Download Judaism Teacher Notes

BASIC ELEMENTS OF JUDAISM
A: History and Identity: major elements for consideration
1. TENAK (Torah {Pentateuch}, Nevi’im {Prophets}, Ketuvim
{Writings}), Talmud (Mishnah and Gemara), Election and the
Land.
2. The historical development of Judaism within the biblical period:
Pre-exilic and Post exilic [The Babylonian Exile 587-537 BCE]:
the Torah, the Shabbat, the Synagogue, the teaching of separation
(Gen 1:1-2:4a – badal – to divide); Gen 18 – circumcision; Lev 11
– kashrut; Lev: priesthood and sacrifices, Feasts and fasts, the Law
of Holiness; Ezra-Nehemiah: Torah and non-intermarriage). The
proclamation of monotheism as opposed to monolatry (e.g. Ex
20:1-2; Is 45:7-13)
3. The Inter-Testamental period: divisions within Judaism and Jewish
practices – the Pharisees, Sadducees and scribes, the Essenes, the
Zealots etc. The witness of the New Testament (cf. Luke 4:16-22 –
the oldest account of a synagogue service). Qumran and its
collections.
4. The destruction of the Temple (70 CE), with the gradual
canonization of the Scriptures and the development of the
rabbinical authority.
5. The Mishnah (c. 200 CE) and Gemara (3rd-5th Century CE): the
Talmud (Babli and Yerushalmi); the Halakhah (Hb: halakh – to
walk) and the Haggadah (Hb: higgid – to relate); Masorah (Hb: to
hedge round).
6. The Kabbalah (12th Century CE). The witness of the texts of the
Cairo Geniza.
7. The Shulchan Aruch (1565 CE).
8. Ashkenazi and Sephardi. The development of the Hasidic
movements in the 18th and 19th centuries.
9. Categories of Ultra-Orthodox, Orthodox, Conservative, Reform and
Progressive. There are divisions also within these categories.
10. The Shoah and post-Shoah debates.
11. The creation of the State of Israel (1948) and the huge subsequent
developments.
B: Living Judaism today: major elements
1. The ‘branch’ of Judaism espoused colours the whole approach to
the whole of life. The amount of halakhah followed demonstrates
1
the branch to which one belongs (cf. Christianity where it is
dogma that divides).
2. Feasts and celebrations: The High Holy Days (Rosh ha Shanah,
Yom Kippur, Sukkoth, Simchat Torah) [Lev 23:23-36], Pesah [Ex
12:1-51, Shavuoth [Lev 23:15-22], Purim [Esther], Hannukah [I
Macc 4:52-61].
3. Synagogue/Shabbat liturgy.
The Catholic Church and Judaism
1. Nostra Aetate (1965). The fifteen short Latin sentences of section
4 contain six major affirmations:
(i)
The special bond that links the Church with the Jewish
people
(ii) The special position of the Jewish people after Christ
(iii) A joint looking forward to the last days
(iv) The encouragement of mutual understanding and respect
(v) The Jews are not collectively culpable for the death of
Christ
(vi) Anti-Semitism is condemned.
2. Guidelines and Suggestions for Implementing the Conciliar
Declaration Nostra Aetate 4 (1974). This is divided into four
sections: (i) Dialogue; (ii) Liturgy; (iii) Teaching and Education;
(iv) Joint Social Action.
3. Notes on the Correct Way to Present the Jews and Judaism in
Preaching and Catechesis in the Roman Catholic Church (1985).
This is the first Vatican document to acknowledge the issues
connected with typology and more systematically examine
promise-fulfilment categories. It is also the first Document to
mention explicitly the State of Israel. The Document is divided
into six sections: (i) Religious teaching on Judaism; (ii) Relations
between the Old and New Testaments; (iii) Jewish roots of
Christianity; (iv) The Jew in the New Testament; (v) The Liturgy;
(vi) Judaism and Christianity in History. “The singular character
and difficulty of Christian teaching about Jews and Judaism lies in
this, that it needs to balance a number of pairs of ideas which
express the two economies of the Old and New Testament:
Promise and fulfilment
Continuity and newness
Singularity and universality
Uniqueness and exemplary nature.
This means that the theologian and the catechist who deal with the
subject need to show in their practice of teaching that:
2
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Promise and fulfilment throw light upon each other
Newness lies in a metamorphosis of what was there before
The singularity of the people of the Old Testament is not exclusive
and is open, in the divine vision, to a universal extension
The uniqueness of the Jewish people is meant to have the force of
example.
We Remember (1998). This is specifically on The Shoah.
The Jewish People and their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian
Bible (2001). This has four major sections: (i) The Sacred
Scriptures of the Jewish People are a fundamental part of the
Christian Bible; (ii) Fundamental Themes in the Jewish Scriptures
and their Reception into Faith in Christ; (iii) The Jews and the
New Testament; (iv) Conclusions. There is an encouragement to
acknowledge and respect the Jewish hermeneutic of the Hebrew
Scriptures, to avoid all traces of substitution and supersessionism
and to explore the continuity, recognise the discontinuity and note
the progression rather than the rupture between the Testaments.
The role of St. John Paul II (1978-2005). He substantially and
consistently advanced the dialogue and the relationship: ‘The Old
Covenant never revoked’ (Mainz 17/11/1980); ‘Beloved elder
brothers’ (Roman Tempio Maggiore 13/4/1986); ‘Anti-Semitism
is sinful’ (Sydney 26/11/1986); the Fundamental Agreement
(30/12/1993); the Day of Pardon (12/3/2000); the Kotel
(26/5/2000).
Pope Benedict XVI continued the approach of John Paul II.
Pope Francis: ‘As Christians, we cannot consider Judaism as a
foreign religion…God continues to work among the people of the
Old Covenant and to bring forth treasures of wisdom which flow
from the encounter with his word. For this reason, the Church is
also enriched when she receives the values of Judaism.’ (EN 247249).
A Reflection on Theological Questions pertaining to CatholicJewish Relations (2015). “It is easy to understand that the socalled ‘mission to the Jews’ is a very delicate and sensitive matter
for the Jews…This question also proves to be awkward for
Christians. The Church is therefore obliged to view evangelization
to the Jews, who believe in the One God, in a different manner
from that to people of other religions and world views. In concrete
terms this means that the Catholic church neither conducts nor
supports any specific institutional mission work directed towards
Jews.” (par. 40).
3
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bemporad, J and Shevack, M. Our Age: The Historic New Era of
Christian-Jewish Understanding. New York: New York City Press, 1996.
Bloch, Abraham P. The Biblical and Historical Background of the Jewish
Holy Days. New York: Ktav Publishing Inc., 1978.
Boys, Mary and Lee, Sara Christians and Jews in Dialogue. Woodstock
(VT): SkyLight Paths Publishing, 2006.
Cohn-Sherbok, Dan The Crucified Jew. Twenty Centuries of Christian
Anti-Semitism. London: Harper Collins, 1992.
Fredericksen, Paula and Reinhartz (eds.), Jesus, Judaism and Christian
Anti-Judaism. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002.
Kessler, Edward; Pawlikowski, John; Banki, Judith (eds.), Jews and
Christians in Conversation. Cambridge: Orchard Academic, 2002.
Korn, E & Pawlikowski, John (eds.) Two Faiths, One Covenant? Jewish
and Christian Identity in the Presence of the Other. Lanham, Maryland:
Rowman & Littlefield, 2005.
Lux, Richard, The Jewish People, the Holy Land and the State of Israel.
A Catholic View. New York/Mahwah (NJ): Paulist Press, 2010.
Sacks, Jonathan Faith in the Future. London: Darton, Longman and
Todd, 1995.
Schama, Simon The Story of the Jews. Finding the Words 1000 BCE –
1492 CE London: The Bodley Head
Sweeney, Marvin A., Reading the Hebrew Bible after the Shoah.
Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2008.
4
GOD (G-D)
A: There is no ‘theology’ as we understand it in Orthodox Judaism. G-d
is not disputed: He exists, he is One, the Creator of everything, he is
incorporeal, neither male nor female, omnipresent, omnipotent,
omniscient, eternal, just and merciful, holy, perfect – as portrayed e.g. in
the First Creation account (Gen 1:1-2:4a). He is the One who gives his
Torah (Law, way of life) to Israel (especially in the Decalogue – Ex 20:120). He is the Judge of all and full of love. The Book of Deuteronomy
time and time again reminds the people of God’s love for them and the
way they are called to love others (Dt 7:7-16). The Prophets alternate
oracles of condemnation (e.g. Amos 1-2, Hosea 1-3; Isaiah 29) with
oracles of salvation (Amos 11; Hos 11; Is 11). The Psalms too are full of
expressions of God’s judgement but also his mercy and love to Israel and
indeed to all. The word hesed (God’s merciful love) occurs 151 times in
the Psalms.
Christians need to avoid stereotypical approaches that are Marcionite and
ultimately supersessionist – that the God of the Old Testament is one of
Law and judgement only and that the God of the New Testament is one of
love.
B: Within Judaism the divine Tetragrammaton (YHWH) is never
pronounced or written. G-d is written without the ‘o’ to show respect. The
normal way of talking about G-d is HaShem (the Name), HaQadosh (the
Holy One) and HaMaqqom (the Place) often followed by barukh hu
(blessed be He). Within prayer, HaShem is often addressed as Melek-haOlam (King of the Universe) or Avinu Malkeinu (Our Father and King),
Adonai (Lord).
C: 13 principles of Maimonedes (Rambam). These are recited by
Orthodox and some other Jews daily.
Belief in:
1. The existence of the Creator, who is perfect in every manner of
existence and is the primary cause of all that exists.
2. In God’s absolute and unparalleled unity.
3. In God’s non-corporeality, nor is he affected by any physical
occurrences such as movement, rest or dwelling.
4. He is eternal.
5. The imperative to worship God exclusively and no false gods.
6. God communicates to man through prophecy.
5
7. The primacy of the prophecy of Moses our teacher.
8. Divine origin of the Torah.
9. The immutability of the Torah.
10. God’s omniscience and providence.
11. Divine reward and retribution.
12. Arrival of the Messiah and Messianic era.
13. Resurrection from the dead.
The world was created for the sake of the Torah and human beings so that
they can fulfil its mitzvoth. Through these we can break through the
chasm between God and humanity.
Not all Jews – at the time of Maimonedes or now – hold to the 13
principles or have the same interpretation of them. Reform and
Progressive (Liberal) Jews can follow Higher Biblical Critical approaches
and do accept that the Torah was composed over centuries. They also
accept a development in Israel’s understanding of God – from a more
primitive (as e.g. in the Second Creation account - Gen 2:4a onwards)
notion that is similar in parts to ANE expressions of the deity (ies) to
more particular Israelite notions during and after the Exile. They can
accept, for example, that the doctrine of monotheism develops from
monolatry (e.g. Ex 20:1-2 and Is 45:1-13).
They also question the actual meaning of the coming of the Meshiach and
would tend to talk of a Messianic Age.
The Shema [Dt 6:4-6] (recited morning and night, on other occasions
and at the moment of death) proclaims both that there is One God and
that also He is One – a unity.
Shema Yisrael: Shema Yisrael Adonai elohenu Adonai ehad. Vaahavta
ethAdonai eloheka vkol levavka uvkolnephsheka uvekolmodeka. Va haya
hdevarim haeleh asher anoki mtsascha hayom al levaveka. Vshinamtam
lavaneka vidabartam bshivteka bveiteka uvlechtecha vaderech
uveshawchbcha uvkumecha. Ukshartam leot al yadecha, vhayu letotafot
bein einecha. Uchtavtam al mzuzot beiteka uvesharecha.
Hear O Israel the Lord our God, the Lord is One. And you must love the
Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your
strength. And these are the words which I order today for your heart. And
you shall repeat them to your children and say them to them at rest in
your house, when you are walking in the way, when you lie down and
when you rise. And you shall bind them on your hand as a sign and as a
6
circlet on your forehead. And you shall write them on your doorposts of
your house and on your gates.
This text is taken literally as the biblical injunction for mezuzahs (written
inside of which are the Hebrew texts of Dt 6:4-9 and Dt 11:13-21) and
phylacteries [tefillin] (with the texts of Dt 6:4-9, Dt 11:13-21 and Ex
13:1-16). Theses are worn for prayer along with the tallit with tzizit
(knots/threads) [cf. Num 15:38].
7
MITZVOTH
The mitzvoth all come from the Divine Will, given in their entirety
through Moses on Sinai. This is the Covenant. Orthodox Jews are
completely fundamentalists about this.
Rabbis divide the 613 commandments between bein adam la-makom
(between God and man) and bein adam lal-havero (between man and
man). The latter are just as binding as the former. 365 are negative and
248 are positive.
Mitzvoth between man and God include:
Positive:
Love God
Know God
Study Torah
Remember the Sabbath (4th commandment)
Negative:
Do not profane God’s name
Do not worship idols
Mitzvoth between man and man include:
Positive:
Tzedekah.. Justice and giving 10 per cent of salary to works of justice
Honour father and mother
Bikkur cholim – visiting the sick
Gemilut Hassidim – acts of loving kindness
Chessed – kindness to others
Pekuach Nefesh – to save a life
Negative:
Do not commit adultery
Do not envy
Do not steal
Do not kill
Do not deal harshly with widows and orphans
Do not hold back a hired man’s wages.
8
They are the bridge between God and man. Rambam: their rationale is for
the benefit and improvement of man. The mitzvoth are desgined to curb
the violence in human nature through incessant exercise of moral
discipline and to harness both the good and evil inclinations towards
service to man and God. Many verses in the Torah express this teleology
of the mitzvoth.
Rabbinic tradition accepts three kinds of mitzvoth: commandments,
statutes and ordinances ‘all designed for your good.’ Dt 4:1; 10:13
Underlying these is an ethical imperative, pronounced in Ex 34:6.
There is a gradation of sin indicated by the severity of the form of
punishment – death, whipping etc. Rabbinic tradition knows of 3 cardinal
sins which a Jew should be prepared to give up his life rather than
commit: murder, idol-worship, incest. For sins committed against one’s
fellowman, in contrast to those committed against God, the only
atonement is to earn forgiveness from the injured person.
3 objectives of mitzvoth
1. A blessing to man
2. Holiness
3. To understand the forbidden and the permitted
The mitzvoth are positive or negative: positive – to perform an act
(mitzvoth aseh); negative – to abstain (mitzvoth lo taaseh).
The noun mitzvah occurs 180 times in the Hebrew Bible (LXX – entole).
Can man be educated to act morally? Yes, through the mitzvoth. E.g.
Smoking is not good but ethical prescriptions of Kant etc. or of society
will not stop it. But the mitzvah not to light up on Shabbat will.
Ben Azzai: ‘Run to do even a slight precept…for one good deed draws
another good deed in its train…for the reward of a good deed is a good
deed and the wages of sin is sin (Pirqe Aboth).
List of the categories of the 613 mizvoth:
God
Torah
Signs and symbols
Prayers and blessings
Love and brotherhood
The poor and unfortunate
9
Treatment of gentiles
Marriage, divorce and family
Forbidden sexual relations
Times and seasons
Dietary laws
Business practices
Employees, servants and slaves
Vows, oaths and swearing,
Sabbatical and Jubilee years
Court and judicial procedures
Injuries and damages
Property and property rights
Criminal laws
Punishment and Restitution
Prophecy
Idolatry, Idolaters and idolatrous practices
Agriculture and animal husbandry
Clothing
The firstborn
Kohanim and Levites
T’rumah, tithes and taxes
The Temple, the Sanctuary and sacred objects
Sacrifices and Offerings
Ritual purity and impurity
Lepers and leprosy
The King
Nazarites
Wars
The number 613 is not without dispute. Early texts do not mention this
number. The number comes from the 3rd century CE when Rabbi Simlai
mentioned it (Talmud Makkot 23b). Rambam collected the number
together in the Mishneh Torah. Some of the mitzvoth only apply to the
land of Israel (Eretz Israel) and others do not apply – e.g. about the
Temple and criminal procedures. Biblical mitzvoth are referred to in the
Talmud as mitzvoth d’oraita as opposed to rabbinical mitzvoth
d’raabbbanan.
Some of the mitzvoth will be annulled in the Messianic era – but there is
a debate about which ones.
The word Torah has the numerical value of 611 + the first two of the 10
commandments = 613.
10
There are six constant mitzvoth applicable at all times:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To believe in God and that he created all things
Not to believe in anything else other than God
To believe in God’s oneness
To fear God
To love God
Not to pursue the passions of your heart and stray after your eyes.
11
MITZVOTH AND FREEWILL
Judaism does not have a concept of ‘The Fall’ (not a term used in Genesis
3 but in Romans 5) or Original Sin or therefore of Concupiscence. The
teaching from the sin of Adam and Eve is in the Yetzer ha tov (good
inclination) and the Yetzer ha ra’ (evil inclination). Both battle within us
and through the obedience to the mitzvoth the Jew opens up to the Yetzer
ha tov. Disobedience to the mitzvoth allows the flourishing of the Yetzer
ha ra. By doing a good deed tiqqun olam (the redemption of the universe)
can be forwarded and by doing a bad deed it can be lessened.
Article on freewill by Jonathan Sachs (on line under freewill)
Ultimately he says freewill requires discipline or else we become a
prisoner to our addictions etc. The first 5 of Pharaoh’s hardening of heart
(Ex 7:14-9:7) were his own – then God strengthened him to keep
freewill? Or God punished him in the second 5. We loose our freedom
gradually often without noticing it. That is what the Torah has been
implying almost from the beginning (cf. Gen 4:7). The maintenance of
freewill needs willpower. Instinctive reaction can take the place of
reflective decision.
The power of conformism is immense. Abram was told to leave his land,
birthplace and father’s house (Gen 12:1). These are the 3 factors - culture,
community and early childhood – that circumscribe our freedom.
Freedom in its deepest sense, the freedom to do the right and the good, is
not a given. We acquire it or loose it gradually. Judaism is an invitation to
freedom by resisting the idols and siren calls of the age.
12
SHEKINAH
The noun Shekinah is from the Hebrew shakan (LXX and NT skenoo) –
to settle, inhabit or dwell. It is often used of birds nesting. The actual
noun shekinah does not occur in the Hebrew Scriptures but the noun
mishkan = dwelling place does e.g. Ps 132:5. In classic Jewish thought
Shekinah refers to a dwelling or settling of the divine presence. It is held
by some to be the feminine attributes of the presence of God in the
Temple and tabernacle in Jerusalem and in acts of public prayer. It is
clearly part of the debate about balancing the complete separation of God
(transcendence) and his presence on earth (immanence) – although
Judaism does not use these terms.
The Mishnah uses Shekinah twice – about 2 or 10 men gathering together
and the shekinah being present. The Targum uses word – probably to
show God is omnipresent and not in one place. The Targum also uses
memra (word) and yekara (glory). The Prophets have special relationship
to presence of God in the Temple. In Hassidic Judaism – the Kabbalah –
the Shekinah has special significance.
The 17th century Amidah has ‘Blessed are you who returns his presence
(shekinato) to Zion.’
In the Zohar (first appeared in Spain in the 13th century), the Shekinah
plays an essential role in the birth of Moses.
There is no uniformity among the Rabbis in understanding the exact
meaning and attributes of the Shekinah. Maimonedes regarded the
Shekinah as a distinct entity, as a light created to be an intermediary
between God and the world. Nahmanides sees it as the essence of God as
manifested in a distinct form.
In more modern times Grofer saw the Shekinah (along with memra and
yekara) as an independent entities – and the origin of the logos idea;
Maybaum sees the Shekinah as an expression of the various relations of
God with the world and intended to represent: (i) the dwelling of God in
the midst of Israel; (ii) His omnipresence; (iii) His personal presence.
Consistency is not found in the Targumim nor in the Talmud or Midrash
since different people express different opinions.
In rabbinic tradition, the Shekinah was one of the five things lacking in
the Second Temple period. Shunning the gentiles it rested solely among
the Israelites and even there only when they numbered at least 2,002
myriads.
13
The Shekinah is present when 2 people are engaged with the Torah, when
10 pray, study the Law at night, reading the Shema, in benevolence,
chastity, hospitality, prayer, peace and faithfulness in married life. Sins
cause the Shekinah to depart. The Shekinah appears as light.
Many believe that the Shekinah continues to dwells on the Western Wall
in Jerusalem – as the only part of the Temple that was not destroyed by
Titus in 70 CE. There are signs proclaiming this near the Western Wall
plaza. This is also the mention of the Creation of the World, the Aqidah
(the binding of Isaac – Genesis 22), the purchase by David of the
threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite, the building of the First Temple
by Solomon and the Second Temple by Zerubbabel.
The polemical attitude which the concept of the Shekinah portrays
towards the NT – with its idea of logos (John) and the understanding of
Jesus as the presence of God - is unmistakable.
14
MESHIACH
The coming of the Meshiach is part of Rambam’s 13 principles of faith.
In the Shemoneh Esrei [the Amidah] (recited 3 times a day), Jews pray
for all the elements of the coming of the Meshiach:
The ingathering of exiles; restoration of the courts of justice; an end of
wickedness, sin and heresy; reward to the righteous; rebuilding of
Jerusalem; restoration of the line of King David; restoration of the
Temple service.
The Torah does not mention the Meshiach but contains references to the
end of days which is the time of the Meshiach. The Christian concept of
suffering and saviour, of an innocent, divine being has nothing to do with
the Jewish understanding.
The Meshiach will be a great political leader descended from David (Jer
23:5) – well-versed in Jewish law, observant of his commandments (Is
11:2-5). He will be a charismatic, military leader who will win battles for
Israel and a great judge who makes righteous decisions (Jer 33:15). But
he will be a human being.
When will he come?
There are different opinions but most suggest that the conduct of mankind
will determine it – the time most needed (because of sin) or most
deserved (because the world is so good). Each of the following has been
suggested as the time for the coming of the Meshiach:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
If Israel repented a single day
If Israel observed a Shabbat properly
If Israel observed two Shabbats in a row properly
In a generation that is totally innocent or totally guilty
In a generation that looses hope
In a generation where children are totally disrespectful towards
their parents and elders.
What will the Meshiach do?
Before his time there will be war and suffering (Ez 38:16) and then the
Meshiach will bring about the political and spiritual redemption of the
Jewish people by bringing them back to Israel and restoring Jerusalem (Is
11: 11-12; Jer 23:8; 30:3; Hos 3:4-5). He will establish a government in
Israel that will be the centre of all world government both for Jews and
15
gentiles (Is 2:2-4; 11:10; 42:1). He will rebuild the Temple and reestablish worship) [Jer 33:18] and restore the court system of Israel and
establish Jewish law as the law of the land (Jer 33:15).
The Messianic Age
This is the Olam hah-bah (term also used for the after-life).
Olam hah-bah is characterized by the peaceful co-existence of all people
(Is 2:4). Hatred, intolerance and war will cease. There are different
opinions about Is 11:6-9 and the return to paradise. All of the Jews will
come to Israel (Is 11:11-12; Jer 23:8; 30:3; Hos 3:4-5). The Jubilee law
will be reinstated.
In the Olam hah-bah the whole world will recognize God as the only true
one and the Jewish religion as the only true religion (Is 2:3; 11:10; Mic
4:2-3; Zech 14:9) No murder, robbery, competition or jealousy; no sin
(Zeph 3:13). Sacrifices will continue to be brought to the Temple but they
will be limited to thanksgiving offerings – there will be no need for
others.
Fundamentalist Christians support all aspects of the State of Israel
(including settlement activity) because they understand it as the prelude
to the ultimate conversion of Israel and the coming of the Messiah with
the Messianic Age. The position of the Catholic Church is that of
acknowledging the State of Israel (1993 Fundamental Agreement) as in
its pre 1967 borders – but this is nothing to do with Messianic
understandings.
16
MOSHE RABBEINU
Moshe is the greatest of all the Prophets, the one to whom God spoke in
the Burning Bush (Ex 3:1-6), face to face (Dt 34:10) and mouth to mouth
(Nm 12:8). His biblical story is found in the Books of Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers and Deuteronomy.
He was born 7 Adar 2368 (from creation) [1400 BCE], son of Amram
and Yocheved (Ex 6:16-20). Named Chaver or Avigdor but his Egyptian
name - Moshe (taken out) is the one by which he is known.
When he was 40 years old, he killed an Egyptian (Ex 2:11-13). But he is
chosen and called by God to lead the people out of the slavery of Egypt
(Ex 3:1 – 15:21. He is the intermediary in receiving the Covenant (Ex
19:3-25). But he is not allowed to go into the Promised Land because he
struck the rock rather than merely speak to it as the Lord had commanded
him (Num 20:11).
(A midrash says he was chosen because of his kindness to animals
because he ensured that a little lamb was brought to water to drink.)
Moshe died in 2488, living until he was 120.
Moshe is expanded hugely in the tradition. He received not merely the
Ten Words (ashere devarim, the Decalogue) [as in Ex 20:1-17 and Dt
5:6-21) but the entire Torah – written (Miqra) and oral (Mishnah) from
God on Mt Sinai. He wrote down the five books of the Torah. He foresaw
all the rest of the Prophets (Nevi’im) and Writings (Ketuvim)– in other
words the whole of the Tenak. The belief in Moshe as the greatest of the
Prophets is one of 13 principles of belief of Rambam. The phrase Moshe
rabbeinu is numerically is 613.
17
BERIT - COVENANT
In the Scriptures, the word covenant (Hb: berit) – solemn agreement - is
used on a human level, between human beings and are sealed with blood,
either of the human beings or of animals (Gen 15:7-11).
The word is also used for the relationship of God with his people. Some
covenants are unilateral (promissory) while others are bilateral
(obligatory). In the first, God bestows the Covenant without the need of
human response (e.g. Gen 15:18-21). In the latter, a response is
demanded from human beings (e.g. Ex 20:1-17).
The Covenant at Sinai is the primordial one. Orthodox Jews are
fundamentalist as far as the whole of the Tenak is concerned and in
particular about the Covenant of Sinai. Jonathan Sachs argues that one
cannot be really Jewish unless there is the belief that the whole Torah is
minhashshammayim – i.e. from God.
The Noahide covenant (Gen 9:1-17) and covenants with Abraham (Gen
15:17-21; 17:1-27) precede the Sinai Covenant (Ex 20:1 onwards). The
rabbinical tradition is that the Covenant with Noah is with all people –
not just Jews. Gentiles enter the Noahide Covenant when they respect
seven laws:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Do not deny God
Do not blaspheme God
Do not murder
Do not engage in incest, adultery, pederasty or bestiality
Do not steal
Do not eat a live animal
Establish courts or legal systems to uphold the law
The Covenant with Abraham is specifically with the Jews and involves
circumcision of males. The latter was renewed at Sinai before the giving
of the law when the people pledged to keep the Covenant (Ex 19:8). After
the giving of the law, Moses sprinkles blood to signify the mystical union
of Israel and God. Of this ‘everlasting’ Covenant the Sabbath is declared
the sign forever (Ex 31:13-17).
Jewish tradition recognises four times when the Sinai Covenant was
renewed: by Moses on the plains of Moab (Dt 29:1,9); by Joshua before
his death (Josh 24:25); by the High Priest Johoida (2 Kgs 9:19); by Josiah
18
(2 Kings 22:2-3). Jeremiah 31:31 is seen to be a renewal of the Sinai
Covenant.
Every sacrifice was a renewal of covenant with God (Ps 1:5). After the
Fall of the Temple, circumcision and the Sabbath were especially signs of
the Covenant during the post- Exilic and Maccabean period as they still
are today.
The Covenant remains central to the Orthodox and many Jews. It is
renewed every Shabbat, at the three pilgrimage feasts (Passover – Pesach,
Weeks – Shavuoth, Tabernacles – Sukkot), every morning at the putting
on of the tefillin and at circumcision (Berit milah)
In the early to mid 20th Century some biblical scholars argued that the
Decalogue and other law codes within the Scriptures were drawn from
surrounding Ancient Near Eastern models – especially Hittite and neoAssyrian treaties. These are between the over-Lord and his vassals and
include stipulations of what the vassals must do. But while some elements
of the format of Covenants of the Scriptures are similar, they are
completely different in the fundamental idea as they are based upon the
gratuitous love of God for his people (cf. Deuteronomy and Jeremiah –
the books that most use the word Covenant). From a biblical critical point
of view, the centrality of the idea of Covenant for Judaism developed
during the Exile and post-Exilic period. Many Reform and Liberal Jews
would hold this view.
Election
Along with the defining issue of the Covenant there is also the election of
people by God. Both of these stem from Israel’s origins, providing the
rationale for its existence and the form of government. The election of
Israel goes hand in hand with the Covenant.
In the 19th century some Reformed Jews thought the election of Israel was
too exclusive and talk about the mission of Israel to spread monotheism.
In the second quarter of the 20th century Mordecai Kaplan – founder of
Reconstructionism – suggested the abandonment of the chosen people
doctrine and the replacement by a ‘doctrine of vocation.
19
THE PROMISED LAND – ERETZ ISRAEL
The history of the Jewish people begins with Abraham who is told to go
to the land (Gen 12:1-4) which is then promised repeatedly to him and his
descendants – along with the promise of an innumerable posterity and of
God’s presence (e.g. Gen 15:1,5-6,18). The land of Israel is central to
Judaism and the Tenak is full of the haggadah of the loss and gaining of
the Land. Historically, the Northern Kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 721
BCE while the Southern Kingdom fell in 597 BCE. After that with the
Persian, Greek and Roman occupations, the Jews lost their real
independence although they stayed in the Land – other than the Diaspora
in Babylon and Egypt and other cities (as witnessed by the New
Testament). After 70 CE the majority was effectively expelled by the
Romans and this lead to a wider Diaspora or galut (exile). As time went
on, various distinctions grew between the Jews that ended up in Eastern
Europe (Ashkenazim) and those who lived in Muslim countries
(Sephardim). In many areas there were periodic persecutions and
pogroms. The Church was ambivalent over the centuries – joining in the
persecution but also attempting to separate and protect them in ghettos –
first in Venice and then in Rome and elsewhere. Christians saw the Jews
loosing the land and their perpetual wandering as a punishment for not
accepting Jesus as the Messiah.
Throughout the centuries, Jews always prayed to be restored to the Land
of Israel (as in the Shemoneh Esreh) – but this was often without any real
hope of this being done before the arrival of the Meshiach. Neverthless,
the Talmud discusses the Land and a substantial portion of the 613
commandments are tied to the Land.
With the Russian pogroms during the reign of Tsar Alexander II, small
groups of Jews started to return to the Land. This eventually led to the
late 19th century development of Zionism (that there should be a Land of
Israel populated by Jews) under Theodore Hertzl. The Balfour
Declaration of 1917 supported this. During the 1920s and 30s more Jews
began to settle – particularly around Galilee – and buy land from
Palestinians. But with the Shoah there was a ground-swell of support in
favour of the UN voting for a Jewish homeland in Israel. The British
Mandate ended and the State of Israel was declared in 1947.
Any Jew can claim Israeli citizenship. Some have declared it a mitzvah to
take possession of the land and to live in it (Num 33:53). Going to live in
Israel is called making aliyah – going up (cf. II Chronicles 36:23).
Leaving Israel is called yerida – going down.
20
There is a wide variety of opinions today amongst Jews about the politics
of the State of Israel. Of those who live in Israel and the occupied about
70% are secular Jews. Settlers (who might be orthodox) see is as their
right to expand to the biblical borders – from Dan to Beersheva and
beyond with all of Cis-Jordan. Others would favour a withdrawal to the
pre 1967 borders.
21
OLAM HA-BAH
Traditional Judaism firmly believes that death is not the end. But because
Judaism concentrates more on this life, there is not much dogma about
the afterlife and there are lots of opinions: heaven, re-incarnation,
awaiting the Messiah when resurrection occurs. There is no clear overall
teaching. The fundamental idea is that whatever happens after death is in
God’s hands and it is left to God to arrange.
However, from the Scriptures and the Talmud, more specific ideas of the
Olam ha-ba are taught. Early biblical texts use the expression of being
‘gathered to his people’ after death (e.g. Gen 25:8). The expression
‘Sheol’ is also used - a shadowy place to which all go (cf. Is 14:9).
Perhaps due to Persian influences after the Exile, richer ideas of the after
life begin to occur. These develop even further with the persecution of the
faithful and the flowering of the apocalyptic. A two fold idea of the after
life develops: resurrection (T’chiyat ha metim) for the just and eternal
punishment for the wicked, the persecutors (cf. Daniel 12:1-4). The
Pharisees (the Chassidim who grow out of the Maccabean persecution)
believed it and taught its basis from the Torah. Hellenistic Judaism
concentrated more on the immortality of the soul after death (cf. Wisdom
3:1-12). Belief in the resurrection is fundamental for orthodoxy and forms
part of Rambam’s principles. The second blessing of Shemoneh Esrei
prayer contains several references to resurrection. The Reform movement
has re-written this prayer. Resurrection and judgement (when body and
soul are united) will take place in Messianic age – Olam ha-ba. When the
Messiah comes, the righteous dead will be brought back to life. Some
mystical schools believe that resurrection is an on-going process with
forms of re-incarnation. Some Chassidic sects believe in this. They argue,
for example, that the whole of Israel agreed to the covenant at Sinai –
therefore all were there or unborn souls were present.
Judaism is, however, not focussed on how to get to heaven but on life and
how to live it. The Mitzvoth are followed because it is a privilege and
obligation – not to get to heaven or to escape hell. Not just Jews but
righteous of all nations (obeying the Noahide laws) have a share in the
olam ha-ba.
Olam ha-ba is often called Gan Eden (Garden of Eden) – a place of
spiritual perfection. Only very righteous go straight to Gan Eden. The
average person descends to Gehinnom but one spends only 12 months
there. As for the very wicked there are differing opinions: the soul is
destroyed or carries on in state of remorse.
22
SANCTITY OF LIFE
Orthodox Judaism holds to the sanctity of human life. This is to be
preserved at all costs because the individual person is made in the image
and likeness of God. The basic principles of this are found in the
Torah/Talmud/Halakhah.
‘Whoever destroys one life is as if he destroyed a whole world and
whoever preserves a life is as if he preserved the whole world.’
(Sanhedrin 4:5)
Abortion: Traditionally a foetus does not take on human characteristics
until the fortieth day after conception (therefore there is more leniency of
approach during this period) and is not characterized as a human being
until birth. It is regarded as part of the mother’s body and not as a full
human being. But a foetus is to be protected in its status as a potential
human being. For the Orthodox, abortion is allowed only when the
mother’s life is in serious danger (clear and substantial). It cannot be
performed in the last stages of pregnancy and each case must be
discussed by a competent rabbi. Abortions because of defects in the
foetus or for the mental health of the mother (except if she is likely to
commit suicide) are not allowed. Neither is abortion for ‘convenience’ or
social reasons. As well as the sanctity of life, Judaism forbids abortion for
the following reasons:
- it breaks God’s command to populate the world
- it destroys something made in God’s image
- it is destruction of part of God’s creation
- it destroys something that can become a being
- it is an unjustifiable act of wounding
- it is wrong to injure oneself
The basic arguments among rabbis concern the extent to which a foetus is
a human being or not.
There are no biblical texts that directly mention abortion.
IVF: there are three halakhic opinions:
1. IVF may be allowed but everything must come from the married
couple (sperm, eggs, serums, uterus etc.). The process must be
supervised by a third party – a trained Jewish person.
2. IVF may be permitted even if the components (semen and eggs)
are from donors from non-Jewish sources.
3. IVF is not permitted because of the Torah’s prohibition
23
about‘wasting a man’s seed’.
The command of the Lord to ‘be fruitful and multiply’ is one that some
rabbis argue is more important than concerns about IVF.
Euthanasia: Orthodox Jewish halakhah forbids active euthanasia and sees
it as murder.
‘The value of human life is infinite and beyond measure, so that any part
of life – even if only an hour or a second – is of precisely the same worth
as seventy years of it, just as any fraction of infinity, being indivisible,
remains infinite.’ Lord Jakobovits.
Human life is sacred:
- our lives are not to be disposed of as we feel like
- all life is of infinite value because all beings are made in the image
and likeness of God
- saving someone from pain is not a reason to kill them
Life is to be preserved at all costs, even in extreme pain. Doctors are not
allowed to do anything that might shorten life.
But for passive euthanasia, however, if the person is dying (‘if there is
something preventing the soul from departing’) doctors are not required
to extend that dying e.g. a ventilator can be switched off if the person is
being kept alive by it.
There is a debate about whether food and liquid are ordinary or
extraordinary means of keeping someone alive if they are dying or in a
PVS.
Suicide: This is not allowed under any circumstances. Life is always
sacred and suicide, like euthanasia, breaks the commandment ‘Thou shalt
not kill’.
24
PEKKUAH NEFESH
‘Rescuing a life’ takes precedence over all other commandments in
Judaism. The Talmud cites Leviticus 18:5:
‘You shall therefore keep my statutes…which if a man do he shall live by
them.’ The Talmud adds: ‘and not that he shall die by them.’
When life is involved all Sabbath laws may be suspended – pikkuah
nefesh doheh Shabbat. Indeed, one is not permitted only but required to
disregard a law that conflicts with life and health. (cf. The Maccabees
fighting on Shabbat – I Maccabees 2:25-27).
‘It is a religious precept to desecrate the Sabbath for any person afflicted
with an illness that may prove dangerous; he who is zealous is
praiseworthy while he who asks questions sheds blood.’ (Shulchan Arukh
Orah Hayyim 382:2).
This principle is also true for fasting. If not eating or drinking is
dangerous (e.g. diabetes), then pekkuah nefesh applies.
Pekkuah nefesh has to relate to a specific identifiable human being (in
other words not to a general group or a whole community). There must be
a substantial and clear danger to life.
Specifically there are 3 exceptions to pikkuah nefesh:
1. Idolatry – some rabbis include the defamation of the name of
Hashem.
2. Murder - this does not include self-defence.
3. Incest and adultery.
25
SYNAGOGUE AND SYNAGOGUE SERVICES
Name and origin: Synagogue is a Greek word (sun-ago = to gather
together). It is used in the LXX to translate the Hebrew ‘edah
(community gathered together). The Hebrew qahal (called together) is
translated in the LXX by ekklesia {the basis of the word for Church}.
The gathering of the synagogue with the reading of the Torah on Shabbat
probably began during the Babylonian Exile in order to try to keep the
Jews together in a highly pagan environment. Nehemiah 8:1-18
witnesses to this immediately after the Exile. As with the first churches,
the first synagogues were not buildings but gatherings of the people. The
earliest buildings of synagogues are from the first century BCE/first
century CE. Synagogues existed alongside Temple worship as witnessed
in the New Testament.
The Hebrew term is Bet Kenesset (house of gathering). The Orthodox and
Chassidic Jews use the term Shul (Yiddish). This emphasises the role of
the building as a place of study – particularly of the Torah.
Conservative Jews use the term synagogue but the Reformed Jews
(especially in the USA) use the term Temple. This is because they regard
the synagogue as equivalent to the Temple in Jerusalem. This is offensive
to the Orthodox.
The Plaza in front of the Kotel (Western Wall) in Jerusalem classes as a
Synagogue – the largest in the Land of Israel.
Function: A synagogue is firstly a bet tefillah – a house of prayer. Jews
can pray anywhere but certain services need 10 men (minyan) and this
normally takes place in the building of the synagogue.
A Synagogue is also a Bet Midrash (house of study): This is where
children learn Hebrew and basic Jewish studies but also where adults
study Torah/Talmud and other texts. This means it houses lots of texts.
When texts are old and no longer useable, because they contain the name
of God, they are not burned or destroyed but kept in a store attached to
the Synagogue – the Geniza. Some of these – especially the one in Cairo
– revealed (in the 19th century) very ancient texts.
Many synagogues have a social hall and a social welfare structure for the
poor and needy.
26
Synagogues are run by a board of directors and this hires a rabbi and
chazzan (cantor). These are not absolutely necessary. Services can be run
by lay people.
Layout: Synagogues often face Jerusalem which is the direction for
certain prayers. The most important item in the Synagogue is the Aron
Kodesh (the Holy Cabinet) which holds the Torah scrolls. This is in the
sanctuary area, often a recess in the wall. Inside the Aron is a curtain –
the parokhet – like the Temple in Jerusalem. In front of the Aron is the
ner tamid – the eternal light (cf. Ex 27:20-21). There is often also a
menorah with six or eight branches – instead of the Temple’s seven.
In the centre of the floor space there is a raised platform called the Bimah
where the Torah scrolls are placed when they are read. Ashkenazis lay the
scrolls flat on the table whereas Sephardis stand them upright. Sometimes
the whole service is led from the bimah and there is often a lower lectern
– the Amud.
In an orthodox synagogue there is a separate section for women. This is
often behind a screen and/or upstairs. There is a separate section for
women at the Kotel.
In the synagogue, men always wear hats or yarmulkas and Orthodox
married women wear hats over their wigs. Men also wear the Tallit –
prayer shawl with its tzitzit– fringes for morning prayer cf. Num 15:3840. These are kissed when the mitzvoth are mentioned and the tallit is
used to touch the Torah scrolls as they pass in procession.
Synagogue services: There must be a minyan (at least 10 men) for the
service to take place. On Shabbat, Festivals and Fasts there are three
services. Most synagogues also have services on Mondays and
Thursdays.
Daily prayers are in a book called the Siddur (Order). The order of the
Service is:’
- Prayer of praise of the attributes of God
- Blessings of God beginning ‘Barukh atah Adonai Elohenu Melek
Ha Olam’ – Blessed are you Lord our God King of the Universe.
- Various Psalms
27
- The Shema Yisrael (Hear O Israel…Dt 6:4-6)
- The Amidah – recited standing and silently. This is the prayer
known as the Shemoneh Esre (Eighteen) now nineteen – blessings.
After each has recited silently they are repeated aloud by the
Leader, ending with Isaiah 6:3.
- The Reading of the Torah siddur. The scrolls are taken from the
Aron and processed around the Synagogue to the Bimah. Ten men
(with women in the conservative/progressive synagogues) read
from the Torah portion. The whole Torah is read through annually
in continuous sequential passages Shabbat after Shabbat ending at
the Feast of Simhat Torah when the last section of Deuteronomy is
read and Genesis is started again. A yad (Hb: hand) – a pointer – is
used to follow the Hebrew text.
- The reading of the Haftorah – another part of the Tenak –
normally from the Nevi’im, illustrating the Torah siddur.
- The Sermon
- The Musaf – additional service for Shabbat and Festivals. This
repeats the Amidah with the extra section for the Feast in question.
This is followed by the Kaddish prayer recited by mourners and
prayers recalling rituals in the Temple.
- The blessing of the Kohanim (priests) – daily in Sephardi
synagogues and in Ashkenazi synagogues on Feasts and Fasts not
on Shabbat. The text is Num 6:23-26
- The Kiddush: Shabbat blessing over wine in the Synagogue Hall.
28
THE TALMUD
The Talmud (from lmd – to teach) consists of the written version (Miqra)
of the oral law (Mishnah) and the rabbinical commentaries on it. The
Mishnah was composed in the 2nd century CE and the commentaries (the
Gemara) from the 2nd – 5th centuries CE. There are two versions of the
Talmud – the Yerushalmi and the Babli – compiled in Jerusalem and
Babylon respectively. The latter has greater authority. Talmud is also
known as Shas – an abbreviation of shishah sedarim (6 orders of the
Mishnah: Zea’im [Seeds], Mo’ed [Festivals], Nashim [Women], Nezekin
[Damages], Kodashim [Holy Things] and Toharot [Purities]). The
sedarim are divided into Masekhtot (Tractates). Judah Ha Nasi (from
Tiberius and later Sepphoris) [135-219 CE] is the most influential rabbi
in the formation of the Mishnah. The most important later commentaries
on Talmud are by the 11th century Rabbi Shelomo Yitzchaki (Rashi) from
Troyes and the 12th century Rabbi Moses Maimonedes (Rambam) from
Cordova. Rambam also composed the Mishneh Torah. Joseph Caro in
the 16th century wrote the Shulchan Arukh which codifies the Talmud
and is widely used today.
Many Orthodox study a page of the Talmud each day (Daf Yomi), a
practice urged by Rabbi Shapiro in 1923. Reading a page a day takes
about seven and a half years. The Yeshiva (religious school) is where
children study Tenak and Talmud. The first book of Tenak studied by the
Orthodox is Leviticus. Hasidic men spend much of their days studying
and discussing the Talmud. Reformed Jews tend to reject the authority of
the Talmud and see its importance to be in understanding the historical
development of Judaism.
Most importantly the Talmud gives the fullness of the Halakhah which
spells out the commands of the Tenak. Jews are divided by how much
they live out in daily life and in the home the rules of Halakhah. For the
Orthodox, it dominates everything – daily prayer life, practices on
Shabbat, Feasts and Fasts, ethical laws, marriage laws, purity laws,
clothes, food and washing. It is a whole and complete culture which
maintains a division between Jews and Gentiles.
29
TEFILAH (PRAYER)
The word Tefilah (from pll - to judge oneself) gives a central purpose of
Jewish prayer – whether praise, thanksgiving, petition or confession –
which is to spend time looking at oneself and understanding our role in
relationship to God, the world and others. Observant Jews pray as often
as possible and prayers can be found in The Jewish Prayer Book.
The mind set for prayer is called Kavanah (concentration or intent). The
minimum level for this is an awareness of talking with God and the
intention to fulfil the obligation to pray. Most Jews move their lips and
recite prayers semi-audibly. Many Jews use liturgical chants in prayer
and also sway moving the body (cf. Ps 35 - All my limbs shall declare,
‘O Lord, who is like you?’ The language of prayer for the Orthodox is
always Hebrew.
In Judaism prayer is largely communal rather than individual so every
Jew should try to pray with a group.
Berakhot (Hb: brk – knee) - Blessings are common prayers in Judaism,
all beginning with the word barukh (Blessed). According to Jewish
tradition one should recite 100 berakhot each day. Reciting the
Shemoneh Esreh three times a day – as all observant Jews do – gives 57
of these. There are three types of berakhot – before enjoying a material
pleasure (birkhot ha-na’ah), before performing a mitzvah (birkhot hamitzvoth) and ones recited at special times (birkhot hoda’ah). All praise
God the source of all blessings.
Birkat Ha-Mazon: Grace after meals (bentsching in Yiddish). This is an
important berakhah (cf. Dt 8:10) and consists of four blessings:
- Birkat Hazan – blessing for providing food
- Birkat Ha Aretz – blessing for the land
- Birkat Yerushalayim – blessing for Jerusalem – which includes
rebuilding the city and the coming of meshiah
- Birkat Ha-Tov v’Ha Maytiv – the blessing for doing good and for
being good.
In addition the Birkat Ha-Mazon includes some Psalms and extra prayers
on certain days.
30
SHABBAT
Shabbat is treated as a ‘Queen’ with special ceremonies to mark her
arrival and departure. Shabbat dress (not used during the rest of the week)
is worn. For Chassidic men this includes the big Shabbat fur hat
(shtreimel) and a silk coat.
On Friday evening in the home the Shabbat table should be set with at
least two candles (symbolizing the remembering and the observing of the
Shabbat), a glass of wine and at least two loaves of challah (symbolizing
the dual portion of manna) covered with a cloth. The candles are lit by the
mother or a woman of the house no later than 18 minutes before the
beginning of Shabbat. She then waves her hands over the candles, covers
her eyes to recite the blessing then looks at the candles.
The Evening Service (Kabbalat Shabbat and Ma’ariv) is then attended in
the synagogue or performed at home before dinner. The Kiddush over a
glass of wine then follows. Hands are washed and the challah is broken
and distributed (Ha-Motzi) with the appropriate blessings. The meal then
begins.
Shabbat is a day spent at home with the family, going to Synagogue (by
walking if Orthodox), studying, talking with the family about the Shabbat
and its mitzvoth, the Creation and the Exodus and not engaging with
other work at all. In the Synagogue the morning Service - Shacharit
followed by the additional Service of Musaf lasts three to four hours. The
afternoon Service is the Minchah and this is followed by the Ma’ariv.
Havdalah (separation) ends Shabbat. This is celebrated in the home after
Ma’ariv. It consists of four blessings:




The blessing of the wine – this is not drunk until the end
The blessing over spices – which all smell to revive the soul
The blessing over fire – a multi-wick havdalah candle
The blessing over distinctions - between the holy and secular, light
and dark, Israel and other nations, Shabbat and other days.
The havdalah candles may be extinguished with the wine.
31
BIRTH RITES AND BAR/BAT MITZVAHS
At birth: After the birth, the mother is considered niddah and must be
sexually separated from her husband for 7 days after the birth of a male
and 14 days after a girl (Lev 12:2). The father can read the Torah passage
(aliyah) at the next opportunity after the birth. The girl is named at that
time.
Brit Milah (Covenant of Circumcision): This is kept by the majority of
Jews, even the non-observant (Gen 17:10-14; Lev 12:3). Traditionally if a
man is not circumcised he suffers the penalty of kareit – spiritual
exclusion from the Olam Ha-Ba. Circumcision is on the eighth day after
birth and performed by a mohel while the child is held by a sandek (often
a grandparent or rabbi). If a child has been circumcised beforehand for
any reason, a pinprick of blood is taken. The child is named at the
ceremony. There is normally an ornate chair for Elijah who ‘presides’
over all circumcisions.
Pidyon ha-ben (Redemption of the First Born son): This happens at 31
days of age (Nm 18:15-16). Some money is given to a Kohen (priest).
The ceremony is not performed if there is a girl born before the first born
boy or after a Caesarean.
Bar Mitzvahs (Son of the Law) and Bat Mitzvahs (Daughter of the Law):
Boys at the age of 13 and girls at the age of 12 are obliged to obey the
mitzvoth. A bar mitzvah is the public sign of this and means that the child
can take part if synagogue services, be part of a minyan, to form binding
contracts, to testify before religious courts and to marry. There is no
Talmudic mitzvah about a ceremony and they have been around for only
about 100 years. Normally today the child is called up (aliyah) to say a
blessing before the Torah reading, to read either the Torah or the
Haftorah and to lead certain prayers. Sometimes the child makes a speech
and so does the father. In Chassidic and Orthodox Judaism there are no
bat mitzvahs.
32
MARRIAGE
The Mishnah (Kiddushin 1:1) explains that a wife is acquired in three
ways - through money, through contract and through sexual intercourse.
The first is usually the ring and the second through the giving of the
ketubah – the contract. This consists of obligations of the man towards
his wife, inheritance when he dies, support of children and of the wife in
case of divorce (get) – which is allowed in Judaism. The man has to
initiate the divorce procedures.
Marriage occurs in two distinct stages. Kiddushin (from qds – holy) –
betrothal is when the woman accepts the money and the contract. The
marriage is binding but the couple do not live together for another year or
so. Nisuin (elevation) completes the marriage when the man brings his
wife home. Today the two ceremonies are normally celebrated together.
Before the wedding the bride and groom do not see each other for a week.
Ashkenazi men read in the synagogue on the Shabbat of that week and
there are exuberant celebrations. Traditionally the day before the
marriage the bride and groom fast. The bride is veiled (cf. Rebecca at
Gen 24:65). For the kiddushin the bride approaches and encircles the
groom. Two blessings are recited over wine – one the normal one for
wine and the other specifically for marriage mitzvoth. The man places the
ring on the woman’s finger and says: ‘Be sanctified to me with this ring
in accordance with the law of Moses and of Israel.’ The ketubah is then
read aloud. For the nuisin the couple stand under the chuppah – a symbol
of the home. They recite the seven blessings in the presence of a minyan.
The couple then drink the wine and smashes a glass with his right foot – a
symbol of the destruction of the Temple.
Not marrying in Judaism is considered unnatural. Marriage is firstly
understood as for companionship (Gen 2:18) rather than procreation.
There is a whole range of prohibited relations in Judaism (cf. Lev 17 and
the Talmud).
33
DEATH AND MOURNING RITES
Death and mourning rites have two purposes – to show respect for the
dead (kavod ha-met) and to comfort the living (nihum avelim).
Death:
After death, the eyes are closed, the body is laid on the floor and candles
are lit. The chevra kaddisha (volunteers for this purpose) wash the body
and wrap it in a simple linen shroud. The body is not left alone until after
the funeral and is watched by shomerim (keepers) who cannot eat, drink
or perform a mitzvah in the presence of the body.
The presence of the dead is a source of ritual impurity, therefore kohanim
cannot be present. Autopsies are discouraged but allowed when
necessary. Burial of the body is always required.
After the death, close relatives tear their garments (keriyah) and recite a
blessing. The family are exempt from positive mitzvoth until after the
burial which should take place before the next sundown after death. A
relative then prepares a meal of eggs and bread.
Mourning:
Shiva (seven) lasts for 7 days when the family sit on low stools and avoid
pleasure. There is no working, cutting hair, shaving or pleasurable
activities during this time.
Shloshim (thirty) lasts for thirty days and no pleasure is allowed.
Avelut is only for a parent and lasts for a year. Sons must recite the
mourners’ kaddish every day for eleven months.
The Yahrzeit is the annual anniversary of the death.
Jewish law requires a tombstone so that the deceased will not be forgotten
or the grave desecrated.
34
FEASTS AND FASTS
The High Holy Days (Lev 23:23-44).
Rosh ha-Shanah (New Year’s Day – Lev 23:23-25): this is heralded by
the blowing of the Shofar as a call to repentance. It also is a day of joy
when many go to synagogue. It is followed by ten days of self-reflection
to repent of sins. Tashlich occurs the day after Rosh ha-Shanah. This is
when dust from clothes and pockets is shaken off into water.
Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement - Lev 23:26; cf. Lev 16): ten days after
Rosh ha-Shanah is Yom Kippur, the most solemn day in the Jewish
calendar. This is a 25 hour fast and many spend the whole time in the
synagogue in self-examination. There are five services on this day – Kol
Nidrei (All my vows) on the eve, Shacharit (morning prayer), Musaf
(additional service), Minchah (afternoon service) and Neilah (closing
service). The shofar is blown at the end of the day.
Sukkot (Tabernacles – Lev 23:34): five days after Yom Kippur there is
the beginning of the eight day celebration of Sukkot. During this time
Jews live in a sukkah (booth) to celebrate the wandering in the wilderness
and the citrus/grape harvest. The booths are decorated with fruits and
open to the sky (where possible). The four species are held and waved –
palm, myrtle, willow and etrog. The first three are known as the lulav.
This is the ultimate eschatological feast of Judaism (cf. Is 4:6) and the
Book of Qoheleth is read.
Hoshana Rabbah - the seventh and last day of Sukkot.
Shemeni Atzeret: the eighth day bringing the seven day festival of Sukkot
to an end. There are prayers for rain on this day.
Simchat Torah (Rejoicing of the Law): in the synagogue the last verses
of Deuteronomy are read and then immediately the beginning of Genesis.
This marks the end of the annual cycle of the Torah sedarim and the
beginning of the new one. The scrolls are carried in procession with
rejoicing around the synagogue and outside in Israel and Jewish areas of
cities.
The three Pilgrim festivals (Ex 23:14): The last of these is Sukkot. The
others are:
35
Pesach (Passover): This commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. On the
first night of Passover the family gather and celebrate the Seder reading
from the Haggadah. The ritual foods (boiled egg, bitter herbs, spring
greens, charoset, shank bone) are eaten with Matzah – unleavened bread.
A large glass is set for Elijah and towards the end of the Seder the door is
opened as Elijah’s return is proclaimed. There is the ritual drinking of
five cups of wine, one after the meal which is eaten during a break in the
Seder. The Son of Songs is read.
Shavuot (Pentecost): This is celebrated fifty days or (seven weeks) after
Pesach and commemorates the giving of the Torah from Sinai. This
originally also celebrated the barley harvest and the Synagogue is
decorated with flowers and plants – following the legend that Sinai
bloomed when the Torah was given. The Book of Ruth is read in the
Synagogue and the Orthodox stay there all night studying the Torah.
Other Feasts
Chanuka (Dedication): This commemorates the re-dedication of the
Temple in 164 BCE (1 Macc 4:52-59). It begins on the 14th Kislev and
continues for eight days. The central element is the lighting of the
chanukiah and the eating of oily food.
Purim: This celebrates the triumph of Queen Esther over Haman as told
in the Book of Esther and the saving of the Jews from the first known
pogrom. It is customary to wear fancy dress and to celebrate with
abandon, like carnival.
Fasts: In addition to Yom Kippur, the Talmud (Tractate Rosh Ha Shanah
18b) discusses four fast days (cf. Zech 8:19) connected with the
destruction of the First and Second Temple with two more discussed in
later rabbinical literature. These are:
Ta’anit Bechorim (Fast of the First Born): observed only by first born
males observed the day before Pesah.
Tzom Tammuz (Fast of the 17th Tammuz): commemorates the breaking
down of the wall of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the cessation of
Temple worship during the siege of Titus.
Tishah B’Av (Fast of the 9th Ab): this commemorates the fall of Jerusalem
and the destruction of the First Temple and is the most important fast
36
after Yom Kippur. On the eve of the fast it is customary to eat a boiled
egg sprinkled with ashes.
Tzom Gedaliah (Fast of 3rd Tishri): This occurs after Rosh Ha-Shanah
and commemorates the murder of the Judean governor Gedaliah.
Asarah B’Tevet (Fast of the 10th Tevet): again this commemorates the fall
of Jerusalem.
Ta’anit Esther (Fast of Esther): this occurs on the day before Purim on
13th Adar.
Additional Fast days are:
Ta’anit Tzaddikim:
The Fast of Miriam – 10th Nisan
The Fast of Aaron – 1st Av
The Fast of Moses – 7th Adar
The Fast of Joshua – 26th Nisan
The Fast of Samuel – 28th Iyyar
Ta’anit Tzibur: these are fasts of a particular community in memory of a
special deliverance or in memory of a particular leader.
Ta’anit Yachid: personal fasts performed in private for a particular
request or need.
37
CHASIDIC,
ORTHODOX,
CONSERVATIVE,
LIBERAL, PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM
REFORM,
Movements (the Jewish name for different groups) are witnessed in the
Scriptures – the Chasidim [Maccabees], the Pharisees, Sadducees,
Essenes, Zealots [the New Testament]
For many centuries from the Fall of the Temple in 70 AD there were no
main differences in Judaism. But during the 9th century, groups developed
called the Karaites who denied the Oral Torah, accepting only the written
Torah.
Modern and Contemporary Movements
Chasidism: was founded in the 18th century by Israel ben Eliezer, known
as the Baal Shem Tov. This revitalized Judaism in Eastern Europe and
stressed the personal and mystical elements. Today there are several
Chasidic movements and all have in common that they are led by a Rebbe
– a leader who is considered an enlightened one. The largest movement
today is the Lubavitcher. The chasidim are orthodox in their life-style. In
Jerusalem and in New York, for example, they tend to live in ghettos. The
most famous in Jerusalem is Mea Shearim (100 Gates). They dress
mainly in 18th-19th Eastern European Jewish clothes.
Orthodox: these are very traditional Jews who follow the halakhah in its
entirety but live and work more openly in wider society. They believe
that the whole Torah – written and oral is minhasshammayim. 10% of
American Jews regard themselves as Orthodox. There is segregation in
Orthodox synagogues and only male rabbis. Most men wear black and
grow the forelock.
Reform: This movement does not believe that the Torah was written by
God and they accept biblical criticism. They are much less orthodox in
their living out of the halakhah. Some Reform synagogues meet on
Sunday rather than Saturday, have musical instruments in synagogue and
worship and pray in English as well as Hebrew. They have women rabbis
(as well as LGBT) as well as men. They believe that Judaism must adapt
and are very concerned with justice and peace. They accept patrilinear
descent for classing a child as Jewish and do not demand circumcision
when dealing with converts. They tend to believe in a messianic era for
the future rather than a personal Messiah. 35% of American Jews class
themselves as Reform with 900 synagogues. In the UK Reform Judaism
is less radical than in the USA and has about 40 autonomous synagogues.
38
Rabbis are trained at the Leo Baeck College in London along with the
Liberals.
Conservative: this grew out of the tension between the Orthodox and
Reform and was formally recognised in 1913 in the USA. They hold the
Torah to be written by God but also to contain human elements. They
believe that the halakhah should change and adapt. There is a flexibility
in Conservative Judaism. Men and women sit together in synagogue and
some allow women rabbis but the Shabbat services are fundamentally the
same as the Orthodox. 26% of American Jews class themselves as
Conservative.
Liberal (Progressive): Liberal Judaism was founded in England by Lily
Montagu and Claude Montefiore in 1902 to try to stem the drift away
from Judaism. In beliefs and practice, liberal Judaism in UK is more
radical than UK Reform Judaism. There are about 30 autonomous
synagogues in the UK. They believe in Jewish tradition as in the written
and oral Torah but adapt it e.g. they do not keep kashrut as a norm.
However, they do keep circumcision and other rites. In synagogue there
are women rabbis, women can read from the Torah and the prayer book –
the Siddur Lev Chadash - uses inclusive language. They hold a ceremony
of Kabbalat Torah at the age of 15/16 as well as Bar and Bat Mitzvah at
12/13. They accept a form of marriage for LGs but will not conduct
mixed marriages. They allow cremation.
Reconstructionist: this is a relatively small group founded by Rabbi
Mordecai Kaplan (1881-1983). It is a liberal movement that weds
Judaism with contemporary ideas.
The vast majority of Jews support the State of Israel (which for many is a
‘touchstone’ of being Jewish) - but liberal and many secular Jews tend to
support peace movements between Arabs and Jews in the Land.
39