirror of the anxieties and
expectations of their components, without being
stripped of their essence. One of the most democratic
institutions ever heard of, the schools place no
restrictions on membership. Among the paraders, today
reaching the amazing number of 4,000,
on average, with 14 schools just in the most important group,
are people of various races, professions and origins,
who come together to parade for 90 minutes, singing and
dancing non-stop.
Throughout the whole period, since the first parade
competition held on the 7th of February, 1932,
the schools have grown as associations or recreation clubs,
as they are officially called, many of which are dedicated
to social work of great impact, using sport and professional
training to pave the way to full citizenship for a significant
number of youths.
Carrying on this unique aspect of our carnival, which
distinguishes it from any other, the samba schools
have played a magnificent role in the recovery of historical
characters and episodes, many of which ignored by official
history. Countless outcast figures, countless important
moments in the development of our country, ign
ored by school books, gained their proper dimension through
the themes of the schools and their sambas.
Aleijadinho, Chica da Silva, Dona Beja, the ball of the
Fiscal Island, Delmiro Gouveia, the revolt of the malês,
Zumbi of Palmares, Monteiro Lobato, Villa Lobos,
the condemnation of the several economic plans we
have been subjected to, afro-Brazilian mythology, the alternative
versions of the discovery of Brazil, in short,
the samba schools became a forum for discussion
and learning about Brazil. And all this without academicism,
with accessible artistic language and visualization, because, after
all, everything is done through song and dance.
Nowadays, the barracão, or large shed, is the great
cauldron of carnival alchemy, where everything is
transformed and life is created through the hands
of artisans who mix sweat, glue, nails and ironware to
materialize visions and deliriums.
Different from an atelier or workshop, the large shed plunges
into magic that is shared by those who work there and
understood by those who visit it.
The samba school phenomenon first transcended the limits
of Rio and, later, the limits of Brazil.
Today there are schools in cities as different as Los Angeles,
Port, Oslo, Tokyo and London, adopting not only our rhythm
but also its essence.
From the drums of the Zé Pereira to the drums that
set the strong beat of the percussion of the samba schools much
has happened. Our carnival, through them,
has been the musical score of the history of the country,
registering, adopting, transforming, modifying gestures
and ways, behaviors and appearances. And more, they give the
world a model of beauty, fraternity and tolerance.
Haroldo Costa – is an actor, cultural producer and author
of the books Fala, Criolo; Salgueiro, Academia de Samba;
É hoje (with cartoonist Lan), Na academia de Samba and 100 anos
do carnaval, no Rio de Janeiro
59
The Sweet Presence of
the Chorinho in the
German Musical Scene
Beate Kittsteiner
Contrary to the samba and the BossaNova, the chorinho is still relatively
unknown in the Europe. The choro
(chorinho) appeared around 1870, when
Brazilians
began
to
“brazilianize”
European dances in vogue at the time, such
as the waltz, the polka and the schottische.
Rio de Janeiro was a true cultural melting-pot.
There were immigrants from various European
countries, who had brought with them the musical
traditions of their homelands.
Altamiro Carrilho
60
Upon this musical foundation of European tradition the
African influence was added, brought by the slaves, at the
time already in a full process of cultural fusion. From the
combination of the two musical influences, that is,
European and African, came the choro, with its syncopated
rhythm of an African flavor and its harmonies with a clear
European affinity. The music derived from this mix is softer
and more delicate that the samba, lending itself to a rich
variety of melodic combinations.
any compare the choro – and its significance
for recent Brazilian music, with the
American rag-time and its importance for jazz.
On the other hand, it is said that the primitive choro
is similar to classical music, while the more recent choro
is analogous to jazz, mainly in its potential for improvisation.
An important characteristic of the choro, which
distinguishes it from other current musical forms, dominated
by a reductionist trend, where the melody plays a
secondary role, is that the choro, with its broad melodic range,
has a surprising harmonic variation. Thus, part
of the choro’s appeal is that it allows a rich scope of
variation-improvisations, as occurs in jazz. The soloists in the
choro groups direct melodies at one another, each
one making an effort to outdo the other through variations,
in a kind of “musical challenge “. Many old choros
express this characteristic in their titles, such as
“went down, didn’t you? “ or “careful, buddy “.
Originally, the instruments used to play the choro
were the flute, the guitar and the cavaquinho
(a type of ukulele). Later, in the 20’s, the typical percussion
instruments were introduced, such as the tambourine,
M
62
reco-reco, or the small bass drum. After that, the seven-string
guitar was added, providing a better base line.
Because of my jazz background, besides playing the flute,
I introduced the saxophone into my choro group in
Munich. The cavaquinho is played by Brazilian
Fábio Block, whose father is a famous choro musician;
the guitar is played by Dieter Holisch, German,
who has a refined sense for Brazilian music; on the contrabass
we have the Spanish virtuoso Manolo Diaz.
Our group also includes two percussionists: the Brazilian
tambourine specialist Borel de Sousa and Ulrich Stach,
German, raised in Brazil, an excellent percussionist
who plays the timba in our group.
Among our main inspirers, we include composer
Zequinha de Abreu, whose Tico Tico no Fubá is known
throughout the world. We also play, among other of his
compositions, Não me toques. We also value, enormously,
the legendary composer, saxophonist and flautist
Pixinguinha, whose music is not only incredibly fresh,
but also extremely moving. We always play his celebrated
chorinho Carinhoso, a huge success, along with other
compositions of his, like Um a Zero, Os Cinco
Photo: Prensa 3
Companheiros, Teu Aniversário and Vamos Brincar.
I also venerate the old cavaquinho master Waldir Azevedo,
whose composition Brasileirinho is known all over the world.
Our group plays several of his compositions, including
Cavaquinho Seresteiro, Choro Novo em Dó, Lembrando
Chopin (as the title says, a tribute to Chopin, much admired
by the composer) and Homenagem a Chiquinha Gonzaga.
Chiquinha Gonzaga is another source of inspiration for us:
a revolutionary woman at her time (1847-1935),
not only in terms of music but also customs, and her famous
polka-choro “Atraente “, is part of our repertoire.
Jacob do Bandolim
A much appreciated composer of the 40’s is Jacó do
Bandolim,
a true virtuoso of the mandolin, of whose compositions we
play, among others, “Doce de Coco “ and “Vale Tudo “. Among
modern choro composers, we particularly admire flautist
Altamiro Carrilho.
Beate Kittsteiner is Musicologist, saxophonist and flautist of
her group “Tocando” of Munich.
63
A seal of a small record
market and the synthesis of
a proposal: to engage in an
1. Mimetic updating. Getting into step with
company recently
appeared in São Paulo, at
the Metropolitan Students
Union. Its motto is "making
the music that Brazil
deserves". It can be deduced
from the catalogue of titles
and artists produced by the
stamp that the radios and
open TV networks do not
distribute the music that
Brazil deserves. The motto
is a verdict about the music
unbalanced, quixotic battle,
to remove from the
shadows musicians,
repertoires and traditions
that deserve to be heard.
66
I
t may seem that the idealizers of the initiative worry
about wind mills. Brazilian popular music is
appreciated by various audiences, from the United
States to Japan. Tom Jobim is among the great song composers
of the 20th century. However, the concern is shared by many
people who find it strange that the media should promote only
a few types of music, imposing barriers to the aesthetic
diversity of the country, at a time when the end of these same
barriers is hailed, thanks to communication technologies.
Therefore, it is worth recalling the ways out for Brazilian
music that musicians, critics and intellectuals have
thought of over the past 85 years. Conceived and tried
among us, they find correspondence, of course, in others,
conceived in Europe and the Americas.
Let us take as historical landmarks the 1917 carnival,
when a song entitled "Pelo Telefone” was recorded
and became a hit on the streets – later entering history as
the first samba ever recorded – and the 1922 Week of Modern
Art, that shook the art scene of São Paulo with concerts,
readings, and painting and architecture exhibitions. The two
will be the starting point for the small inventory that follows.
The reader will notice that the alternatives had different
impacts, that some can be combined and others not. Some
names are mentioned, but it would be oversimplification to
associate a way out to this or that historical figure.
Neither do they correspond to the works that would
exemplify them. The complexity and the uniqueness of
each musical event cannot be reduced to the illustration
of an artistic movement or political project.
European artistic production was the way out glimpsed
by many Brazilian artists, at a time when Paris was
the mythical capital of civilization. The familiarity of some
Rio musicians with the French music of his time surprised
composer Darius Milhaud when he arrived in
Rio de Janeiro, precisely in that year of 1917. In his memoirs
(Me vie heureuse , he mentions how he learned more
about the music of Eric Satie at the home of piano teacher
Leão Veloso!
Elements of this yearning for updating are present in the
Week of Modern Art. The session conducted by writer
Graça Aranha (newly arrived from Europe) on the occasion
didactically brought news of the most frequently
mentioned names in Parisian modernism – Igor Stravinski,
Satie, the Group of Six. Therefore, it fulfilled the role of
spreading among us the concept of "modern music".
Mimicry is often vulnerable to criticism. An example of ironic
observation of the importation of modernisms is the
march A-B-surdo, composed by Lamartine Babo and Noel
Rosa in 1931. As a parody of modern poetry and the futuristic
fever that followed the visit of Marinetti, they sang:
“It is futurism, girl
It is futurism, girl
This is not a march
Not here, not anywhere.”
2. Recognition of the national features.
Photo: Prensa 3
This solution met with lasting success in Brazil and attracted
countless artists. Composers Luciano Gallet, Camargo
Guarnieri and Francisco Mignone supported it. Mário de
Andrade, another participant of the 1922 Week, best
formulated it theoretically. According to him, the
development of a strictly Brazilian artistic music would be
possible with the deliberate use of the national traits
that emerged naturally from popular music. Thus, we would
leave the stage of mimicry and Brazilian music would be
fit to appear in the concert programs, alongside the great
European national traditions.
The success of Heitor Villa-Lobos in Paris, in the 1920’s,
confirmed the accurateness of the thesis that combined
nationalism and modernism, integration with the
civilized western world and a plunge into the Brazilian
particularities. The work of Villa-Lobos was interpreted
by the European critics as an expression of the
primitive vigor and natural opulence of a young country –
therefore, as an authentic expression of Brazil. Moreover, the
tangos, polkas and maxixes, which did not raise interest
in the Brazilian academic milieu, began to be seen under a new
Oswald de Andrade
67
light. In the Revue Musicale, Milhaud referred to his effort
to capture the knack of syncopation in the pieces of Brazilian
composers, amongst them the "brilliant" Ernesto Nazaré.
3. Technique euphoria. In the first half of the
20th century, technological innovations radically transformed
the relationship of most people with music. Sound
recording and broadcasting meant that hearing no longer
depended on a connection between musicians and listeners,
in the same space and time. Mechanized music generated both
somber and optimistic views of the technique.
Those who believed in progress also viewed eagerly the
emergence of the music of the industrial age, capable of
expressing the speed and excitement of the modern world.
This attitude can be found in the editorial of Klaxon magazine
(1922) celebrating the cinema, the "8 Batutas" and the jazzband as the representative art of the time
4. Anthropophagy "Wagner is drowned by the
Photo: Prensa 3
Noel Rosa
cordões of Botafogo", proclaimed Oswald de Andrade in the
Anthropophagous Manifesto, in 1928. Anthropophagy
turned against mimetic updating and the reverent attitude to
the works sanctioned by the academic world.
The expression "Brazilian culture" started to be understood as
something much broader than the production of cultured
sectors, in this hybrid of naturism, primitivism and modernist
renewal fever. Mixing aggressiveness and wit, anthropophagy
preaches the devouring of the colonizer, that is, the
incorporation of the colonizer’s power in a wild feast, inspired
by the rituals of the Tupi indians.
It is about restoring the terms of the relationship between
Brazilian music and the music of the centers of western
culture. The fearful attitude towards the foreign music
is abandoned. Instead, its qualities are absorbed.
Instances of devouring European traditions in the music
played by Brazilians abound, both before and after the
theoretical formulation of anthropophagy. In the 19th century,
with the flute, cavaquinho and guitar trio, the so called
"chorões" transformed the music of European dances,
such as the polka, generating new styles. Later, within the
"Tropicália" movement, old songs from the Brazilian
romantic repertoire joined the traditional country
songs and modern electric guitars, identified with a new foreign
fashion – rock'n roll.
5. Education of the masses. In this civilizing
proposal, the social role of the artist and support from the
State are emphasized. This is the starting point for
far-reaching actions to distribute the benefits of education and
to educate, above all, the listener.
Such was the intention of Villa-Lobos when he headed the
Superintendence for Musical and Artistic Education,
in the old Federal District. The fascination the composer
had for grandiose choirs found echo in the
disciplinarian spirit of the regime implanted by Getúlio Vargas
in 1930. The end of the First Republic, amidst the losses
of the coffee trade and the 1929 international crisis,
weakened the belief in liberal values. In this context, concerts
with thousands of voices symbolized the victory of
collective interests over individualism.
The musical education project of Villa-Lobos aimed at a
68
Villa-Lobos
veritable reform of attitude, to be
reached by means of the education
of an audience and of teachers.
This would be the efficient antidote for the
poisons of the phonograph and the
cinema, to which Villa-Lobos,
as did others at the time, credited the
degeneration of musical taste.
6. Vanguard and
unwholesome art.
Photo: Prensa 3
The advance in the forms of mass
distribution of music generated new idols
and new styles. Little room remained
for the composer who, after a long period
of specialized training, composes
handwritten, complex pieces, of difficult
execution for the interpreters and
difficult assimilation by the listeners.
The double frustration, with the
totalitarian political regime of the
New State, on the one hand, and with the
logic of the market, on the other, lead some
artists to even greater rejection,
not only of the routine sounds broadcast
by the radio, but of society itself.
In the somber atmosphere of the
Second World War, Mário de Andrade made bitter
comments on musical art in Brazil. In spite of his generally
optimistic convictions regarding Brazilian music,
he let it slip, through the voice of his characters in “O Banquete”,
that the radical attitude of the vanguards emerged as
a response to the problems of his time. One of the characters,
composer Janjão, says:
The best way to use me, to soothe my free conscience,
is to do unwholesome work... Unwholesome, in the sense
of containing annihilating and intoxicating germs, capable
of damaging surrounding life and helping to destroy
the worn out structures of society.
The alternatives of this brief inventory were presented i
n particular historical contexts, tied to certain forms of
perceiving the problems of Brazilian culture. Therefore, they are
not to be taken as prescriptions. They cannot be converted
into actions. An important axis of the debate about music in
Brazil – the opposition between national and foreign –
has been displaced since Anthropophagy. Even so, the issues
raised have not become obsolete. The need to learn
more about the various musical languages practiced in Brazil
and the search for artistic excellence without disregarding
education, are still on the agenda.
Elizabeth Travassos is a Doctor of Social Anthropology from the National
Museum of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ). She is a
Folklore and Ethnical Musicology professor at the University of Rio de
Janeiro (UNI-RIO). She is the author of “Os Mandarins Milagrosos. Arte e
Etnografia em Mário de Andrade e Béla Bartók” (1997), and “Modernismo e
Música no Brasil” (1999).
69
FROM THE KINGS OF THE RADIO
TO THE “BOQUINHA DA GARRAFA”
Tom Tavares
When the first official radio transmission took place in
Brazil, eighty loudspeakers spread around the old federal
capital broadcast the speech of the President of the
Republic, Epitácio Pessoa, in his last year of government.
After the sound of power, it was the turn of the power of
sound: the overture of the opera "O Guarani", by
composer Antonio Carlos Gomes, was broadcast directly
from the Municipal Theater of Rio de Janeiro.
Carmen Miranda
71
72
ll this happened on the 7th of September,
1922, at the celebration of the one hundredth
anniversary of independence. In one hundred years,
the federation had been through successive political crises,
distinguished by a fragile economy, already indebted to
England, as a transfer from anachronistic royalty to the royal
farce of a new republic that proved old early on.
When that September arrived, in spite of the immoderacies
A
Theater, side by side with the already famous Vicente Celestino;
and Ernesto Nazareth enjoyed the success of compositions
like “Brejeiro”,“Odeon” and “Apanhei-te Cavaquinho”.
There was more: in São Paulo, Zequinha de Abreu made
couples dance to the sound of “Tico-Tico no Farelo”,
later turned into the world famous “Tico-Tico no Fubá”.
More to the south, in Porto Alegre, Radamés Gnattali played
the piano in the Cine Columbus, producing his first
practiced by the leaders of the country, it was also a time to tally
some good reasons for hope and optimism. One of
the reasons was the musical production. We had a good sound
legacy from the flute of Joaquim Antonio da Silva Calado
and we still had the piano of Chiquinha Gonzaga. I
t was twenty years before the first recording of Brazilian
popular music (“Isto É Bom”, by Xisto Bahia, cut by
Casa Edison) and seven months after the “
Week of Modern Art”, an event in which Brazilian music was
represented by Ernani Braga, Fructuoso Vianna
and Heitor Villa-Lobos.
In the early 1930’s, Brazil was already “artful”.
Some of the most important artists of our history appeared
at that time: Pixinguinha toured France and recorded
at RCA-Vitor, Argentina, with the “Oito Batutas”;
on the mandolin, Luperce Miranda integrated the Jazz
Leão do Norte, in Recife; the sound of the piano of
Ari Barroso filled the foyer of the Iris Cinema, at
Largo do Carioca; Josué de Barros returned to Brazil after
making the first Brazilian music recordings in Europe;
Francisco Alves made his debut in the São José
scores with distinctly Brazilian musical elements.
Thus, when Roquette Pinto inaugurated our first broadcasting
station, Radio Sociedade, on the 20th of April, 1923,
the collection of compositions developed in Brazil
was already vast and varied enough to meet the
demand of the audience reached by the new communication
medium. The deficiency was not, therefore, in the
field of creation. It was in the area of recording, since the
existing studios did not yet have the best technical
resources for capturing and reproducing sound.
The 78 rpm records did not offer fidelity, neither
did the microphones, nor the transmitters
and much less the rare receivers.
But they would do. The radio became popular.
The radio age had begun.
New radio stations were quickly created and involved
in a healthy competition for audience through quality.
Not only for the capacity of the producers and
presenters. The men of radio back then, perhaps due
to lack of better options, structured the whole program
based on music. Luckily, thanks
Photo: Mario Thompson
Photo: Prensa 3
Sílvio Caldas
to their competence, the music was good.
Thus a relationship was established where all interests were
met: the record company had its work divulged; the artist,
broadcast by the radio station, expanded his field of action;
and the radio station, in development,
devoid of material to fill its program, fed on the rich
and varied musical vein. It is true that the
Rádio Jornal do Brasil distinguished classical music.
But it is also true that the other radio stations never
tired of broadcasting the best of our new music
of those days . The new music of Pixinguinha,
Noel Rosa, Lamartine Babo, Mário Reis, Ari Barroso,
Carmen Miranda, Silvio Caldas, Donga.
New music full of new rhythms, of lundú,
maxixe, choro, march, samba, that, thanks to the
inexorability of time, would soon integrate the repertoire
of what was called “old guard”.
Complementing the sound collection from the record
companies, radio stations in the 20’s started to broadcast live
music, played right there in the transmission studios.
Once again, this proves the quality of the
Nelson Gonçalves
artists of that period: only the really competent can play live.
So competence there was.
With the creation of Radio Nacional, in 1936, the audience
started to compete for a place to see the radio programs.
That’s right, to see the radio.
The live auditorium programs arrived, dividing their time
between presentations of musicians, famous singers and
also new ones, called “calouros”, which
increased the already extensive list of musical attractions.
At that time, the radio went through its first transition.
Little by little, announcers lost the command of
the programs, now exercised by exclusively
hired singers and composers. Rádio Mayrink Veiga had
Carlos Galhardo and Silvio Caldas; Tupi bet on
Dircinha Batista; Rádio Educadora presented the
“Horas Lamartinescas”; the presence of Alimirante was
unmistakable in Tamoio; Ari Barroso
shone in Cruzeiro do Sul. Rádio Nacional,
in turn, had a heavyweight team on the air, in which the
highlights were Francisco Alves, Linda Batista,
Nuno Rolando, Manezinho Araújo,
73
Nelson Gonçalves and Orlando Silva.
Absolute audience leader in the 40’s and 50’s,
Nacional had, under contract, 15 conductors, as well as two
regional groups and a great orchestra made up of
144 members. It also employed soloists of the caliber of
Jacob do Bandolim, Abel Ferreira, Luperce Miranda,
Luiz Americano, Dilermando Reis, Garoto and
Chiquinho do Acordeon. Not satisfied with that, it overturned
our presidential regime by crowning Marlene, Dalva de
Oliveira, Emilinha Borba, Ângela Maria and Dóris Monteiro,
the Queens of the Radio, golden voices in the sound tracks of
the romantic years of the first half of the twentieth century.
From 1950, the competition for audience incr
eased even more with the dawn of television in Brazil.
The most important television stations implanted at that stage
were Tupi, Nacional, Rio, Paulista, Continental, Excelsior,
and Record. This new communication medium
conquered Brazilian homes using as attractions the same great
radio names. Although the programs were truly diversified,
with soaps, news, films, the leadership of the musical
programs was undeniable. So television was also born,
learned to walk, and grew on a foundation of
Brazilian music: not only the effective one but also the music
resulting from the new movements that rocked the
country between the fifties and the sixties: Bossa Nova,
Jovem Guarda and Tropicalismo.
There was room for all of them on the screen
when the MPB Festivals (launched by TV Excelsior in 1965,
imitated by Record and, later, TV Globo) selected the
repertoire to be sung by the nation. Tom Jobim,
74
Vinícius de Morais, Baden Powell, Geraldo Vandré,
Jair Rodrigues, Chico Buarque, MPB 4, Nara Leão,
Wilson Simonal, Roberto Carlos, Edu Lobo, Elis Regina,
Caetano Velloso, Gal Costa, Gilberto Gil, Os Mutantes,
Tom Zé, Sérgio Ricardo, Dori Caymmi, Nelson Mota,
Luiz Bonfá, Antonio Adolfo, Milton Nascimento,
Guarabira, Paulinho da Viola, Marcos Valle, Sueli Costa,
Ivan Lins, Beth Carvalho, Antonio Carlos and Jocafi,
Gonzaguinha, Egberto Gismonti and Jorge Benjor
were some of the great names that appeared at that time.
The musical programs, such as “O Fino da Bossa”
(TV Record),“Um Instante Maestro” (TV Tupi),
“A Grande Chance” (TV Tupi),“Vamos S’imbora”
(TV Record),“Esta Noite Se Improvisa”
(TV Record),“Rio Hit Parade” (TV Rio)
dominated the prime time. Young people
could choose from “Todos os Jovens do Mundo”
(TV Record),“Os Brotos Comandam” (TV Continental),
“Festa do Bolinha” (TV Rio),“Jovem Guarda”
(TV Record),“Jovem Urgente” (TV Cultura),
“Poder Jovem” (TV Tupi),“Brasa 4”
(TV Itacolomi-BH), and others.
This ebullience continued way into the seventies, leaving
the scene when Paulista, Tupi, Excelsior and
Continental television stations were swallowed by the big
networks, whose paradigm is TV Globo.
The process of dismantlement obviously included the
dismissal of regional groups, whole orchestras,
conductors, in short, all the musical heads that did not
surrender to the dictates of the newest
Gilberto Gil
Photo: Prensa 3
Donga
even sabotaging, the free development of artistic thought,
squeezing everything and everyone, all wrapped in the same
package, through the mouth of the bottle.
Tom Tavares – Composer and Conductor, Professor of the School of Music
of the Federal University of Bahia .
Photo: Mario Thompson
art director of the TV stations: the market. For the vacancies
left by the radio kings and queens, the media owners
elected their ideal stars: luminous kings of submission,
of subservience, ideologically barren lambs.
It was the end of a plural and culturally successful
relationship between the industries of music and
communication. From then on, the big networks
imposed their will like great looting armies, frontally
disregarding the legislation that allows their operation.
The radio and TV stations practically dumped the law of
concessions, teaming up with entrepreneurs whose musical
sensitivity is restricted to the allure of tingling coins.
It seems like fiction, but regrettably it is the truth.
There was a time when music, projected through loudspeakers,
identified, in the conical format of this accessory, one of its
symbols. It was the representative outline of growth, evolution,
expansion, freedom.
Today, the media refuses to contemplate diversity, discouraging,
75
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE
CARIOCA SAMBA
IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
Carlos Sandroni
S
amba has been recognized, in the last decades, as the
most typically Brazilian musical expression. But the
word "samba”, in Brazil, designates many different
things. Its most common meaning refers to the musical genre
developed in Rio de Janeiro throughout the twentieth century.
The Carioca samba has countless variations, but a
particularly significant difference has been highlighted
by historians of the genre, between the samba composed
in the 1910’s and 1920’s and the samba composed from
the 1930’s onwards. In the beginning of the twentieth century,
those who talked about "samba" in Rio were mostly people
involved with the community of blacks and mestizos
78
coming from Bahia, which had settled close to the docks,
in the quarters of Saúde, Praça Onze and Cidade Nova.
Those people held on to many traditions of their homeland.
They were a festive people, who liked singing, eating, drinking
and dancing. They called their parties "sambas". They used the
same word for a musical-choreographic modality they especially
enjoyed, where a ring was formed, someone went to the middle
of the ring and, all the while dancing, chose a partner of the
opposite sex. (The choice was communicated to the partner
with the "umbigada", that is, bumping the navel into the navel of
the selected partner, a choreographic gesture
that is believed to have received from one of the Bantu language
branches the name "semba", supposedly the
origin of "samba"...). The couple danced in the middle of the
ring while everyone sang short refrains, alternating with short
and often improvised solos, backed up by clapping and
instruments like the tambourine, the “plate-and-knife”,
the rattle. After that, the person who had started left the ring
and his or her partner chose a new partner through the
same procedure, and so on successively until everyone
had danced in the middle of the ring.
Among the participants of these Bahian-Carioca
parties were musicians who were becoming professionals,
such as the later on famous Pixinguinha, Sinhô and Donga.
In their own compositions, they were largely inspired by what
they heard there. Donga, son of a partying “baiana”,
was not the first to use the name "samba" as denomination
of genre for one of these compositions; he was the first
to obtain huge popular success when he did so,
with the famous “Pelo telefone", of 1917. But Sinhô was the one
to become known, in the 1920’s,
as the "King of Samba", with compositions such as
“Jura”,“Gosto que me enrosco” and “ A Favela vai abaixo”.
The successful activity of professional composers
would change significantly the connotations
of the word samba in Rio de Janeiro, making it immensely
popular, increasing more and more the number
of people who could identify with it.
At the end of the 1920’s the first "samba schools"
were created. The origin of the name is uncertain.
What does seem certain is that it is connected with a carnival
group of the Estácio de Sá quarter, called “Deixa falar”.
This group is believed to have been the first to parade
in the carnival to the sound of a percussion orchestra made up
of surdos (bass drums), tamborins (sharp drums)
and cuícas (friction drums), to which tambourines and rattles
were added. This instrumental ensemble was called
"bateria" and lent itself to accompanying a type
of samba that was already very different from that of
Donga, Sinhô and Pixinguinha.
Samba a la Estácio de Sá – whose main creators were Ismael
Silva, Nílton Bastos, Bide and Marçal – quickly became the
Carioca samba par excellence. In its wake, people like
Cartola and Paulo da Portela created the samba
80
schools that were to become the most traditional of Rio’s
carnival, such as Mangueira, Portela and Salgueiro.
This creation took place in the late 1920’s, early 1930’s, as a
matter of fact along with the creation of carnival competitions.
Why was the samba of Estácio so influential? It is hard to
answer this question fully, but one factor seems to have been
important. The composers of Estácio quickly drew the
attention of a celebrity in the world of professional music: singer
Francisco Alves. At the end of the 1920’s, when the sambas of
Bide and Ismael Silva began to be recorded,
Chico Viola (as he was also known) was already the most
brilliant star in the skies of radio and records in the country. He
joined Estácio, projecting it to a level of prestige only later
reached by Mangueira and other samba strongholds. It is no
wonder that the latter saw in Estácio a model to be imitated.
Accounts of the samba school parades in the 1930’s indicate
that they did not have much in common with what is seen
today in the Sambódromo. Each school sang three sambas, not
only one as from 1940. These were not "samba-enredos"
because the parade did not tell a story nor develop a general
theme. Each samba consisted of a refrain sung in chorus,
after which a soloist improvised verses. Obviously there
was no amplification, and the soloists had to have voices
powerful enough to be heard amidst the bateria.
(There were much fewer people in the bateria than today,
but even so they had to play quietly when the soloists sang.)
The transformations of samba in the first half
of the twentieth century occurred on multiple levels:
in the carnival parades, but also in the recording studios.
The different levels were controlled by distinct social forces:
simplifying things a little, one might say that,
regarding the parades, people like Cartola or Paulo da Portela,
belonging to the poor segment of the population, were in
charge, while the studios were ruled by the art directors of the
record companies, or even by the owners themselves.
The extraordinary worth of Brazilian popular
music produced in that period (and also later) is no doubt
linked to the extent to which such distinct social domains were
able to come together, as co-protagonists of a story that, to a
point, is common to both.
In the early 1930’s, under the impact of the musical innovations
of Estácio, but also of technological innovations – such as the
Photo: Mario Thompson
replacement of the so-called
“mechanic” system by the so-called “electric” system of recording
– the relationship between street and studio samba were
redefined. One of the most important aspects of the new sound
resulting from this redefinition is the inclusion, in the
recordings, of the “rhythmists". This word – and not the much
more recent “percussionists” – was used to refer to the popular
musicians coming from the
samba schools, specialists in
surdos, cuícas, tamborins and
pandeiros. The first time that
such musicians were admitted
inside a studio in Rio de
Janeiro, it seems, was at the
recording of the samba
“Na Pavuna”, by Candoca d
a Anunciação and Almirante,
in 1930. It was only around
1932, however, that the
practice became common.
The presence of the
rhythmists is probably related,
as Flávio Silva suggests, to
another important change
regarding the role of wind
instruments in the
arrangements. In the
recordings of the 1920’s, when
there was no percussion, the
most characteristic role the
wind instruments – particularly of the lower toned trombone
and tuba – was to make a kind of rhythmic punctuation in the
intervals of the singers’ phrases, based on the cell that
Mário de Andrade called "characteristic syncopation",
generally starting with a sixteenth note pause. This
"punctuation" can be heard, for example, in the beginning of
"Jura”, by Sinhô: "Jura... jura... jura... pelo Senhor – pom, pom
pom pom, pom pom pom etc." But it was a true obsession in the
arrangements of the time, being inflected in every possible
variation, in the introductions, in the singing pauses and in the
final chords. However, the samba recordings after 1932 – when
the importance of the rhythmists was already consolidated – do
not show a single trace of the aforementioned "punctuation".
Therefore, It is tempting to agree with Silva, that one element
substituted the other:
the recordings no longer needed the rhythmic
hammering of trombones and tubas, since they could now
count on surdos, pandeiros etc.
In fact, perhaps the significant characteristic of the samba
recordings of the 1930’s – at
least in contrast with those
of the previous decade,
and to a certain extent, with
those of the following decade
– is the strong presence
of percussion, or batucada,
instruments. However,
different from what occurred
in the carnival parades, this
presence was reduced to a
surdo, a pandeiro, one or two
tamborins. (I am not aware of
any recordings including the
cuíca at the time: the
instrument was considered
too bizarre, exotic, strange, as
numerous accounts confirm.)
This "chamber batucada" was
successfully linked to an
instrumental ensemble of the
type called “choro” at the start
of the century, that is, a
harmonic base provided by guitars and cavaquinho joined by
one or two soloist on the flute, clarinet or mandolin.
This new instrumental synthesis of elements from afroBrazilian traditions and elements from the music played by
middle-class urban groups was called "regional",
abbreviation of "regional orchestra", in the recording
studios and the radios, to distinguish it from the “universal”
orchestra based on string and bow.
The first samba school competitions took place in a square close
to the Estácio quarter, the Praça Onze. This was, in the early
decades of the twentieth century, in the fortunate words of
samba player Heitor dos Prazeres, something like a "Little
81
Photo: Mario Thompson
Africa". In fact, Praça Onze was celebrated in prose
and verse as the cradle of popular carnival in Rio de Janeiro.
This is largely due to its position in the urban geography.
The square formed a rectangle enclosed by Santana
street on the west, Senador Eusébio street on the north,
Visconde de Itaúna street on the south and General Caldwell
street on the east. On the Santana street side, there was
the end of the Mangue canal, around which
a popular quarter, the “Cidade Nova”, had been built
around 1870 to house emancipated slaves (slavery was only
abolished in Brazil in 1888) and immigrants from inland.
Popular music in Rio at the turn of the nineteenth
century and early twentieth century (choro, maxixe)
82
was largely created and played in that quarter.
On the Senador Eusébio side, the square followed the final
stretch of the Central do Brasil Railroad, which brought
to the city center large numbers of workers coming from the
suburbs. A little further down in the same direction,
there were the Saúde and Gamboa hills, also very popular and
inhabited by longshoremen because of their closeness to the
port. On the side of Visconde de Itaúna street was the house
of Tia Ciata. A mãe-de-santo (priestess) from Bahia, s
he was a prominent figure in the origin of samba and the cult of
orixás (African deities) in Rio de Janeiro.
Finally, at the side of General Caldwell street, the square opened
up towards the center of the city, into the rich quarters.
So Praça Onze was not only visited by the poor
from the quarters that surrounded it,
but also by those "of the other side",
either because they looked for the exotic, or
because they had personal relations with
those of the popular world. This "opening"
towards other geo-social spheres lead
anthropologist Artur Ramos to consider
Praça Onze as a "safety valve between
the world of the blacks and the world
of the whites".
Thus, Praça Onze was the place par
excellence of the carnival of the poor, of the
"lesser carnival", as it was called at the time.
The "great carnival", on the other hand, belonged
to the rich, who also organized carnival groups:
the "ranchos" and "Big Societies".
They paraded on the now Rio Branco avenue,
which was, from the point
of view of urban symbolism, diametrically
opposite to Praça Onze. The avenue in question
was opened in 1903-4 and named "Central
Avenue" by mayor Pereira Pasos. Considered by
historian Jeffrey Needel, fittingly, as
"the best expression of carioca Belle Époque",
the new avenue expressed the inclinations
of the Brazilian elite for "their" capital
to be more akin to the Paris of Haussman than
to a tropical, crossbred city.
"The avenue was designed not only to meet urbanistic
objectives: it was conceived as a statement. When, in 1910,
its buildings were finished and its concept completed,
a magnificent urban landscape was unveiled in the center
of Rio. The federal capital now had a truly civilized boulevard
and a monument to the progress of the country [... ]
Popular fancy was dominated by the set of public buildings
on the south end of the avenue: the Municipal Theater,
the Monroe Palace, the National Library and the
Fine Arts School [... ] These facades and the social forces
represented there had been as carefully planned
as the actual design of the avenue." (Needell, 1993)
Elite carnival, elite avenue. The buildings together
formed a kind of synopsis of European style culture
and art: thus the Municipal Theater, a copy of the
Opéra Garnier, of Paris, faced the Fine Arts School,
where classes were conducted in the strictest adherence
to academic tenet.
But history would prove that the opposition between
Praça Onze and Central Avenue was not as insuperable
as it seemed...
During the 1930’s and 1940’s, the samba schools gained
more and more prestige, as samba, as a musical genre,
became a kind of sound emblem of Brazil (Vianna, 1996).
Praça Onze and the streets that surrounded it
disappeared at the end of the 30’s, with the reforms carried
out in the city center, when the enormous Presidente Vargas
avenue was opened (at right angles to the north of Central
Avenue). From then on, the samba school parade
site was changed almost every carnival, but always
attracting more and more tourists, middle class and curious
onlookers from every corner of Rio.
In 1953, a journalist dared for the first time to suggest
that the samba schools had become – perhaps – the main
attraction of the carnival in Rio, more important
even than the ranchos and Great Societies. At the end of the
1950’s, two important changes took place. First, the schools
started to invite, for the work on the visual aspect of the parade
(costumes, floats etc) professionals trained at the Fine Arts
School, whose background included the design of opera stage
sets at the Municipal Theater; later, the parades began to be
held on the avenues where these institutions were located:
the Central Avenue, renamed Rio Branco avenue.
In thirty years, the road covered was enormous. It is hard
to think of anything more opposed to the original intentions
of the designers of the former Central Avenue: that their
jewel would some day be used for the parades of the blacks
from the hills and suburbs, playing African-derived instruments
such as the bizarre cuíca, dancing their
own way. A road covered both by the samba schools, which
organized and transformed themselves, as much as by
the city itself, which, to the sound of the studio-recorded
sambas, like those of Ari Barroso and Carmen Miranda,
gave up its exclusively European model and adopted cultural
crossbreeding as a feasible value.
Bibliography:
Cabral,Sérgio.As escolas de samba do Rio de Janeiro.Rio de Janeiro:Lumiar,1996.
Needell, Jeffrey. Belle époque tropical. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1993.
Sandroni, Carlos. Feitiço decente – transformações do samba no Rio de Janeiro,
1917-1933. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar/UFRJ, 2001.
Silva, Flávio. Origines de la samba urbaine à Rio de Janeiro, mémoire. Paris:
EHESS, 1976.
Vianna, Hermano. O mistério do samba. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar/UFRJ, 1996.
Carlos Sandroni is a Doctor in Musicology by the Université de Tours,
France, and Master in Political Science by the IUPERJ.
He published the books Mário contra Macunaíma: cultura e política
em Mário de Andrade (São Paulo: Vertex, 1988) and Feitiço decente –
transformações do samba carioca 1917-1933
(Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar/UFRJ, 2001) in addition to several
articles in Brazilian and European publications. Since 2000,
he has been deputy-professor of the Music Department and of the PostGraduation Program in Anthropology of the UFPE.
He is chairman of the Brazilian Association of Ethnomusicology (2001/2002
administration). He is also a composer, writer and guitar player. His songs
have been recorded by Clara Sandroni, Olívia Byington
and Adriana Calcanhoto, among others. His version Guardanapos de papel
(based on the song Biromes y servilletas, by Uruguayan Leo Masliah)
was recorded by Milton Nascimento in the records Nascimento and
Tambores de Minas.
83
86
Orlando Silva
Photo: Mario Thompson
I
n 1951, the crew of a Brazilian Air Force plane,
of the type that used to be called "flying
fortress", initiated procedures to land in the city
of Campo Grande, when it was taken aback by
a blackout at the local airport. Flying from Manaus,
the crew knew that there wasn’t enough fuel reserve to reach
the nearest airport (hundreds of kilometers away)
nor to wait much longer for the light
to return.
The pilot communicated with the
officer in charge of the Air Force
unit in Campo Grande, informing
the situation. The following communication was made from Campo
Grande to the Air Force base of
Santa Cruz, in Rio de Janeiro, which
in turn contacted Radio Nacional,
in Praça Mauá, in the center of
Rio, to ask for aid. Minutes later,
an announcer transmitted
to the listeners of
Campo Grande – therefore,
more than two thousand
kilometers of away – the
following message.
"Attention, Campo Grande,
Mato Grosso! A flying fortress
of the Air Force needs to land and
the landing strip is in the dark.
We call on automobile owners to
move immediately to the airport to
light up the landing strip with the
lights of their automobiles."
The call was repeated several times,
until Radio Nacional was informed that the problem was solved. At 11:45 pm,
the airplane landed at the airport of
Campo Grande, lit up by the lights
of hundreds of automobiles.
In short, a text about Radio Nacional could
restrict itself to facts such as the one described above
and that would justify the position of those who
consider the radio station the biggest communication phenomenon in Brazil, even among other
impressive examples, like the old magazine
O Cruzeiro and the current TV Globo. Since
the aim of this article is not to promote a procession
of stories that would illustrate even further the power
of Radio Nacional, the subject is closed with
for many years their names remained linked to the
the information that, in 1949, the program
history of Radio Nacional. Speaking, for example,
"No mundo da bola” promoted the election of the listeners’
of singer Francisco Alves, one of the first idols of
favorite football player. The votes were sent in the envelopes
Brazilian popular music, I remember the opening
of the headache pills sponsoring the competition.
of his program, at noon, when the announcer said that,
The radio’s staff tallied, at the end of the election, more than
at that moment, the hands of the clock had met.
19 million envelopes, and the winning player – Ademir,
The death of Francisco Alves, in September 1952,
Vasco da Gama forward and Brazilian national
in a car crash, paralyzed Brazil and for the first time
team player – got 5.304.935 votes, a number that,
Radio Nacional cancelled its programming and spent
in terms of elections, was only outstripped in 1960, when
24 hours playing only records of the singer.
Jânio Quadros was elected president of the Republic
It is hard to point out the greatest idol among the
with a little over 6 million votes.
hundreds of singers who went through the radio,
Founded in 1936 and transferred
but Orlando Silva, no doubt, was the first,
to the federal government in 1941, Radio
at least chronologically. Hired by
It
is
hard
to
point
Nacional did not need any official aid,
Radio Nacional as soon as it was foundout the greatest idol
since, for over 20 years, it was the
ed, Orlando, with a career
communication vehicle with the
of only two years, was an extraordiamong the hundreds of
biggest advertising revenue in the
nary singer, for many,
singers who went through
country.
the best ever ( João Gilberto,
the
radio,
but
Orlando
Silva,
The revenue was enough to pay
one of the creators of bossa nova,
no doubt, was the first,
the wages of 9 directors, 240
goes even further: for him,
administrative employees, 10 teachOrlando Silva was the best singer
at least chronologically.
ers, 124 musicians,
in the world ever). His records
Hired by Radio
33 announcers, 55 radio actors,
and Radio Nacional itself spread his
Nacional...
39 radio actresses, 52 male singers,
voice all over the country and it
44 female singers, 18 program producers, 1 phodid not take long for him to become a
tographer, 5 reporters, 13 informers, 24 editors and 4 news
national idol. In the big cities, managers had to schedule
editors.
the singer’s shows in public squares so that he could be
The program was varied. The female audience
seen by the biggest possible number of people.
preferred the soaps, that, in the style of feuilletons,
Two names closely linked to the golden times of
went on and on for months. There were also the comic proRadio Nacional are those of singers Emilinha Borba
grams, the coverage of sports events, the auditorium proand Marlene. A professional singer since she was 14,
grams, the many (believe it or not) cultural
Emilinha sang at other radio stations and at the
programs and the musical programs. The latter
Urca and Copacabana casinos before she was hired by
are probably the ones that stood up longest against the oblivNacional in 1945, the year when the big auditorium proion to which the programs and even the
grams were launched. She was the big highlight
broadcasters themselves were condemned, a fate
of that type of program. Listeners knew she was going
that seems to confirm what advertisers opposed
to sing, even before she was announced, because
to early radio publicity used to say, refusing to advertise
of the screams of the audience, generally made up of poor
on the radio: words are blown away in the wind.
people, mostly women, who spent the night at the door of
But the music people were not forgotten and
Nacional in order to secure a place in the auditorium
87
one to two of the biggest auditorium programs
of the radio station, the one commanded by
Cesar de Alencar (Emilinha) and that of
Manuel Barcelos (Marlene). Marlene is also close
to 80, but after Emilinha, in November 2004.
Singer Dalva de Oliveira was one of
the most impressive cases of sudden success in
Radio Nacional. Her career was already
was way into its fourteenth year when she broke
up with her husband, composer Herivelto Martins,
(since they were mostly black and mestizo women,
which resulted in her leaving the Trio de Ouro,
they did not escape the racist nickname “auditorium monlead by Herivelto. Until the separation, she was far from
keys”). Shortly after being hired, Emilinha could count on a
being a highly popular singer, since in records and
fan-club that produced branches throughout Brazil. This
shows she was only the female voice in the Trio de Ouro
fan-club holds fast until today and pays tribute
or in the duets that she occasionally did with
to the singer every year on her birthday.
Francisco Alves. But, challenged by a song launched by
It is already preparing the celebration of her 80th
Herivelto Martins, Cabelos Brancos (White Hair),
birthday, in August 2003.
whose lyrics antagonized a former lover
The rule of Emilinha Borba at Radio Nacional
("don’t speak of that woman near me", said the song),
was only shaken in 1949, when singer Marlene defeated
Dalva began her solo career with a samba-canção
her in the election for Queen of the Radio.
whose lyrics were related to the end
The event produced one of the most famous
In 1954,
of her marriage: Tudo Acabado
rivalries in the history of radio and our
it was the turn of
(All Over) by Jota Piedade and
music. Based on that rivalry – no
Caubi
Peixoto,
the
last
Osvaldo Martins. A quarrel began,
doubt, delightfully encouraged by
idol of the golden era
which listeners followed as if it
Radio Nacional – senator Caiado
de Castro declared that Brazilian of Radio Nacional. His manager,were a feuilleton – also stimulated
society was divided between marcomposer Di Veras, inquired by the directors of Radio Nacional
– with a significant advantage
lenists and emilinists,
about
the
methods
used
by
for Dalva, who, with the obvious
a phrase that lead Radiolândia
American
affection of the public, turned
magazine to make a visit to the
Congress to see on whose side they
managers to promote her songs into exceptional hits.
Just to give an idea, in a survey
were. All the congressmen consulted
their artists ...
carried out in 1951, the top of record sales was
answered, but, being a political electorate,
Tudo acabado; in second place, Errei, sim (Ataulfo Alves)
the group that voted for both singers ended up wining.
and in third, Que será? (Marino Pinto and Mário Rossi),
Marlene is from São Paulo and her real name is
all three recorded by her. In the following year,
Vitória Bonaiutti (her stage name is a tribute to the
she was elected Queen of the Radio. From 1953,
German actress Marlene Dietrich).
however, Dalva left behind her status as idol of
She also has a loyal and dedicated fan-club.
Radio Nacional to dedicate herself to trips abroad.
When she won the competition for Queen of the Radio,
She sang several times in South American countries and in
Nacional quickly guaranteed audience by
Europe. When she ended her international phase, her presseparating her from Emilinha Borba, assigning each
88
Caubi Peixoto
Photo: Mario Thompson
tige in Brazil was still high,
but her popularity was not the same.
In 1954, it was the turn of Caubi
Peixoto, the last idol of the golden
era of Radio Nacional. His manager,
composer Di Veras, inquired
about the methods used by
American managers to promote
their artists and applied them
in the launching of Caubi,
a singer who for six years had sung in
night clubs without any success.
He hired false fans to "faint"
in the auditorium when Caubi
sang and made him wear coats with
weak seams on the sleeves to give the
impression that the fans tore his
clothes. In addition, every time
he was in public, he would be surrounded by false photographers popping flashes, as happens
with true celebrities.
Encouraged by the success
in Brazil, Di Veras decided to take
Caubi Peixoto to the United States,
but the experience was frustrating.
Not even the change of his
name to Ron Cobby was enough to
turn him into a popular singer in
North America. The solution was to hold on to the conquests in Brazil, sending from New York to
Revista do Rádio and Radiolândia magazines
the front pages of important American newspapers
with the name Ron Cobby in the headlines.
But those were only fake front pages sold for a
small amount of money to tourists, with imaginary
headlines containing their names.
In the 1960’s, with the growth of television
and the political events in Brazil, Radio Nacional
was unable to keep its cast and it gradually
lost its leadership to other stations that
had adapted quickly to the new times. But it certainly left the
most beautiful story of Brazilian radio.
Sérgio Cabral was born in Rio de Janeiro 65 years ago. Since 1957 he has
worked as a journalist for several newspapers and magazines both in Rio de
Janeiro and São Paulo (he is one of the founders of the “Pasquim” newspaper).
Cabral, who is also a composer as well as a writer and director of musicals, has
written the following books, among others: "Antônio Carlos Jobim, uma
biografia", "No tempo de Ari Barroso", "Elisete Cardoso, uma vida", "Nara
Leão, uma biografia", Pixinguinha, vida e obra", "As escolas de samba do Rio
de Janeiro", "No tempo de Almirante", and "A MPB na era do rádio".
89
Mário Adnet
I am a musician, conceived and born in Rio de Janeiro
in 1957, during the "golden years" of the Juscelino
Kubitchek government, and I was certainly infected,
and still am until today, by the optimism of that period which
many describe as one of the happiest in the history of the
country, particularly for Brazilian music.
It is impossible to speak of "Bossa Nova" without mentioning,
obviously, João Gilberto, Antonio Carlos Jobim and
Vinícius de Moraes, but the favorable environment created by
Juscelino Kubitschek was of fundamental importance.
And of course there was the contribution of our great restless
heroes, among them composers, arrangers, musicians and
singers who had already been modernizing Brazilian music
despite less fortunate times (the list is endless).
When we hear about "Bossa Nova", we immediately
associate the label with a musical movement made by a small
elite from the south zone of Rio de Janeiro. Some purist critics
used to say that it was popular music taken from the north zone
houses into the south zone apartments, minimizing, perhaps
without realizing it, the extension of what really happened. In
fact this novelty was not a last minute one,
but the fruit of an incubation process that for years revealed
itself isolatedly during a long winter, until the arrival of that
spring, the perfect environment with a Shangri-la feel, the "JK
Age". Tom Jobim, João Gilberto and Vinícius de Moraes were,
therefore, the tip of an iceberg. If we think of it, their work is as
92
Photo: Mario Thompson
The JK age:
essays
of a utopia
João Gilberto
utopian and ground-breaking as that of JK. It extends far
beyond the south zone of Rio and is bigger than Brazil, so
much so that it crossed borders.
In the early 50’s, Tom Jobim worked hard in the nights of
Rio to support his family, but he already had the makings,
with his sophisticated melodies and harmonies.
João Gilberto hadn’t gotten the knack of that synthetic stroke of
the guitar and Vinícius de Moraes was a diplomat
who was still writing rather literary poetry. Juscelino was the
governor of Minas Gerais and had already done some trial runs
for the near future, with the enlargement of the (planned) city
of Belo Horizonte, including the creation of a whole new
quarter, the Pampulha,
designed by the young
architect Oscar Niemeyer. It is
clear that JK already had a
flair for finding and
supporting new talents.
It is interesting to observe
these characters, from the
musical and artistic point of
view, obviously, starting with
the president of the republic of
that time, whose affinity with
artists and men
and women of letters made
that time particularly generous
with music.
Juscelino was born in
Diamantina in 1902, had a
poor childhood and youth,
lost his father at the age of two
and was taught to read and
write by his mother, the
primary teacher Júlia
Kubitschek de Oliveira. His
father, João Cesar de Oliveira
was an intelligent man, a
bohemian, and, as all the
inhabitants of the city, enjoyed
serenades. He was also an
excellent dancer and a good
guitar player. – "He was summoned to all the parties; mother
was the exact opposite of him - a severe, demanding woman, son
of a very disciplined German". The city of Diamantina, like
other cities in
Minas at the time, was very isolated and had to be self-sufficient
in terms of culture. They created their own literary clubs and
the schools were also cultural centers. "For almost 200 years, eight or nine schools in Diamantina,
Mariana, Ouro Preto, Serro, concentrated the culture
of Minas Gerais. So all of us who lived there were proud of the
“diamantinians” that had been there before us, had left
Diamantina and had conquered glory or fame in
other parts of the country. It was mostly politics, as well as
literature, that provided opportunities."
João Nepomuceno Kubitschek, Juscelino’s grand-uncle,
one of the first idols of the young Nonô, got to be vice-governor
of the state, but he became famous for his poetry, which he liked
to recite in the legendary moonlight nights of Diamantina. "He studied in São Paulo, together with a constellation of other
very illustrious Brazilians,
among which the great, the huge Castro Alves, who dedicated
themselves solely to writing or producing verses".
At the age of six, he had for the first time the "feeling of meeting
an important person" with the visit of the "president" of Minas
(as the state governor was called at the time),
João Pinheiro, to Diamantina. He arrived on horseback
after several days traveling and was welcomed by Juscelino’s
mother. The "president", in the sitting room of his house,
promised that he would establish the first school of
Diamantina, which he fulfilled to the letter in the same year.
D. Júlia was the first teacher appointed and started to receive
wages from the state, which improved the family’s
life a little. Juscelino was an extremely studious boy. He eagerly
read the three hundred books of the library, as well as all the
other books in the city, "on any subject", which he
borrowed. He studied French with a Frenchwoman who had
come from Paris at the beginning of the century with her
husband, a diamond miner who, after exploiting the mines
to exhaustion and increasing the damage to the hillsides
of the city, went back to his native land, abandoning
his wife in Brazil. With her, Juscelino translated the whole of
classic French theater: Molière, Voltaire and Racine.
93
This information about his childhood and adolescence seem
enough to hint at the importance that music, literature,
poetry, culture in general, had in the background of
the future president. As did the inheritance of the examples of
discipline and strictness of his mother, of the politician-poet
uncle, the fulfilled promise of the "president"
of Minas, in addition to the joie-de-vivre, the affectionate and
bohemian nature probably inherited from his father.
But his life was not only joyful and free and easy.
In a last statement in 1976, little before his death, he admitted: "It is very difficult for a poor man, the son of a widow,
to leave Diamantina and become President of the Republic. You
need to have very special communication skills; otherwise it’s
impossible to beat the odds I had to beat.
First, I had to tackle the difficulties from below, later
the from the middle, and, finally, from the top.
I had to face all of them, because I faced the difficulties
derived from the municipal, state, federal and
military political situation; all together ".
Back in the beginning of the 50’s, these "very special
communication skills" had already taken Juscelino
twice to the house of representatives, to the city hall of
Belo Horizonte and to the government of Minas.
Meanwhile, in Rio de Janeiro, Antonio Carlos Jobim
was still trying to tackle the "the difficulties from below",
João Gilberto hadn’t even reached that point and
Vinícius de Moraes, much older, was perhaps going through the
"middle" difficulties.
Also for Jobim life was not joy alone. He soon discovered
that as a night club pianist he wouldn’t go very far and might
even fall ill. He had studied with great masters such as
Koellreuter, Tomás Teran and Lúcia Branco and to be
somebody, he needed to change night for day. With his family’s
support, he left the "dark cube”, as he referred to night clubs,
and started doing "day" work. First he got a job at
Euterpe publisher and, shortly afterwards, at Continental
recording, where he became arranger of the company,
with the help of the teacher and composer Radamés Gnattali,
one of his idols. From 1953, his music began to be recorded,
and he made arrangements for artists such as
Orlando Silva and Dalva de Oliveira nearing the end of her
career. In 1954, he had his first hit,‘Tereza da Praia’,
94
with Billy Blanco, in the neat voices of Dick Farney
and Lúcio Alves. His talent for orchestration made him
take up bold projects such as the 'Sinfonia do Rio de Janeiro',
which may have been a trial run for 'Orfeu do Conceição',
his first work with Vinícius, whom he had met in the JK years,
and, later, 'Brasilia, Sinfonia da Alvorada'. Vinícius seemed
to be discovering that simplicity in poetry was the great
secret of the expression of
popular music. He gradually
broke away from the
academic milieu to become
our "poetinha". Musically
Tom Jobim was already
modern and had all the
musical characteristics that
would make him the "ruling
maestro", in the fortunate
expression coined by Chico
Buarque. As he confided to
me once, in a recorded
interview for the radio, there
was a need to clean music,
both arrangements and form
lacked a more synthetic
language. - "My piano is
economical. I have always
tried to be concise with
notes, using a few good ones,
in an attempt to make
something that means
something. I think this
concern has worked. This
thing that I made, you see in
music nowadays musicians
trying to say a lot with few
notes. In the past the pianist,
the virtuoso, was that guy
who did a lot of arpeggios
and scales. The wind
musicians, many still play lots
of notes on the saxophone,
on the clarinet, so there was
Photo: Mario Thompson
this attempt to say the essential. Samba had a thousand
percussionists, all the spaces were filled, the bateria was like a
storm at sea. It too much playing at the same time, so there was
a need to clean up"...
The detail that was missing for the change Tom referred to
was, surely, the also economical stroke of João Gilberto’s guitar.
João Gilberto arrived in Rio de Janeiro in 1950, coming from
Salvador where he was a crooner at Radio Sociedade of Bahia,
to join the vocal group Garotos da Lua, hired by Radio Tupi,
invited by Alvinho, his friend and member of the group.
In those days he used to let his voice soar a la Orlando Silva,
one of his biggest idols. He even made two 78 rpm records
singing like that. A peculiar detail is that one of the
characteristics of Orlando Silva’s singing is the prank he used to
play with the melodies, speeding up and slowing
down in relation to the accompaniment, which later became
João Gilberto’s trademark. The difference is that, as João played
the guitar very well and was above all a musician, he had greater
rhythmic control over the"prank", because he did his own
accompaniment. It may be hard to believe, but this "discovery"
of João’s was developed precisely in
Diamantina, during the eight months he spent confined
in the house of his sister Dadainha, while Juscelino was in full
campaign for president. Could it be that everything was
planned and rehearsed?...
Mário Adnet – Composer, guitar player, arranger and producer,
carioca Mario Adnet has been a a professional since 1977.
In 1980 he launched his first record, in a duo with composer and pianist
Alberto Rosenblit, and also started to work as an arranger.
In 1984 he launched his first solo record, "Planeta Azul”.
In the 90’s he began to be recorded abroad by singers like
Lisa Ono, Joyce, Charlie Byrd, Chuck Mangione and others.
At the same time, he produced and presented music programs at
MEC and Alvorada radios, with interviews with MPB artists.
In 1994 Tom Jobim included in his last record
("Antônio Brasileiro") the arrangement for "Maracangalha"
(Dorival Caymmi) made by Adnet, which projected
his work as an arranger. Following that, he launched his CD
"Pedra Bonita", with Tom Jobim’s participation, and toured Japan with
Lisa Ono. In 1998 he started to write profiles of MPB artists for the cultural
section of O Globo newspaper. In 1999 he launched the CD
"Para Gershwin e Jobim", recorded in
Rio and New York. After that came "Villa-Lobos-Coração Popular" at the end
of 2000, with the maestro’s songs in popular arrangements,
"Para Gershwin e Jobim-Two Kites" in 2001, and the production of the double
album "Ouro-Negro" with saxophonist Zé Nogueira,
dedicated to the work of maestro Moacir Santos. Between 2001
and the first semester of 2002 he went twice to Japan as arranger for the latest
Antônio Carlos Jobim
e Vinícius de Moraes
CDs of singer Lisa Ono. He launched “Rio Carioca” in the beginning
of 2002, as a tribute to the city of Rio de Janeiro.
95
Luiz Roberto Oliveira
The sun and
salt of the
south zone
"Because samba was born back in Bahia". To this
statement by Vinicius de Moraes in the lyrics of
“Samba da Benção”, made in partnership with Baden Powell, I
would add, to fuel polemics: "... and bossa nova too".
Could the washerwomen of Juazeiro be the keepers of the
secret formula?
Samba comes from a fusion of ingredients:
Afro-descendent rhythms from Bahia, brought by blacks
and mestizos to Rio de Janeiro, were combined with the
melodic and harmonic forms practiced in the capital,
with strong roots in the European culture,
such as was heard in waltzes, polkas and schottisches.
At gatherings in the house of Tia Ciata, a candomlé priestess
who lived in the center of Rio de Janeiro, the first chords
of samba were heard. At the beginning of the twentieth
century, among frequent visitors were Hilário Jovino, Sinhô,
Germano Lopes da Silva, Pixinguinha, and Donga, whose
"Pelo Telefone” was recorded by Odeon in 1916.
History acclaimed Donga and his partner Mauro de Almeida
as authors of the first recorded samba, although
"Pelo Telefone" was more of a maxixe than a samba.
Moreover, Donga’s authorship is also questioned, it being
more likely that the song resulted from improvised
contributions by the participants of the samba
circles promoted by Tia Ciata.
Driven by composer Sinhô, samba gradually took
shape and gained singers. In the 1930’s, leaving
behind the influence of maxixe, and with its identity
96
characterized, it began to do justice to its name.
With time, many composers and singers continued to
enrich the Brazilian music scene. In the 1940’s, the
samba-canção, a genre derived from samba, gained prominence.
It is slower and more romantic than samba, and the lyrics
are about sadness, disillusion and romantic mismatch.
In this style impregnated by cigarette smoke and drinking
possibly resulting from the European postwar period, a gray
and nebulous state of mind added beautiful and unforgettable
jewels - albeit rather forgotten these days - to our repertoire.
Still in his youth, Vinicius de Moraes started to show
his vocations. As a pupil of Jesuit priests in Santo Inácio
high school, he was already attracted to words and text.
In 1927, he produced what might have been the only
edition of a small newspaper, "O Planeta". At 15, he
participated, with the Tapajós brothers, Paulo,
Haroldo and Oswaldo, in a music group that played at the
houses of friends and at high school parties. His first lyrics are
from that time, in partnership with Haroldo and Paulo.
It is interesting how some events from childhood can, even
coincidentally, anticipate trends. In December 1937,
the Mello e Souza Day School, in Copacabana, held a party
to celebrate the end of the school year. The presentations
included the Maluca Orchestra, a small instrumental group
made up of high school freshmen. The conduction of the
orchestra, a position of the highest responsibility, was entrusted
to Antonio Carlos Jobim, who was 10 years old at the time.
In 1953, Vinicius de Moraes, at the age of 40, made the samba
"Quando tu passas por mim", where both music and lyrics are,
for the first time, his own. In literary assemblies at the
Clube da Chave, in Copacabana, thus called because each
member had the key to a small locker with an individual
bottle of whisky, Vinicius met Tom. They were not close:
the relationship remained simply cordial for some time.
The circle that the poet attended — literati, critics,
artists, ambassadors — imposed respect for its content and
age, and certainly contributed to keeping at a distance
the 26 year-old musician, who played the piano in
neighborhood bars for a living.
Vinicius carried the team on his back. A generous soul,
eager to enjoy life without submitting to limits or conventions,
the poet multiplied himself, lending his talent to an entire
generation of composers, many of which would have had a
much more difficult career were it not for his precious
partnership. Thus, the first samba of Edu Lobo had lyrics by
Vinicius. The complex style of Baden Powell found its great
partner. Carlos Lyra and the poet are still swaying loving hearts
today. Francis Hime got beautiful, moving lyrics. For Toquinho,
Vinicius was heaven-sent. Not to mention Ary Barroso,
Capiba, Claudio Santoro, Paulo Soledade, Antonio Maria,
Adoniran Barbosa, Pixinguinha, and many others, illustrious
and humble — including the author of these lines.
There was also Vadico, the anonymous partner of Noel Rosa
in many hits, like "Feitiço da Vila". Vadico’s health and
circumstances made him, unknowingly, play a part in clearing
the way for the greatest of all of Vinicius’s partners. In 1956,
the poet, just arrived from Europe, with the lyrics and music
of his "Valsa de Euridice" in his pocket, was looking for a
composer for the songs of the play "Orfeu da Conceição",
a finished, award winning text — an adaptation to the
Rio slum of the Greek myth of Orpheus, the
Thracian musician who goes down to hell in search of his
beloved Euridice. Vadico, a skilled composer and pianist,
was invited first. But he did not accept the task,
perhaps because it was too much for his poor health.
The second person invited patiently heard Vinicius’s long
explanation of how the music should be for the play, during the
historical meeting in Villarino Bar, in the center of Rio.
His only and famous remark at the end of the lecture, though
fair, revealed a concern that would follow him for a long time,
98
even when there was no longer a reason for it:
"Is there any dough in this?"
The music in "Orfeu da Conceição" was the first work
of the duo Antonio Carlos Jobim and Vinicius de Moraes.
The play was launched that same year in the Municipal
Theater of Rio, with black actors, directed by Leo Jusi and
stage set designed by Oscar Niemeyer. The beginning of
a great friendship was sealed, as well as a rare union of
music and poetry, resulting in some years of the most fruitful
and brilliant partnership in Brazilian popular music.
Tom and Vinicius sailed basically through three styles: samba
(the traditional one with strong percussion), samba-canção, and
chamber song — the latter, in my opinion, the strongest and
most singular feature of the partnership, without
underestimating the quality of the other genres.
Thus, in 1958, the two partners invited Elizete Cardoso to sing
a selection of chamber songs, sambas, a waltz, and even a tune,
which were to be brought together in the LP "Canção do Amor
Demais", of Festa record company. Tom Jobim would make the
arrangements and conduct the orchestra. This record
was a turning point in the history of our music.
Music and lyrics, of rare beauty; Tom’s arrangements, delicate
and of extreme good taste; the quality and importance of the
singer; all this would ensure an excellent result. But, partly by
chance and mostly due o Tom’s foresight, another attribute
would definitively stress the importance of the project.
At that time, some young Carioca composers, such as
Carlos Lyra and Robert Menescal, unsatisfied with the rhythm
of traditional samba, which they considered square and heavy,
were in search of a new way to play samba on the guitar.
Other important musicians had already outlined paths:
Dick Farney, Lucio Alves, Garoto (Aníbal Augusto Sardinha),
and pianist and composer Johnny Alf, currently living in
São Paulo and in good shape. But it was an unknown
Bahian who won the glory for the sensational discovery.
Playing samba in a completely new way, with a more economic
stroke, in a syncopated rhythm, and articulating his singing in
surprising agreement with the guitar, João Gilberto arrived on
the scene in a blast. He quickly became the topic in the Carioca
music circles, stirring fascination in many and rejection in a
minority. A director of Odeon record company in São Paulo,
when hearing a recording by João, broke the record, infuriated:
100
1977, Tom and Vinicius joined Miucha and Toquinho
for a show in Canecão, in Rio, that was months showing
before the seasons in São Paulo and abroad.
João and Tom also grew apart in the 1960’s, and years later,
an attempt to bring them back together took them on stage,
but both were ill at ease. The respect and admiration
for each other remained. Until today, João includes in his
repertoire countless of Tom’s compositions.
In a more mature phase, Tom Jobim decided to give more
vent to his literary streak, perhaps because he felt the gap
eft by Vinicius, or because Chico Buarque did not have time for
more frequent collaboration. He created excellent lyrics.
Águas de março, Luiza, Falando de amor, Passarim and
Gabriela are only a few examples. By the way, Tom always felt
comfortable with writing lyrics, even at the start of his career,
when he wrote Outra Vez, As Praias Desertas, and Corcovado.
But time goes by, and two of these three geniuses have already
Vinícius e Toquinho
Photo: Mario Thompson
"Is this the novelty that Rio sends us?"
Tom Jobim quickly saw that the Bahian was not fooling around.
He invited João to play the guitar in two tracks of
"Canção do Amor Demais". Hearing the record carefully, it is
not difficult to notice the contrast and the meeting of two
sources in time. On one side, the classic voice of Elizete;
on a dividing line, Tom’s orchestration , chamber style, beautiful,
but still a little involved with traditional styles; and on the
opposite side, on the tracks "Chega de Saudade" and "Outra
Vez", the driving force of João Gilberto’s revolutionary guitar.
Tom and other younger composers adhered without hesitation
to the new samba rhythm. It is interesting to note that
samba also evolved geographically, progressing in the aftermath
of the occupation of Rio de Janeiro: from the suburbs and the
center, towards the south zone. And from the hills to the coast.
Suburban samba gave way to Copacabana bossa nova.
By the way, the name bossa nova, brought up in unimportant
circumstances, became known world-wide, indicating not only
a new way to play samba, but reflecting a characteristic attitude
of young people from the south zone, who liked to go to the
beach and meet to sing softly to the sound of the guitar.
The lyrics left the sadness behind, praising the beauty
of the girls, the sun, the sea. Tom Jobim, who moved house
once in a while, followed the same movement: born in
Tijuca, he moved with his family to Copacabana, and later to
Ipanema, where, in the apartment on Nascimento Silva street,
he composed some of his greatest hits.
With Tom Jobim’s contribution and participation,
João Gilberto recorded three historical LPs at Odeon:
"Chega de Saudade" in 1959, "O Amor, o Sorriso e a Flôr"
in 1960, and "João Gilberto" a year later. In his best shape and
full of energy, João showed who he was and what he was
capable of. The third LP has, on five tracks, the sensational
participation of the group of organist Walter Wanderley.
If you haven’t heard it yet, hurry up before it’s too late.
Fate determined that Tom Jobim’s collaboration with his two
friends become rare and almost end. Vinicius and Tom
produced until mid-1960; after that, there was little or no
partnership. Although less close, they continued to be great
friends. The masterpiece "Amparo", recorded in instrumental
form in 1970, had its title changed to "Olha Maria" when
Vinicius and Chico Buarque wrote lyrics for it a year later. In
left us. If someone asked me to name Brazilians known and
recognized world-wide, I wouldn’t hesitate to mention
Tom Jobim and Pelé. Tom’s music has two unquestionable
attributes: quality, which places the composer at the top among
the great names in Brazilian popular music; and universality,
which makes people even from the remotest corners
of the world admire his music. Other fellow countrymen,
no less illustrious, don’t have their names and merits so widely
disseminated — and globalized.
João Gilberto, at the age of 71, maintains his model of
perfection. He has influenced musicians throughout the world.
He may even be, sometimes, misunderstood, or worse, badly
welcomed, in his own country. We should not impose on such
a great artist the burden of behaving like the rest of us.
Criticizing or even jeering at his eccentricities is not knowing
how to respect the sheer size of his talent. João is one of the
most honest and dedicated musicians I have ever known. For
him, only the essentials exist: singing and the guitar.
Even the way he presents his songs points at this core.
Proof of this is his disinterest for adornments: he doesn’t even
bother with introductions to his songs. He goes straight
to the theme, to what matters, sometimes repeating the entire
song, as in a tremendous effort to surpass the insuperable.
Asked where he got his stroke from, he answered: "I learned
from the swaying hips of the washerwomen of Juazeiro".
Poet and diplomat, scholar, speaking several languages,
Vinicius gradually sought a wider and more popular form of
communication. Employed by the Foreign Affairs Office,
with free transit in the fine halls of intellectuality, a close friend
of Manuel Bandeira and João Cabral de Melo Neto,
he started to make extremely lyrical songs with
Tom and Carlos Lyra; with Baden Powell, he entered the rich
universe of black inheritance, creating one of the most
fascinating sets in our collection of songs, the AfroSambas; on the same path, he teamed up with Toquinho,
in a partnership of much simpler melodies and lyrics, some
almost naive. It is interesting to note that he also stimulated
Tom Jobim to strip off erudite mannerisms and entanglements.
In the text for the inside cover of "Canção do Amor
Demais", he refers to his partner with affection:
"... I would like to draw attention to the increasing simplicity
and organicity of his melodies and harmonies, increasingly
free from the rather morbid and abstract tendency they
used to have. Which shows the intelligence
of his sensitivity, aware of the dilemmas of his time,
and his constructive spirit, focused on the permanent
values in human relations."
We started with Vinicius and we end with him.
We direct our thoughts and our tributes to him.
The captain of the team, the boss, Vinicius de Moraes,
partner of so many composers that have made
our music one of the best in the world, sang as few did the
beauty of t Brazilian women, he turned life into his best poem,
and he will never be forgotten. Your blessing, poet. Saravá.
Luiz Roberto Oliveira – is a musician, director of producing company
Norte Magnético, manager of the site Clube do Tom
(www.clubedotom.com) curator of the official site of Tom Jobim
(www.tomjobim.com.br) and Vinicius’s partner.
101
Luiz Carlos Maciel
Chico Buarque:
out goes the
barquinho, in
comes the
political
content
104
When Pedro Pedreiro, a composition by Chico Buarque, was
launched in the beginning of 60’s, it not only revealed the talent
of the young composer, until then unknown, but also marked a
new and powerful trend in the process of modernization of
Brazilian popular music that had begun in the previous decade.
The lyrics portrayed the daily life of a construction laborer, his
concerns and his hopes; in the lyrics, social concern gained the
foreground and pointed towards a rising political awareness.
Pedro Pedreiro is the result of a historical-social phenomenon
apparent in the experience of a whole generation of Brazilians
who were in their youth at the time. This generation was
convinced that its historical destiny was to promote the
emancipation of Brazil as a nation, freeing it from
underdevelopment, and the emancipation of the people,
ensuring social justice and a better life. Brazilian popular music
began, from that point on, to express this project.
The new position broke with the lyric tradition of Brazilian
popular music, in particular with its vanguard at the time – the
original bossa nova that was characterized by the song
Barquinho, a composition by Menescal and Bôscoli that was
typical of the graceful, delicate, undeniably beautiful poetry,
even though politically harmless, that marked the early times
of the new music.“Tudo é verão e o amor se faz/ num
barquinho pelo mar/ que desliza sem parar...” (Summer is
everywhere and love happens / in a cockle-boat at sea / that
slides endlessly..). – go the lyrics of Barquinho. “Pedro pedreiro,
Photo: Mario Thompson
THE POLITICAL CONTENT
AND THE EVOLUTION OF MPB
penseiro/ esperando o trem/ Manhã parece carece/ de esperar
também/ para o bem de quem tem bem de quem não tem
vintém...” (Peter mason, lost in thought / waiting for the train /
Morning seems, needs /also to wait / for the good of those who
have goods who don’t have anything... – say the lyrics of Pedro
Pedreiro The theme of the former is the enjoyment of the
middle class; of the latter, the daily drudge of the working class.
Bossa nova was born to fulfill an artistic purpose without any
commitment, an esthetic ideal. Its aim was to place Brazilian
popular music in the musical vanguard of the planet. However,
to a large extent, it followed tradition. The basic rhythm was
still samba, although enriched by more sophisticated resources,
such as the syncopation created by João Gilberto; the melodies
were lyrical and tender; and, finally, the lyrics were still about
troubled love affairs, broken hearts, and preserved the delight in
pain that traditionally characterizes romantic songs. The new
features, therefore, were more of a formal nature than related to
content. But these formal innovations were important and
revealed a new urban, cultured and even sophisticated spirit.
The modernization of Brazilian popular music had started in
the 50’s, with what was called pre-bossa nova. Its main
106
motivation was the need experienced by young artists –
composers, singers and instrumentalists – to make popular
music that was as sophisticated as that made in developed
countries, particularly in the United States. This was a
reflection of the national project of the so-called “juscelinist”
age, in which the country, advancing fifty years in only five, was
meant to go beyond the limits of the so-called Third World,
finally fulfilling its destiny as a cultural and possibly economic
power. In fact, artists like Antonio Carlos Jobim and João
Gilberto are among the biggest and more important artists that
international popular music produced in the twentieth century.
Of course, traditional Brazilian popular music was already
notable for the lyricism of its melodic invention and, mainly, for
its rhythmic vitality. The basic proposal was then to enrich it
with an advance in terms of harmony. Singers of the pre-bossa
nova, such as Dick Farney, Lucio Alves and Dolores Duran,
were already influenced by the refinement of the singers of
North American popular music; and instrumentalists such as
pianist Johnny Alf, for the bold harmonies of modern jazz,
Photo: Folha Imagens
especially the so-called cool jazz that flourished on the West
Coast. This assimilation, suitably digested, resulted in what
became known as bossa nova. The introduction of Bolinha de
papel, recorded by João Gilberto, for example, does seem like a
typical arrangement made by Gerry Mulligan.
But it was not only in the strictly musical sphere that evolution
took place. In contrast with the old artists of traditional
Brazilian popular music, coming from the poorest classes, with
little instruction and scarce information, the new artists often
had a university background, were well informed and even
cultured. The lyrics of the songs started to reveal an
unprecedented literary intention, and many of these composers
ended up being considered "poets" even by academic criteria. It
was not by chance that Vinicius de Moraes, the main bossa
nova lyricist, was a renowned poet by the strictest aesthetic
standards, even being considered one of the most important
names in modern Brazilian poetry. Vinicius had his share in
making of the beauty and charms of Brazilian woman one of
the main themes of bossa nova.
The third leap of the new music was, finally, in the direction of
social participation and politics – the moment of transition
from Barquinho to Pedro pedreiro. Not all bossa nova artists
took the leap, dividing the movement into a traditionalistic,
aesthetic trend on one side and, on the other a new political
and participatory trend. At first there was even some
antagonism between partisans of the two trends, with the
political ones calling the aesthetes "alienated", and the latter
qualifying the former as "hypocrites".
The new themes of the participatory trend addresses directly
the problems of underdevelopment and poverty in a country of
the so-called Third World. The difficulties of the daily lives of
underprivileged populations that sometimes came up in
traditional music popular, generally in the form of complaint or
lament, became more aggressive, as symbolized in the verses of
a traditional composition, Opinião, by Zé Keti who, in a
challenging tone, declared that they can beat me / they can
arrest me /they can even leave me without food/but I won’t
change my opinion...
More than ever, the problems of the land, mainly in the
107
Northeast, were also mentioned, discussing ownership of the
land and claiming the need for land reform – together with a
movement of protest and assertion that, in spite of being
harshly restrained during the military dictatorship, has emerged
again and reached our days. Carcará by João do Vale is the icon
song of this trend; the lyrics refer to a northeast predator bird
that kills to eat.“Carcará/ pega, mata e come/ carcará não vai
morrer de fome/ carcará/ mais coragem do que homem...”
(Carcará / catches, kills and eats / carcará will not starve to
death / carcará / more courage than man)... – says the song.
The protest songs that emerged in Brazil in the beginning of
the 60’s coincided with the beginning of the American protest
song. However, there wasn’t a direct influence, but rather a
historical synchrony. Without any type of ideological
programming, the manifestations of youth revolt multiplied at
the time; these manifestations would increase in number and
intensity along the decade until the climax in 1968.
Earlier in the process, a musical show was presented at
Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro, with the title Opinião (Opinion)
and the presence of three artists of different origins. The first
one was Zé Keti himself, a black from the slums of Rio and
composer of sambas in the traditional popular style; the
second was another poor black, João do Vale, but from the
northeast and composer of songs with the typical rhythms of
Photo: Mario Thompson
Zé Kéti
108
his region; the cast was completed by a white singer, Nara
Leão, born in the upper middle class, with sophisticated
education, taste and information.
The importance of Nara in the participatory movement of new
Brazilian popular music in the 60’s should not be
underestimated. With a small voice, in contrast with the
powerful voices of traditional singers, she learned to sing with
the first bossanovists, specially with the master of them all, João
Gilberto. She became very popular and the show Opinião was
undoubtedly a landmark in the history of Brazilian popular
music.
With the beginning of the military dictatorship in 1964, the
theaters of the main Brazilian cities were turned into trenches
of democratic resistance - and musical shows was its vanguard.
Liberdade, Liberdade (Freedom, Freedom), staged in Rio de
Janeiro, in the theater that was named after the show that
inaugurated it, Opinião, and Arena conta Zumbi, at the Teatro
Arena in São Paulo, were two equally important events.
Composer Geraldo Vandré, who had had one of his songs,
Caminhando, censured by the military government, presented
in his live show a new composition based on the same chords of
the forbidden song; the artist played his guitar but was silent,
lowering his head, leaving the audience to sing the lyrics of
Caminhando in a deafening chorus.
The suppression of democratic rights by the authoritarian
regime, openly carried out in the activity of censorship to all
forms of expression, created such a stifling atmosphere that it
became vitally necessary to find some way to breathe. Popular
music supplied this vent.
Chico Buarque, in particular, bore a conflict
with the dictatorial censorship virtually throughout his career,
from its beginning until the moment of the re-democratization
of the country in the 90’s. He was, no doubt, one of the most
censured among Brazilian artists, as a composer and as
a writer and playwright. His songs were prohibited, his plays
mutilated. To dodge censorship, he was forced
to create an alias, Julinho da Adelaide, to whom he ascribed his
more popular sambas. But he gave dictatorial power an
sharp reply in Apesar de você (In spite of you),
which was sung by millions of Brazilians in all corners
of the country, joined in the hope expressed in the lyrics
of the song, that "tomorrow will be another day"...
As others of his generation of brilliant composers (Caetano
Veloso, Gilberto Gil, Milton Nascimento, Edu Lobo, etc.),
Chico became known nationally through the music festivals
held in the late 60’s. With A Banda, sung by Nara Leão, he
won the Festival of Record, in São Paulo, and a great popularity
throughout Brazil. It is a simple little march, delicate and
poetical, whose possible reference to social protest is very subtle.
... a minha gente sofrida/ despediu-se da dor/ pra ver a banda
passar/ cantando coisas de amor... (.. my wretched people /
took leave of pain / to see the band go by / singing love
songs..). – said the song.
Chico also won the International Song Festival, in Rio de
Janeiro, with Sabiá, a truly beautiful song composed in
partnership with Antonio Carlos Jobim, which, however, was
jeered for political reasons! The public’s favorite was Geraldo
Vandré’s Caminhando, considered a more frontal protest
against military power. The cheering for the songs was
passionate, ardent, insane, like for soccer.
Popular music has always had, through History, a huge
importance in Brazilian life. Each one of its different
manifestations captures not only some essential aspect of the
country’s soul, but also the spirit of the time when it was
created. The moment of transition and, following that, living
with the unique poetry of bossa nova and the introduction of
political commitment, left a strong mark on the experience of
the generation. But as time passed the differences eased off, the
opposition seemed more superficial than significant, and the
artists of the two trends met again in a common land – the rich
and multiple universe of Brazilian popular music.
Luiz Carlos Maciel was born under the solar sign of Pisces, with Gemini as
his ascending sign. His quadruple nature, so to speak, leads him to perform
several different activities. He is a scriptwriter, a journalist, a writer, a professor,
a director, an actor - you name it, he does it. He has worked for newspapers,
in the theater, in the movies, on TV, etc. He has published several books. His
two latest books are “Geração em Transe”, in which he deals with
TropicalismoTN in the movies, in the theater and in pop music, and “As
Quatro Estações”, in which he writes about his intellectual activities
throughout the past four decades. In his next book,“O Poder do Clímax Fundamentos do Roteiro para Cinema e TV”, to be published soon by
Record, he attempts to record on paper the methodology of the scriptwriting
courses he has been teaching for many years.
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Maria Jaci Toffano
Caetano Veloso
and Tropicália
Photos: Mario Thompson
a new look at
anthropophagy
110
The first signals of instituted Brazilian national
music, recognized as bearer of our identity, were ratified
in the 1922 Week of Modern Art, whose major
representative was composer Heitor Villa-Lobos.
The importance of this event did not reflect only in the
field of classical music, officializing an identifiable
national language, but also and more importantly
it built a bridge between popular elements and the
universe of national music as a whole. It may be said
that, until that moment, the particular musical elements
of the Brazilian people, that is, the musical product
resulting from the mixture of whites, the blacks and
Indians, tended to be rejected.
The Colony of Brazil was a society that imitated
Europe, and the children of the "masters"
had to study in Europe and uphold those values, at the
same time despising what was considered "ours".
In the mixture of races, black was the element that
most influenced music. The musical manife
stations took place in the “Casa-Grande”, the master’s
house, while waiting for the whip, in the heat of the
night at the sugar-cane plantation..
“It was the laughter of the blacks that broke all the
"listless sadness" that began to choke life in the
“casa-grande”. They brought delight to the June
festivities at the sugar mill; they livened up the
“bumba-meu-boi”, the carnivals, the Epiphany...
At the sugar mills, both on the plantation and
inside the house, in the in the kitchens, washing
clothes, drying dishes, preparing sweets, grinding coffee;
in the cities, carrying bags of sugar, pianos,
jacaranda sofas for the white masters – the blacks
always sang while they worked: their work chants, as
well as their religious and party chants and their
lullabies, filled Brazilian life with African joy."1
The huge social gap that separated these blacks from
the group that detained the political and economic
power of the country heightened the discrimination
against the distinctive musical manifestations that
sprouted from Brazilian ground. Maxixe, one of the
first genuinely Brazilian dances, could be heard in the
popular balls and cabarets. It was persecuted by the
police, the church, educators and masters for being
against good morals. It was a scandal in 1914, when
Nair de Tefé, wife of president Hermes da Fonseca,
allowed this dance in the Catete Palace in Rio de Janeiro.
The 1922 Week of Modern Art was held in the Art Museum
of São Paulo, as a result of a group engaged with the idea of
renewal in arts and literature. The Brazilian modernist
movement received several contributions, from the notion
of establishing a national creative awareness, going through
the supporters of Marinetti’s futurism, to the
anthropophagic proposal of Oswald de Andrade.
Andrade’s idea based on cannibal culture was to extract
elements from Europe, process and assimilate them,
and use them for national purposes.
Before the Week of Modern Art, as much in the theaters
and concert halls as in the ball rooms of the
aristocracy, echoed mainly the arias of Italian operas.
Little by little, musical culture started to live between two
sources: the first one with a tendency to carry on the
romanticism of the operas, while others opened up to the new
sound proposal, corroborating with the events of the
Week of Modern Art and its aftermath.
Villa-Lobos sought inspiration in the soul of the people,
Thompson
Photo: Mario
G il b e r to G il
112
conferring erudite treatment to popular melodies.
Like Villa-Lobos, other artists built bridges between national
popular and formal music. One of the most popular
artists at the beginning of the twentieth century in Brazil,
baritone Mário Pinheiro, sang operas in the best
theaters, and recorded popular compositions, many
of which entered nobler spaces, such as the
Catete Palace in Rio de Janeiro.
Ernestho Nazareth, born in the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1863,
was also an important name amongst those who
developed a unique national musical language. He drew the
attention of important names such as Mário de Andrade,
considered one of the most important in the
accomplishment of the Week of Modern Art. Like
Chiquinha Gonzaga, another prominent composer,
Nazareth used the piano to express himself.
After the emergence of choro and samba, the virtuous
generation of Pixinguinha, the exportation and
success of Carmem Miranda, carnivals with marches,
the northeastern baião of Luiz Gonzaga and the force of the
radio programs and their wonderful voices, it was
Bossa Nova that attempted to create a nationalistic
mold for Brazilian Popular Music. As far as can be observed,
it was the first time that the issue of a formal nationalistic
mold for popular music was consciously addressed.
The movement began in 1958, marked by changes mainly in
rhythmic structure. The city that was most praised in
Bossa Nova song was Rio de Janeiro. Its natural beauties were
extolled, which contributed to imprinting an exportation
character to the music.
In 1963, a group of classical musicians, including
Rogério Duprat, Júlio Medaglia, Sandino Hohagen and
Willy Correia de Oliveira, among others, signed the
New Music Manifesto in which they declared total engagement
with the contemporary world. They proposed
an internal development of musical language with the
contributions of Debussy, Ravel, Schöenberg, Webern, Varèese,
Schaeffer, Messiaen, Cage, Boulez and Stockhausen, with the
adoption of new technologies, like computers,
as well as other resources. Amongst other concerns,
the group emphasized the new process of music creationconsumption, referring to the inclusion of radio, television,
literary theater, cinema, marketing jingles, trade fair
and record players within the domestic
sphere in the daily life of post-modern man.
Soon after, in 1964, the Revolution flared up, culminating
in the military coup d'état. Under military rule,
a new scenario of inspiration for the arts was inaugurated,
at times limited by censorship, at other times marked by
national pride. The nationalistic trend, more in tune
with Bossa-Nova, faced the invasion of American music
and the Beatles. The Jovem Guarda appeared, a movement
whose major icon was singer Robert Carlos.
It became the most successful phenomenon ever in Brazil.
The Jovem Guarda had as its stage a Sunday
television program and its piéce de resistence was a national
version of rock-and-roll (the “iê-iê-iê”). However, this
movement from the 60’s did not conceal criticism against
the post-revolution military regime.
In face of this moment that national song was going through,
a need for renewal and rupture appears. In the late 1960’s,
moved by this renewal urge, a national product
was created, inspired by Andrade’s anthropophagic concept.
Elements from the Beatles, Bob Dylan, and European vanguard
composers were sought, and these were
spiced up with the energy and rebellion typical of young
people at the time. This new moment of Brazilian
song was known as Tropicália.
TROPICALIA
Initially, it is worth drawing attention to the prevailing
cultural panorama in Brazil at the end of the 1960’s. In the
field of painting, Hélio Oiticica developed renovating work
from the aesthetic point of view. José Celso Martinez and the
group Oficina also followed along this line of "rupture",
staging plays written by Oswald de Andrade and challenging
the behavior of the Brazilian elites. In the cinema,
Glauber Rocha criticized the political situation.
These were distinct manifestations but they bore the same
urge for renewal, converging to what was called tropicália.
Thus, cultural amplitude can be observed in the movem
ent that drew a representative group of intellectuals and
artists who identified themselves with the cutting edge
proposal.
In the music field, the main composer of this new age of
Brazilian song was Caetano Veloso. Admitting the influence
of anthropophagy over the movement, the singer-composer
alluded to the concept of the term in its origin, recollecting
the unusual episode of Bishop Sardinha. As the guest
of honor at a dinner offered by a cannibal tribe in the
days that followed the discovery of Brazil by the
Portuguese, the catholic Bishop was stunned when he realized
that he was to be the main dish on the menu.
Anthropophagy grew in the plays written by
Oswald de Andrade, carefully examined and appreciated
by Caetano Veloso. Therefore, tropicália sprang with the
flavor of the 1960’s, based on a concept of the modernists
of the 1920’s, and, with the same intensity of that decade,
also represented a convergence of artistic vanguards.
Tropicália was an "embryo" in Oiticica’s paintings exhibited
113
in Rio de Janeiro, it was developed in the plays directed by
Jose Celso and it was finally born with the artists from
Bahia who launched their music in São Paulo.
The term "tropicália" was used by Oiticica for one
of his works, created in 1967. In that same year,
Caetano also used the term for one of his compositions,
apparently by a mere coincidence, since he had not
yet had contact with this work by Oiticica. The term began to
be used by the media, always linked to vanguard manifestations,
and ended up being accepted by many, including Caetano when
referring to his own work.
With post-modernism in the background,
Caetano’s tropicália resorted to the banality of daily life,
criticizing the political scene, moral values and ideology through
poetry that suggested rupture and that
shocked at times. Nevertheless, familiar
national genres could be observed, such as the marches,
iê-iê-iê, samba and baião. As to the use of known
material (some of it from the recent past, some from the remote
past), commonly called "reliquary",
it was generally used in a critical way. The musical
instruments heard most often were the guitar and the keyboard.
The nature of tone took on an electrified sound.
It was the pure art of tearing estheticism apart,
in other words, criticizing middle class consumers
through rather bad taste.
A new paradigm appeared for the cultural product,
which became a consumption product.
As the New Music Manifesto pointed out, a new
age of musical consumption was initiated and tropicália
works with this new paradigm, focusing mainly
on the middle class.
Considered by some scholars as an update of the
art directed toward the masses, "it seeks a new form of artistic
expression and insertion in the market", "political-cultural
opening" or "resizing of the political dimension
of the middle class" , the tropicália appeared in
the aftermath of the military coup, turning national-popular
culture into mass culture2.
The notion of rupture was translated into behavior,
the ideological-political scenario and new sound
experimentations. The public participated on many levels.
114
The main spaces for the events surrounding tropicalismo were
the festivals. The link between the intellectuals and
the people complied with the rules of the media culture,
mainly through radio, television and the record industry.
It was the consolidation of the participation of youth
as consumer of the cultural product in Brazil.
By Caetano Veloso’s side, Gilberto Gil introduced the new
song, launched records, always drawing attention to the
uniqueness of his experiments. Both exuded
talent and artistic intelligence. Caetano was remarkable
particularly for the beauty of his poetry while
Gil’s strong point was rhythmic pulsation.
The first LP launched by Caetano individually included
the direct participation of Júlio Medaglia and Sandino
Hohagen as arrangers, musicians of the
New Music Manifesto. Surely, resorting to these formal
musicians was the result of so many shared
ideas, such as the commitment with the new esthetics and
syntony with the vanguard ideas. Gilberto Gil
resorted to the arrangements of another vanguard classical
musician, Rogério Duprat, presenting a bold work with
interesting tone effects. It is clear, therefore,
that tropicália was based on young talents from the
new Brazilian popular music whose work was connected
with the classical scene by the common vanguard
nature of both trends.
The song by Caetano that got tropicália going is
called "Alegria, Alegria". It is a march with a simple
melody and unsophisticated from a harmonic
point of view. However, the words identified
with the vanguard proposal, suggesting a scene of freedom,
a bold process of rupture
with conventional symbols. It describes somebody walking
around a city, with no ID, whose only commitment is to his
own freedom. Gil’s song, "Domingo no Parque”
(Sunday in the Park), with Rogério Duprat’s arragement,
even had park noises, conveying the feeling of a ride on a
Ferris wheel. This same park is where a dispute between two
men for the love of a woman comes to a tragic end.
Baião, the northeastern rhythm used by Gil, is used
together with the international pop rhythm.
These two songs inaugurated the tropicália scene,
Thompson
Photo: Mario
ia
a r ia B e th a n
M
e
o
n
ta
e
a
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followed by other songs presented in LP’s and at festivals.
Artists continued the search for esthetic novelties,
once again allowing the contribution of the radical vanguards,
imprinting an actual research character to the work
developed in 1967 and 1968. Tropicália was so explosive,
so representative and fertile; however, it did not last long.
While it lasted, its manifestations were very
intense, through the young people who bought the LPs
and the prestige from shows and the prizes awarded to the
“tropicalistas” in the trendy festivals where songs
gained a new dimension in the voice of the Gal Costa.
During that time it was not an easy task to maintain
the interest of the public for the new experimentations.
The jury or the public were not always prepared to
assimilate so much innovation. On the other hand,
all this struggle for attention resulted in audience and growth of
the cultural industry around Brazilian music.
Musically, Caetano and Gil are musicians who
deserve the highest regard in Brazil and abroad. However,
their songs, appreciated until today, had taken different paths
from those of the tropicália. In an attempt to re-examine the
trajectory of these two artists, based on what some of their
interviews in the press suggest regarding the tropicália, it does
not seem like they ever intended to promote a movement, much
less tropicalism. It was simply a spontaneous
expression, inherent to their young and potentially
privileged spirits, expressing themselves musically through
a catalyzing process of the more significant manifestations that
were taking place at the time..
In view of the diffuse scene of Brazilian popular music today, we
can only be sorry that the movement was so short-lived, with
little result compared to its fertility. Finally, we recall Júlio
Medaglia when stating that the cultural opening proposed by
the movement has not been completely filled yet.
1
Freyre, Gilberto. Casa-Grande&Senzala, Editora Record, Rio de Janeiro,
1992. Pages 462 and 463.
2
Respectively: Marcus Napolitano, Cleos Favaretto, Marcelo Ridenti.
Jaci Toffano is a concert pianist, professor at the Music Department
of the University of Brasilia. She has a Piano Master’s from
Juilliard School (New York – United States), Doctor’s degree from the
Department of Sociology of the University of Brasilia and Post-doctorate
from Sorbonne (Paris, France).
115
Dado Villa-Lobos
the explosion
of rock bands,
afro groups and
new rhythms
The clear image that I still have of
the early 1980’s is of the city of
Brasilia besieged by the Brazilian
Armed Forces under the command
of general Newton Cruz, who
commanded in person the repression
of popular manifestations for “diretas
já” (a call for direct elections). The
general wielded his whip a la
Goering, trying in vain to stop the
car horns from blowing away on L2
South Avenue, hauling people out of
their cars decorated with green and
yellow balloons. The commotion
was widespread, with the national
anthem echoing in the background;
it was the end of an Autumn
afternoon, a Biblical dusk
announcing the twilight of one of
the most terrible periods of our
contemporary history, thus revealing
the dawn of a new time, new airs,
Paralamas do Sucesso
other formats, other people...
117
Photo: Mario Thompson
" Sitting idly under the block of flats, looking at
the girls going by...” the extract of this song composed by
Renato Russo in 1982 (an analogy to Jobim and Moraes’
classic "Garota de Ipanema") translates precisely what Brasilia
was in the early 1980’s for someone at the start of life, in a place
with few perspectives, except for going away some day.
I was in fact sitting under my block at SQS 213 when suddenly
four punks came along, alien, frightening, armed with the
colorjets they had used to write on the walls of my building –
Electric Abortion -, what was that? What was the message?
Who were those guys? There was something represented
there, and it was, I hardly knew at the time, the password that
would open the doors for the meaning of life in that place, it
was young people communicating with other young people, it
was explicit, things finally started to make sense.
“Aborto Elétrico” was the first musical manifestation
in Brasilia in the 1980’s that was different from the musical
dreariness that prevailed, tied to the clutches of
conformity, of the long established cultural humdrum.
It was impossible to resist the force and explosion of its
presentations of the purest catharsis, catalysis and
agglutination of new ideas, the desire to be young and
feel good about oneself and enforce one’s right to intellectual,
cultural and social individuality, and then be able
to make all that very clear through music, dance, theater,
cinema or plastic arts. These were the true flags of
youthful motivation, willing to propagate the force
118
of a new generation in search of re-conquering its social
space lost for decades.
Presentations in public squares, bars, universities, film,
theater and dance festivals were systematically organized
and ended up stimulating the interest of the public, shaken by
the impact of being able to relate to, understand and
participate in what was put directly, rationally and emotionally,
in tune with their own lives - "No more backing vocals
and falsettos singing the natural beauties of an imaginary
country, no more gentle guitars with strings and orchestra, now
it’s energy and distortion, drums beating 4 by 4 and the voice
shouting: " We are the children of the revolution, we
are bourgeois without religion, we are the future of the nation,
generation coca-cola..., In the slums, in the Senate, dirt
everywhere... What country is this?"
After that the path was clear, open and magnetized,
and then came the perspective and the clear sense of pleasure
and desire to be there for ever, there was no turning back,
only forward, always forward.
What in fact occurred with this uprising of the thinking youth
in the big urban centers at the time can be seen as an
earthquake without an epicenter, without name or origin,
a cultural revolution without Mao or Qing, or
identifiable charismatic leaders, only young artists, speaking
only of the musical universe, transforming the country
from north to south, as in Rio de Janeiro with Blitz,
Paralamas do Sucesso, Barão Vermelho, in São Paulo with
Olodum
Titãs, Ultraje a rigor, Ira!, Inocentes, in Salvador,
Camisa de Vênus, the afro-groups Olodum, Ilê Ayê,
from Recife to Porto Alegre many others came to disseminate
their origins, beliefs, rhythms, breaking all the barriers
of urban cultural expression, integrating the inland with the
asphalt, the sea with the hill slums, its omnipotence spreading
new means of cultural production in the country,
causing drastic structural changes in the record and
entertainment industries. With the invasion of these new
artists in the mass media and the huge music festivals with
national and international artists, such as
"Rock in Rio", "Hollywood Rock" among others, the
record industry offered to absorb the promising
raw material. Production and profits with increasing record
sales were unprecedented in Brazil.
The record industry gained respectability and prestige for
reaching the sixth position in the world market.
The doors were definitively and finally flung open, thus
enabling the rising and sanctioning of countless artists in the
bounteous heterogeneous cauldron that is Brazilian culture.
The habits, attitudes and positions of young people changed,
presidential elections were finally held and between highs and
lows people started to believe in the country. Redemocratization was established, the mission was
accomplished, in fact it continues, for other reasons, but I am
still sitting under the block..., thinking seriously about shouting
again.
Eduardo Dutra Villa-Lobos, grandnephew of the famous maestro
and composer Heitor Villa-Lobos, was born in Brussels, Belgium.
He arrived in Brasilia around 1979, at the age of 14. He formed his
own band called “Dado & o Reino Animal” (Dado & the Animal Kingdom)
and in 1983 he joined the Legião Urbana band as a guitar player.
Throughout the years, he improved his guitar-playing technique.
In partnership with Bonfá, he wrote nearly all of the band’s songs. He has
also produced the soundtrack of the movie “Bufo & Spallanzini”, in which
he participates in the clip entitled “Dentro de Ti” sung by Cássia Eller.
Titãs
Legião Urbana
Kid Abelha
Barão Vermelho
Photos: Prensa 3
119
Martha Tupinambá de Ulhôa
New rhythms and names:
Marisa Monte, Carlinhos
120
Photo: Mario Thompson
Marisa Monte
Brown, Manguebeat, Rap.
Rio de Janeiro, lyrical song and samba;
Salvador, Ogun worship and street carnival; Recife, hip hop and maracatu. Marisa
Monte, Carlinhos Brown, Chico Sciense...
New names and new rhythms in MPB?
New names, yes, but the sounds aren’t that
Ana Carolina
Photo: Prensa 3
new. What do they have in common?
Eclecticism and the mixture of genres and
rhythms, which is a tradition in the
Brazilian musical culture, a culture that is
characterized by absorption and reinter-
Photo: Mario Thompson
pretation of rhythms and forms from a
Carlinhos Brown
variety of ethnic and social backgrounds.
Rap seems to be another story, perhaps the
only totally new element in the MPB scene.
121
122
Photo: Mario Thompson
Lenine
Carioca Marisa Monte is enthralling in the fluency
with which she sings, in a refined way, from traditional
sambas to the classics of North American repertoire.
Recreations are included that have become emblematic,
such as "Chocolate", by Tim Maia, on the record Marisa Monte
Live, of 1988. Initiating in lyrical song, Marisa Monte later
began to sing the popular repertoire in night clubs,
from where she set out on her artistic career. In her shows
and recordings she also introduced her own compositions.
In this category the highlight is for her partnership with
Arnaldo Antunes, in the intriguing "Amor I Love You",
a hit recorded in Memórias, Crônicas e Declarações de Amor,
of 2000. Another field of activity of Marisa’s is musical
production, either of the section of composers of a
traditional samba school, like the Velha Guarda da Portela,
or of records of other artists, like Carlinhos Brown
in the record Omelette Man. 2
Bahian Carlinhos Brown fascinates for the athletic
exhibition of his percussion, which also permeates his lyrics,
chosen more for sonority than for semantics.
His path began with street percussion, related to the carnival
culture, the electric trios and afro music. Another of Carlinhos’s
foundations is inscribed in his stage name:
the influence of James Brown, indicating his preference for
soul/funk and for the use of the body as a performance
instrument. His other foundation is the musical
tradition related to Ogun, the African deity of iron worshipped
in Candeal Pequeno, where Carlinhos was born and raised.
It was there that, in 1992, the artist created the
Timbalada band, a group with more than 100 percussionists
from the neighborhood. Several musical codes are
mixed. Funk, rap, reggae, samba, rock and candomblé
produce a hybrid, at the same time pop, globalized
and also very Bahian music. In 1996 Alfagamabetizado is
launched (a combination of the word “alfabetizado"
(literate) and the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet,
"alpha" and "gamma"), a record that was hailed both
by critics and the public. Still in the same year a
professional school for street musicians was created.
In addition to the school and the Timbalada, Carlinhos a
lso sponsors a band of female percussionists, called
Bolacha Maria, and a children’s band, the Lactomania.
In the nineteenth
century, the polka
lent the agitated
form of dancing
in joined pairs to
the tradition of
dancing in free
pairs of the lundu.
From Pernambuco, Chico Sciense is noteworthy but not alone
amongst several representatives of the pulsating musical
movement that arose in the mangrove region of Recife.
After going through hip hop and post-punk rock,
Chico Science’s group joined other samba-reggae musicians
forming the band Chico Science & Nação Zumbi.
The second work recorded by the group, Afrociberdelia (1996)
shows the type of mixture that became typical of the
movement’s representatives (rap, electronic music, rock and
traditional genres of Pernambuco, such as maracatu, coco,
ciranda, etc.). It is not without reason that Chico Sciense e
Nação Zumbi included three versions of “Maracatu Atômico”,
composed by Jorge Mautner and Nelson Jacobina, in the
previously mentioned CD. Maracatu is related to the place,
the mangrove; atomic for the reference to the global pop culture
pop. The movement as a manifesto (Caranguejos com Cérebro,
published in 1992) appraises the Mangue Bit
(the fertile and thriving mud of the mangroves (mangue)
potentialized by the bits of cybernetics). However,
the emerging sound, the mangrove beat (Manguebeat)
is not the only one, as shown by the work of bands
Mundo Livre S.A. and Mestre Master,
other groups related to the movement.
They are many rhythms, traditional and imported, local
and transnational. In this globalized scene, where
is the specificity of Brazilian music? The question suggests a
contemplation of this course, with influences and
adaptations of foreign music and, also, with the articulation
of a unique musical language. The rhythmic aspect is
without doubt the strongest element in this discussion.
But the rhythm is much more that a sequence of durations
organized in a motif, recognizable here and there.
There are very subtle rhythmic aspects in Brazilian popular
music that are responsible for its "sauce" and its "swing".
This Brazilian way of making music was constructed in a long
historical process of contacts, loans and exchanges between
Brazilian and foreign genres.
In the nineteenth century, the polka lent the agitated form
of dancing in joined pairs to the tradition of dancing in
free pairs of the lundu. The rhythms that accompanied
lundu were the interlaced rhythms of the African drums.
Each dancer of the challenging pair could do an
individual and free choreography in lundu. Polka with its
synchronized and regular bar and choreography was
rearticulated in the new dance that emerged, maxixe.
A dance that was stylized in the first decade of the twentieth
century by dancer Duque in the halls of Paris, spread out
to other Latin American countries. In Brazil, much of the music
called polka at that time was in fact maxixe.
The new dance was also hidden in the first recorded sambas.
Samba consolidates itself as a commercial genre
in the 1930’s, in a crystallization that would only be challenged
about 30 years later. It was when jazz lent its harmonies of
modified chords to the renewal of samba, undertaken by bossa
nova. In the second half of the century, rock, with the
sound of its guitars, contributed to the emancipation of popular
123
124
Photo: Mario Thompson
music from its traditional roots,
through the short but influential Tropicália movement.
None of these loans, however, intervenes with the musical
“accent” of samba, bossa nova and other manifestations
of so-called MPB, particularly in what is known as "division",
that is, in the way the notes are distributed between
melody and accompaniment, a division that does not always
respect the strong notes of the bars. In songs,
the use in this loose synchronizing allows the adjustment
of Portuguese stresses, which are irregular, to the meter
regularity of musical bars. This rhythmic aspect, which I call
"spilt meters" distinguishes the "Brazilian" style in the
performance of several genres of popular music (Ulhôa 1999).
Musicologist Mário de Andrade comments in a study of lundu,
written in 1928, on this rhythmic freedom that emerges not
only in the genres but in the cocos, emboladas and challenges in
traditional northeastern music.
They are free meter forms and he called them "syllabic and
fanciful reciting processes" (Andrade 1976: 80). He was
referring to the stress patterns in spoken language, which bring
their oratory rhythm to traditional popular singing.
This free meter is very much present in the incursions of the
manguebeat groups, just as the spilt meter is typical
of samba and its derivatives.
New musical genres are formed by the deliberate action
of musicians when privileging certain melodic, rhythmic,
tone and harmonic manifestations. They are musical
practices, in turn founded and fused in historically
and geographically specific social practices. An example
of the action of these agents is the previously mentioned version
of polka created by the choro musicians at the end
of the twentieth century.
Introduced in Brazil in 1845, polka had an important role i
n the formation of urban genres in Rio de Janeiro,
the cultural center of the time. Although this denomination was
used until the first decades of the twentieth century,
this bohemian dance in a strongly stressed binary bar – with
emphasis on the first note of the bar – is highly stylized in the
performance of Carioca popular choro musicians. This
stylization occurs also, and mainly, in the dance of joined pairs
that adapts the style of individual choreographic challenge
of lundu to the quadrature of ball-room dancing.
Zeca Baleiro
Rock was not
brazilianized like
polka, since it was
introduced in a
space where the
outline of national
production was
already defined.
This adaptation, as mentioned above,
contributed to the creation of maxixe, the dance and
later song that often appears under the name of polka or tango,
and which is the precursor of samba.
What really draws attention is the rhythmic aspect
of this process of incorporation, in which the angular meter
of polka, in contact with other rhythms, such as
Caribbean habanera and lundu, was made flexible.
One of the aspects of this flexibility is the strong and weak
notes of the bar, which remains binary, as in the
European model, but with the strong note displaced from the
first to the second note, as it appears later in samba.
This displacement of the strong note is quite obvious in the
samba-enrêdo, where it is emphasized by the beat
of the first bass drum, the biggest and most potent
drum in the percussion orchestra (bateria) that is part of the
samba school parades.
Another peculiar aspect is related to the synchronization
between the musical parts, which is precise in the
European model and malleable in the Brazilian case.
As I comment with regard to spilt meter, the
limits of the bar are stretched in the performance of sambas.
In these songs the number of syllables in the verse
and their stress patterns don’t always coincide with the
number of notes and the location of the stress in the musical
bar. This independence between melody and accompaniment
appears in the scores as internal syncopation and in
anticipations of the strong note crossing the imaginary line of
the bars. In other words, in these cases music follows
the European rationale of the binary meter, but
the structure of the bar is reinterpreted, not by opposition,
doing something completely different,
but by the "assimilation of the difference".
The "foreign” musical genres were “brazilianized”,
if not in their form, then in their content. It was thus
with polka, fox, bolero, jazz, even with rock, that is, identity is
stressed by mixture and subtlety in dealing with the other.
Perhaps that is why popular Brazilian music exerts a certain
allure on listeners of the most diverse cultural origins.
If in the nineteenth century polka had an important
role in the formation of genres of Brazilian urban music,
in the twentieth century rock was central in the
modernization of popular music. This modernization
was highlighted by the performance of groups
that acted as true precursors in their specific fields of
production. On one side, initially, the Jovem Guarda, led by
Roberto Carlos, a model of musical production of wide popular
acceptance and commercial success. On the other,
the Tropicália, commanded among others by
Caetano Veloso, a model of production worried about
originality and artistic elaboration. On both sides,
the Beatles were a source of musical inspiration:
for the Jovem Guarda the adolescent iê-iê-iê rock
(a clear reference to the song "She loves you"); for the Tropicália
the experimentation after the album Revolver.
Rock was not brazilianized like polka, since it
125
was introduced in a space where the outline of national
production was already defined. The use of the electric guitar
was even questioned by the segment of university
students engaged in social critique at the time (1960’s).
The use of elements from rock by the tropicalists,
themselves members of this community, represented a gesture
of self-criticism, as well as criticism of samba as the only
legitimate representative of brazility. After Tropicália,
MPB song-makers began to incorporate the most varied genres
to their repertoire, not only from other
regional origins (as the northeastern baião), but also foreign
(as Jamaican reggae). In this setting the Jovem Guarda
was considered "alienated" from the social and political
problems of the country under military dictatorship.
In the 1960’s and 1970’s, the use of specific musical genres by
certain composers of this segment
(such as Chico Buarque de Hollanda when composing sambas)
had a connotation of protest.
With the political opening and presidential elections in the mid1980’s this connection with some type of ethnic roots as a
critical index was worn out. The call for the national identity
took place within rock, now recognized as Brazilian Rock.
An emblematic song of the 1980’s is "Faroeste Caboclo"
of the group Legião Urbana (EMI, 1987),
which uses many textures of rock as a sound track to tell
the story of a young northeasterner who goes to the
federal capital (Brasilia) and falls in love, gets involved with
urban violence and then dies in front of the television cameras.
The element of ethnic and cultural identification is quite subtle,
since in terms of sound the song is not particularly "Brazilian"
but for the use of Portuguese.
So it is precisely this use of the Portuguese language that
I would like to continue exploring.
"Faroeste Caboclo" has already been compared by rock critic
Arthur Dapieve to Bob Dylan’s "Hurricane".
In fact, there are many similarities between them, among
which the theme, telling a heroic tale, and the melodic outline
close to speech. However, the prosodic model is not that
of North American folk-rock, but of the Brazilian tradition
known as “repente”. As Renato Russo, author of
Faroeste Caboclo, mentions in some interviews, the song was
easy to compose since it uses the declamatory style
126
With the political
opening and
presidential
elections in the
mid-1980’s this
connection with
some type of
ethnic roots as a
critical index was
worn out.
of free meter that is typical of the improvised challenges and
traditional cocos of Brazil’s northeast. In this style of
declaimed singing, the repente, the spilt meter is not used,
but for the strong notes of each bar, since the long phrases with
repeated notes or with short pauses produce a result that is
horizontal and without meter stresses. This is different from
samba, which is clearly binary, but also different from
English rock. This prosodic rhythm is the one observed by
Mário de Andrade, as mentioned above.
Certain basic rhythmic patterns distinguish the majority
of musical genres disseminated by the international media.
An example of this is the electronic keyboards for home use,
which provide the user with a set of the most common patterns
in pop music (such as rock, waltz, bossa nova, bolero, ballad,
Photo: Mario Thompson
Zélia Duncam
reggae, salsa, among others). These stereotyped simplifications,
however, do not substitute the
vigor and excitement of a creative performance, where the
musician intervenes with the construction of the
rhythmic/harmonic base. The machine cannot
simulate the rhythmic indeterminations of musical discourse.
This musical discourse takes for granted a
specific musical ability, a familiarity with culturally determined
grammatical norms.
Taking just one example, think of bossa nova, which sounds
"pasteurized" when played on the electronic keyboards
with the predetermined rhythmic base.
Or it sounds artificial and "hard" when played by
musicians who are not familiar with Brazilian “swing”.
This subtle element is, in my opinion,
closely related to the rhythm of spoken language that is inserted
in the musical practice.
Brazilian Portuguese, as many other languages, uses syllabic
stress as a means of phonologic identification.
A typical example is the three-syllable word whose meaning
changes depending on which syllable the
stress is placed: "sabiá" (the bird), where the stress
is on the last syllable; "sabia" (past of the verb to know), stressed
on the second last syllable; "sábio" (wise),
stressed on the syllable before that.
A large number of words in Portuguese are in the second
category, that is, stressed on the second last syllable.
How to adjust this trend to the western
musical meter, whose bar begins with a strong note?
Simple, just begin the song before the first
note of the bar. That is, the same displaced stress
mentioned above that characterizes samba is also subtly present
in bossa nova.
In the performance of certain songs, the melodic line exists
almost independently from the accompanying
sonorous fabric. This is the case of the genres studied by
Mário de Andrade and, in a certain way,
of rap which, as the name itself reveals, is poetry
recited upon a rhythmic base. But one thing is meter
in the English language, as it appears in
North American rap, the other is the meter of the
Portuguese language as pronounced in Brazil.
127
The prosody used in Brazil is syllabic,
the verses being specified by the number of syllables
(from one to twelve, generally, counted up to the last stressed
syllable); each type of verse has a fixed number of
syllables, delimited by the final stress.
Although each word can have stressed and unstressed
syllables, it is the logic of the sentence that prevails.
Depending on its location in a verse or phrase,
a word or stressed syllable can have its stress neglected,
or vary in terms of syllabic limits. In other words,
rhythmic groupings are varied, forming phrases of different
meter sizes and structures.
It is interesting to note that, in certain European
languages, as in English, the stress patterns are isochronous,
that is, they use the same amount of time
between one stresses syllable and another. Therefore,
at least in the case of the English language,
the meter seems to be organized in "regular bars".
When Chico Sciense sings hip hop in Portuguese, as in "Etnia",
of the record Afrociberdélia,
he uses the same free meter division of the northeastern
tradition, and in this way he transforms
and recreates the genre by partial absorption of the difference.
A totally new sound turns up with rap, especially
the one from São Paulo, which imprints the regularity of the
North American language to the lyrics in Portuguese.
Its rhythmic bases also are constructed in a
radically different way than in MPB. Instead of the
creation of a sound fabric composed of the interaction between
the instrumentalists, there is the use of "leftovers"
from pirated samplers, in a mechanical patchwork.
Rather than the fluid melodic outline of singing, there is the
rough discharge of recited text.
Rap was introduced in Brazil by soul dance teams and it
developed especially in São Paulo. The lyrics are
declaimed upon bases from funk records and occasional
scratches. From the end of the 1980’s,
rappers arise throughout the country
(Rio de Janeiro, Brasilia, Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte, Recife)
but São Paulo remains the center of an independent production
of the genre. The best
known rap group, the Racionais MCs, pours over these
128
Rap was
introduced in
Brazil by soul
dance teams and
it developed
especially in
São Paulo.
bases a discourse that denounces the condition
of young blacks living in the poor neighborhoods
of São Paulo. They draw a significant number of people
to their shows (some with about 10,000 people)
and undertake awareness-raising campaigns on topics such
as drugs, police violence and racism.
Their most important record Sobrevivendo no Inferno
(Surviving in Hell) is an independent production of 1998
that sold over a million copies.
But it is above all in the meter that the rap of
São Paulo distinguishes itself from the dominant MPB
production. Rap contrasts with the spilt meter
tradition, in that it imprints on productions in
Portuguese the pattern of isochronous stress of
English, and presents itself as an element that is alien to
consolidated forms of musical expression. Rap also
contrasts with the traditions of northeastern recited song,
Photo: Mario Thompson
with syllabic division but no regular stress patterns. Thence the
conclusion that rap is at the margin of MPB. Rappers see
themselves as in opposition to the "Brazilian" of popular music
and try to construct for the genre a space with its own norms.
However, in the land of manguebeat, rap has been
incorporated and integrated into the local sounds and swings.
Groups such as Faces do Subúrbio declaim lyrics in the
rhythm of the embolada challenges upon bases
using tambourine percussion, a traditional instrument.
In Rio de Janeiro, MV Bill, a renowned rapper, records with
samba musicians. In other words, roots continue
to mix with reinvented foreign trends and new names
appears to liven up the old sound of popular music.
From Marisa Monte to rap it is Brazil that sings and dances its
plural and original rhythm.
Bibliographical references:
Andrade, Mário de. "Lundu do escravo" [1928]. In Música doce Música. 2 ed.
São Paulo: Livraria Martins Editora; Brasilia: INL, 1976, p. 74-80.
Hollanda, Heloisa Buarque de.“The law of the cannibal or How to deal with
the idea of "difference" in Brazil”
http://acd.ufrj.br/pacc/literaria/paper1helo.html [1998, with consultation
on 03/09/2002]
Sandroni, Carlos. Feitiço Decente – Transformações do samba no Rio de
Janeiro (1917-1933) Rio de Janeiro: Jorge Zahar Ed.: Editora UFRJ, 2001.
Ulhôa, Martha Tupinambá de. "Métrica Derramada: prosódia musical na
Canção Brasileira Popular " Brasiliana 2 (May 1999): 48-56.
Martha Tupinambá Ulhôa is the head teacher of musicology of the Villa
Lobos Institute and of the Program of Post- Doctorate in Music at the
Univesity of Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO). First secretary of ANPPOM
(National Association of Research and Post-Graduation in Music) and Vicepresident of IASPM-LA (Latin American AssociaTION OF popular Music
Studies). As a researcher for CNPq she has been dedicated to the study of
popular Brazilian music.
The reader may find examples of spilt meter (with the name
“contrametricidade”) in transcriptions of samba
Nação Zumbi
129
Mauro Ferreira
The contemporaneousness
of Brazilian
music
Fruit of the tropicalist seed planted in 1968, in a movement
led by Caetano Veloso and Gilbert Gil, contemporary
this interaction of contemporary Brazilian music with the
world. It was there that the beat of afro-groups such as Olodum
merged with the reggae beat and produced samba-reggae, a
rhythm that is the mother-cell of a sound generically labeled as
axé-music. Scorned in its own native country,
for being the product of the inspiration of black composers,
the force of axé-music was diluted in Brazil by the
phonographic industry – which wore out the repertoire of
Bahia composers in successive and sloppy live records - but its
rhythm rules on the slopes of Bahia and the sound of its drums
echo in the four corners of the world. Stars like Paul Simon and
Michael Jackson have already enlisted the beat of Olodum. And
Daniela Mercury - the singer who disseminated Bahia music
most emphatically throughout the 90’s – has gradually
developed a solid international career.
Bahia still deals the cards in the national market – taking into
Martinho da Vila
130
Photo: Mario Thompson
Brazilian music today has a planetary accent.
A world wide reference of aesthetic standard since Bossa Nova
began adding jazz elements to samba, in 1958,
Brazilian music increasingly interacts with the universal sounds
without losing its basic characteristics.
João Gilberto returned to Carnegie Hall, in June, to celebrate
the 40th anniversary of the celebrated concert, on that
American stage, that popularized old bossa throughout the
world. But MPB - the acronym for Brazilian Popular Music
that has branded the national phonographic
production since the 60’s - already stands for much more than
the syncopated samba of João Gilbert, Tom Jobim and Co.
in the eyes of the world.
Homeland of João Gilberto, Bahia is also the largest source of
account the origin of MPB icons such as Caetano Veloso,
Gilbert Gil and João Gilberto, apart from the popular success of
axé-music singers, like Ivete Sangalo - but the planetary accent
of Brazilian music is heard in every corner of Brazil.
In Recife, the late Chico Science made history in the 90’s when,
on board his group, the Nação Zumbi, he reprocessed
maracatu, the native rhythm, with pop language.
It was the birth of the Mangue Beat, or Mangue Bit, as is also
known the most influential movement of Brazilian music in the
last decade. Trailing behind Science’s success, other groups
refined his recipe – the case of Mundo Livre S/A – and the
musical scene of Recife was revitalized, with the appearance of
several bands and impact throuhout Brazil and even abroad.
A trend similar to the one of Pernambuco, but still restricted to
Espirito Santo, happened more recently in Vitória,
capital of the State. The Casaca group draws crowds estimated
at 30 thousand people to its shows. The recipe, here, is to play
the Congo (a traditional rhythm of Espirito Santo)
with the same pop language that Chico Science used to
upgrade the maracatu. Heeding the Espirito Santo
phenomenon, multinational record company Sony Music hired
Photo: Mario Thompson
Chico César
131
the Casaca group and is launching the band’s second record on
national scale, hoping to project the pop version of the Congo
all through Brazil. Meanwhile, Maranhão has become the
national Jamaica, exporting reggae groups such as Tribo de Jah.
These local events have turned segmentation and plurality into
key-words of contemporary Brazilian music. The music market
today works with different audience segments. Whereas samba
still sets the tone in the backyards of Rio de Janeiro, with a lot
of influence over São Paulo, the music of Rio Grande do Sul is
still restricted to the state, distinguished by the self-sufficiency
and independence of its local market. And it is this plurality
132
Chico Science
Photo: Mario Thompson
that allows the arrival of composers like Chico Cesar from
Paraíba and Lenine from Pernambuco.
Both spice up the templates of northeastern rhythms with the
pop/electronic flavor and, not by chance, Chico Cesar and
Lenine are two of the most successful artists abroad.
There is another singer who is a hit abroad and can sound
totally universal singing samba, ballads, pop and any rhythm.
Her name? Marisa Monte, one of
the top-sellers in the Brazilian phonographic market.
In the pop segment, strengthened in the contemporary market
since 1982, when the group Blitz burst open the market
for national rock, the repercussion abroad was much smaller.
Perhaps due to the fact that most groups reproduce the
universal sounds of rock. But there is no doubt
about the importance on the national scene of groups such
as Titãs, Barão Vermelho and Paralamas do Success,
the latter being the first band to blend Brazilian rhythms with
reggae and rock, as early as in 1986.
Rock groups have, since the 80’s, taken over the revolutionary
role played by the extraordinary generation revealed in the 60’s,
with the emergence of names such as Chico Buarque,
Edu Lobo, Paulinho da Viola, Milton Nascimento
(almost a solitary star in the sky of Minas Gerais), Martinho da
Vila and aforementioned Caetano and Gil. Today, these
composers produce less, often dedicated to revision projects, but
their importance in the construction and consolidation of
contemporary Brazilian music is essential.
In the eyes of the World, Brazil is increasingly recognized for its
national production. And this recognition is no longer limited
to the exotic appearance of Carmen Miranda
or to the Bossa Nova beat, which drank from the waters
of American jazz and was therefore quickly
assimilated in the United States. Contemporary Brazilian music
today has its own identity and, as it adopts the
pop accent, this rich national music, far from being diluted,
becomes stronger and stronger to conquer the World.
Mauro Ferreira, 37, has worked as a journalist as well as a music critic and
researcher since 1987. He worked as a reporter and critic of Brazilian pop music
for the Rio de Janeiro-based “O Globo” newspaper from 1989 to 1997, when he
was invited to join the staff of“O DIA” newspaper, also in Rio de Janeiro, where
he still writes the musical column “Estúdio”. Mauro Ferreira also works as a
record critic for “IstoÉGente”, a magazine of nationwide circulation.
133
tr o
Max de Cas
Perspectives
for new Brazilian
Popular Music (MPB)
134
Otto
Photo: Mar
io Thompson
“Uncle Sam wants to become acquainted with our
“batucada” (Afro-Brazilian rhythm). This sentence is
part of a well-known Brazilian song:“Brasil Pandeiro”,
written by composer Assis Valente (1911-1958) in the
1940’s. He foresaw that Brazilian Popular Music
(MPB) had vibrations and a relaxed style, which could
seduce not only the United States but other countries as
well. Valente was not wrong: since the time of Carmen
Miranda (who, by an irony of destiny, refused to record
“Brasil Pandeiro”) we have been exporting the cool
sonority of bossa-nova, the whispered lyrics of João
Gilberto and Tom Jobim, to the tribal heavy metal of
Sepultura and Max Calavera; the sonorous innovations of
Tom Zé and Caetano Veloso to the experiences of bossanova with the electronic music of Bebel Gilberto – daughter
and musical heir of João Gilberto.
However, Brazil has more rhythms, musical genre and artists to
show the rest of the world. Despite being labeled as “world
music”, this new generation of pop stars can be admired by
people in the United States, Mongolia, Tanzania – and no one
can say that they are not Brazilian, except for the marvelous
beats and swing of the songs that are being performed. Many
of these artists are fairly well known by the international public.
Such is the case of diva Marisa Monte, whose records sold more
than five million copies in Brazil. Some international critics may
label her as “exotic” or “folkloric”, but Marisa Monte is an
on
Photo: Mario Thomps
Si m on in ha
3
Photo: Prensa
Sérgio Martins
Photo: Mario
Thompson
R it a R ib e ir o
Photo: Mar
io Thomps
on
J a ir d e O
li v e ir a
ensa 3
Photo: Pr
L u c ia n a
M e ll o
exceptional singer and knows how to dig out some of the pearls
of veteran samba artists.
It is impossible not to get emotional about some of the new
readings that she does of songs composed by Nelson
Cavaquinho and Paulinho da Viola, besides the beautiful album
of Argemiro Patrocínio (part of the band Velha Guarda da
Portela, whose initial record was produced by Monte). This
singer from Rio de Janeiro has appropriately mixed ingredients
such as beauty, charisma, talent and marketing. Marisa Monte is
just one of the great musical revelations of Brazil of the past
years. Pop music has gone through sensitive changes since the
1960’s and group Jovem Guarda was the first great teenage
musical movement that made an effort to translate songs of
some of the British and American bands of that time.
In the 1970’s, good artists such as Tim Maia, Raul
Seixas and Novos Baianos mixed international
language (soul music, rock) with Brazilian rhythms.
Other followers of that sound mixture are a big hit
even today. The band Trio Mocotó that accompanied
Jorge Bem at the beginning of his career has had
considerable success with the recently released Samba
Rock. A large number of the present shows by this group
take place overseas. For example, at Womad, organized by
the English singer Peter Gabriel, a festival which brings
together the artists who merit recognition by fans of world
music. The recipe was improved upon during the following
decade by group Paralamas do Sucesso, with albums such as
Selvagem, in 1986. Brazilian artists have added another
element to such musical mixture: sophistication.
The development of studio techniques and the creativity of
our musicians put us in a position that is far from exotic.“In
case I want to eat “vatapá” (a typical Brazilian food), I'll go to
Brazil, if I want to eat hamburger, I'll stay right in the United
States.” declared Jon Pareles, a critic who writes for the New
York Times and who is a first class Brazilianist. Surely Mr.
Pareles has changed his opinion due to brilliant Brazilian rock
bands. The quartet from Minas Gerais, Pato Fu, for example,
was included in an international edition of the American
magazine Time last year, as one of the ten bands that emerged
outside the U.S. and that should be heard right away. The list
is enlarged with the inclusion of heavyweights such as
Radiohead and Portishead, high rotation groups in the
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international music market. The records of Pato Fu, by the
way, will be released in the United States and Europe this
year. At the beginning of the past decade the State of
Pernambuco presented us with “manguebit”, a collage of
heavy metal, punk, techno music and the thundering drums
of “maracatu”. The revolution was begun by Chico Science &
Nação Zumbi who released two great records and traveled
through different countries in Europe. In 1997, Science died
in an automobile accident. But Nação Zumbi is still active,
releasing albums such as Radio S.A.M.B.A., that has received
praise from the American critic, Ben Ratliff.“ If they had
released their albums through any heavy metal recording
company in the U.S., they would have conquered the world”,
Photos: Mario Thompson
a
Pa u la L im
D a n ie l C
a r lo s M a
gno
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declared Ratliff. The alter ego of Nação Zumbi is the free
world. They are led by Fred 04 (who has this nickname
because he wears glasses, that is, he has “four eyes”) and mixes
punk rock and Jorge Ben. Fred writes sensational lyrics,
perfect “samba punks” regarding social problems in Recife. The
free world also generated Otto, a former percussionist who has
received acclamation from the international media. His remix
album, Changez Tout, has been selected as one of the best
records of last year by the New York Times. From Recife, we
should also praise artists like Lênin, Mestre Ambrósio and DJ
Dolores, who sought to transform music from Recife into
techno. The city of Belo Horizonte that produced the group
Clube da Esquina with Milton Nascimento and later, Pato Fu,
is also responsible for a good pop revolution. The quintet
Skank was one of the big hits of pop music of the last years.
They sold more than 4.5 million copies with a delicious sound
that mixes Jamaican rhythms with the folklore of the State of
Minas Gerais. Nowadays they are into rock. Pato Fu is more
creative. The voices of Fernanda Takai may be defined as a
kind of Astrud Gilberto of pop music. The music of
this group runs away from labels. It varies between heavy
metal, pop and a bit of MPB. Another talent that
appeared in the same State is Berimbrown. They define
themselves as “Congo pop” and mix black American music
with the drums of Minas Gerais. Rio de Janeiro, on the
other hand, has also contributed with great bands. Rappa
started in the last decade as a reggae group, but nowadays
they do a little bit of everything: reggae, techno music,
samba and allied strains. They are very well known due to
their work with the poor communities of Rio de Janeiro.
The great talent of Brazilian music in the last few years,
however, comes from São Paulo: Max de Castro, 30 years old,
was acclaimed in the same
edition of Time that
praised Pato Fu. The only
difference is that a picture
of the singer and guitar
player was on the cover,
sharing the space with
Colombian Shakira and
Icelander Bjork. Max
de Castro has two
no
Pe d ro M a r ia
records on the market (Samba Raro and Orchestra Klaxon),
which are the finest of Brazilian music. His compositions
combine samba, techno music, bossa nova and soul music,
which have captivated American critics. Moreover, Max de
Castro resumes some traditions that were lacking within
Brazilian music. Melodies and harmonies, for example.“
The following musical movements ended up favoring lyrics to
the detriment of rhythm”, affirms Castro. That doesn’t mean
that his music is “alienated”(using here a type of speech that is
characteristic of certain factions of Brazilian music).
Max de Castro knows how to talk about themes like racial
discrimination and social problems with a gentleness that
would reduce any tough guy of American movies to tears.
Max de Castro belongs to Trama, a Brazilian recording
company that has changed the concept of music making
throughout the country.
Instead of choosing fashionable rhythms, the company bets on
new talents among composers. “We would like to discover in
the new ones, a little bit of the old ones like Chico, Milton and
Caetano”, says João Marcello Bôscoli, president of the
company. Along with businessman André Sjzaman, they not
only show talents like Max de Castro, but also Simoninha,
Max de Castro’s brother. Simoninha has a different style from
his brother’s. He acts more like a crooner in songs that
emulate soul music and passionate ballads. This vocalist also
worked as the artistic director of the company and released
the final record of guitarist Baden Powell. Trama has revealed
artists that have talent and sophistication with which to win
over the rest of the world. Such as Jairzinho Oliveira and
Luciana Mello, products of the singer Jair Rodrigues. Mello
has gone to Universal. Another of the company's talents is the
vocalist Pedro Mariano, son of Elis Regina and pianist and
arranger César Camargo Mariano: he is one of the sweetest
voices that have appeared in the last few years in Brazil. Trama
artists have awakened international interest.
DJ's Marky and Patife (both are part of the company's cast of
techno music) are a constant presence in England's most
talked-about parties, and Trama has signed a contract with
singer and composer Ed Motta. Trama has opened a space in
order for the Brazilian public to enjoy old-time artists. In the
last two years certain masterpieces of samba-jazz stars have
been re-released (sax player J.T. Meirelles and percussionist
Edison Machado are constantly cited by Max de Castro as his
great influences). In this category, one should also praise the
investment of Petrobrás in the album Ouro Negro, a tribute
to the Brazilian maestro, Moacir Santos. Having lived in the
U.S. since 1967, he has created a type of Afro-samba-jazz that
Americans are crazy about. Ouro Negro has gathered the
cream of Brazilian instrumental music led by saxophonist Zé
Nogueira and guitarist Mario Adnet. Together, they
translated and recreated original scores by Moacir Santos in a
double album that brought in guests such as pianist João
Donato and singers Milton Nascimento, Joyce and Ed Motta.
Ouro Negro was also included in the New York Times’ list as
one of the great albums of last year, and is found on the shelf
of American trumpet player Wynston Marsalis who,
captivated by Moacir Santos’ music, has even thought about
inviting him to form a partnership. The U.S. has also fallen in
love with two heirs of bossa nova. The first is Bebel Gilberto.
Her album, Tanto Tempo, released two years ago, has been the
hottest-selling Brazilian record on the American market since
Getz/Gilberto: a collaboration between the American
saxophonist and João Gilberto, during the 1960’s. Luciana
Souza is the daughter of vocalist Walter Santos, one of João
Gilberto's fellow countrymen (they were both born in the city
of Juazeiro, State of Bahia). In the 1980’s she created the
instrumental music label, Som da Gente.
The new divas have different styles of work. Bebel Gilberto
recreates bossa nova songs with an electronic perspective – her
version of Samba da Benção (a classic composed by Baden
Powell and Vinícius de Moraes) is phenomenal. It attracts the
taste of American middle class listeners who love hearing
relaxing music after work. Luciana Souza is more daring and
very respected within jazz circles. Yes, Assis Valente, Uncle
Sam still wants to find out about our “batucada.” But he has
been impressed by the rhythms and creativity of Brazilian
Popular Music.
Sérgio Martins, 35, is an Arts & Shows sub editor at Veja magazine.
He has also worked as a reporter for BIZZ, one of the main musical
publications in Brazil, and for Época magazine. He was a contributor
to the Folha de S. Paulo, Estado de S. Paulo, and Jornal da Tarde
newpapers. He has also written an article on Brazilian Pop Music for the
American edition of Time magazine.
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Mana Kuniyasu
Since the second half of the 1990’s,
I’ve been witnessing startling scenes in
shows of Brazilian artists promoted in
Tokyo: the massive presence of young
Japanese, dressed in the fashion of their
everyday idols often imported from
some part of world. The public apparently
has little to do with Brazilian music and
culture. Youths of a type
rarely seen in these shows during the
1980’s, when there was an intensive
introduction of Brazilian popular music
(MPB) in our market.
The first meeting of Japan with Brazilian
music took place in the long gone year of
1964, when Sergio Mendes and Nara
Leão toured around here, as part of a
fashion show sponsored by a private
company, a creating an opening for the
slow but steady process of infiltration of
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bossa nova among the Japanese.
The large scale dissemination began in
1979, with the beautiful presentation of
Elis Regina and Hermeto Pascoal that
shook the American jazz-loving public, as
part of the Live Under the Sky held in
Tokyo, the compact Japanese version of the
Montreux Jazz Festival. The following
decade was strongly marked by the MPB
batch that sent its spokesmen to show
their work, such as Gal Costa, Djavan,
Clara Nunes, João Bosco, Joyce, Gilberto
Gil, Milton Nascimento, Ivan Lins and
many others. The first and only
presentation of conductor Antonio Carlos
Jobim took place in 1986. The third and
last tour of Elizete Cardoso happened in
1987. At the end of the decade the batch
diversified to include pagode, choro and
traditional samba.
Photo: Image Bank
Foreign
Looks
One of the characteristics of this period of diffusion
of Brazilian music is that the interest of the general
public was raised marketwise in connection with some other
additional factor, preferably brought from the United States,
a more familiar reference for the public.
Thus, many Brazilian artists drew the initial attention
of the Japanese for having worked in collaboration with
European or North American musicians.
In fact this phenomenon had already been observed in the
1960’s in connection with bossa nova, introduced to
Japan by foresighted jazz musicians.
Along the years, the interest of the public swayed from
jazz to Brazilian music. Still under the inevitable label of
"world music" that precedes any specific name of a country,
region, race or culture, the search for new musical
horizons was always intense, resulting in a mass
of appreciators of typical Brazilian musical elements.
By the way, the basic interest in Brazilian music of the
Japanese never took another direction, which explains their
relative indifference regarding Brazilian rock of the 1980’s,
despite it’s intensity in it’s homeland.
In that period, the audience at shows of MPB
artists in the big cities of Japan was basically composed
of the same people. It was interesting to look
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at the audience and always find some spectators,
not in small numbers, whom I had already seen somewhere,
regardless of the capacity of the show venues. The seats
in the theaters were for the few resident Brazilians in Japan
and for a few more Japanese, lovers of Brazilian
music who tried to keep up with the scarce news from Brazil.
However, this discouraging situation for those
who wanted the music to spread out more broadly and
naturally underwent changes as from the last decade.
Today many Brazilian artists and musicians attract to their
presentations a mass of young people with the
looks of rockers, hip-hopper, rappers, clubbers who can’t
distinguish the music of these artists from the
music imported from the United States, Europe
or any another part of the world. And the
audience is often entirely Japanese at shows promoted
by Japanese agents. That is, there is a relative distancing
between the channels of promotion of shows,
those developed by the Japanese and the ones developed
by the dekasseguis, the Brazilians of Japanese descent
who started to arrive and settle in the country
at the time of the racket economy, from the second half
of the 1980’s to the early 1990’s, forming large communities.
There are several explanations for this change in
the type of audience at shows promoted by Japanese agents:
the move of Japanese artists and musicians toward
Brazilian musical elements such as in the case of rock singer and
composer Kazufumi Miyazawa; easier access
to Brazilian cultural information made possible by the
presence of Brazilian communities in the country;
and the maturity of the Japanese phonographic market. But the
main reason for the infiltration of Brazilian music is the
transformation of the music itself, which took on the "planetary"
face, in the sense of the statement made by singer and composer
Lenine.
The artists of the current state-of-the-art generation
of Brazilian music have the advantage of being "anthropophagic"
from birth. They absorb various elements, both from universal
music and Brazilian music,
and create their entirely original sounds very naturally.
Those who recognized the importance of the right to be like
that and struggled to defend it were the older artists,
mainly of the “tropicalist” movement who, in turn,
also benefited from the rich heritage of Brazilian music.
Many of them, active on the scene, continue
to exert direct influence on those to come. Thanks to the
cultural climate in Brazil, which has rid itself of the
excess weight of generation or age gaps, the result is an
extremely complex and rich food chain in which the agents
influence one another, or consume one another,
for the good each one has.
On the other hand, there is a geographic-economic
decentralization of the function of music
broadcasting in Brazil, contributing to the diversify
of this food chain. Places previously considered as culturally
marginal, such as Salvador and Recife, have become
broadcasters of musical information based on strong local
tradition. The music provided by these cities, without
going through the big national centers, Rio and São Paulo,
is fresher when it arrives at the table of listeners throughout
the world, avid for new dishes. This decentralizing
trend will continue to advance, with the expansion of local
and international high speed communication networks.
The third strengthening factor of this food chain
is the diversification of creation within music, as in the
cases of traditional samba and choro, which not only never die,
but seems to rejuvenate with the new generations of
appreciators and followers. The same can be said about the
bossa nova veterans who are resuming their careers
with new recordings.
All these phenomena or trends together provide the
environment for the cohabitation of the most
diversified sources of music in Brazil. That is, the menu
is full of dishes to satisfy any taste, both in the
Brazilian inland and abroad. Moreover, there is the spectacular
fact that each of these dishes is the specialty of a certain
master. The era is not being conducted by a movement,
as a few musicians from Rio de Janeiro, the city where the
multiplicity of sources seems to be clearer, claim.
The absence of a centralizing movement in the Brazilian
musical scene and the ensuing diversity and pluralism make us,
the Japanese listeners, aware of a fact that might be ordinary for
other people: that the social, racial or cultural
context is an element of individuals and not of groups of people.
This is surely what attracts young people
who were born and raised hearing universal rock or pop in the
Japanese society, which is more open to the world, where
focus is placed on individuality rather than unity, a traditionally
respected value. The musical universe from their point
of view, where Brazilian music is being inserted, is free from
movement or genre barriers. In it, there is only exposing
to and expansion of two human attributes, creativity
and spontaneity, that simply stir
people up with a work of infinite variety.
The pluralist face of current Brazilian music is no doubt
presented as an important and valuable reference,
not only for us Japanese but also for all of those who live
and love music on this planet, since it has enough strength
to seek balance in the unification of values, a trend that
is increasingly intensified for the sake of globalization.
It is a strength that cannot be employed by just any musical
culture, since it needs to be firm about its constituting values,
that is, tradition. Brazilian music has a lot of that.
Fortunately for it, and for us listeners.
Mana Kuniyasu – Born in Japan, she lived in São Paulo from 1975 to 1983,
due to her father’s work contract. She graduated in Social Sciences at the
University of São Paulo and currently works as a journalist, translator and
interpreter in Tokyo.
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