Download 2.3 Battle of Marathon Workbook and Internal Instructions

AS91202 (Int.)
4 Credits (Int.)
Name:
Teacher Code: GTV | KRP | MCG
LEVEL 2
CLASSICAL STUDIES
2.3 Demonstrate understanding of a significant event in the Classical
World.
THE BATTLE OF
MARATHON
“Let Battle Commence”
In this unit we prepare for the 2.3 Classical Studies internal assessment. We will
learn the necessary skills through studying the Persian Wars and analysing
primary source accounts of the Battle of Marathon 490BC.
This internal is worth 4 UE Reading Credits and NCEA Literacy Credits.
Table of Contents
Timeline: Greek History – Dates Relevant to the Persian Wars
Background to the Persian Wars
Archaic Greece
A Brief Introduction
1
2
2
2
The Persian Empire
Documentary: The Persian Empire
Darius I
The Ionian Revolt
What happened after the First Persian War - Xerxes I
3
4
5
6
7
Military Life for a Greek
9
Prezi
The Battle of Marathon 490 BC
Battle of Thermopylae 480 BC
Battle of Artemisium 480 BC
The Decisive Greek Victories 480-479 BC
10
12
12
12
Herodotus on the Persian Wars and the Battle of Marathon
Book 6 ERATO
Herodotus Notes
13
14
21
Other Primary Source Accounts of the Battle of Marathon
Aristophanes (Wasps, Acharnians, Thesmophoriazusae, The Knights)
Limitations of Aristophanes
Aeschylus (Persians, Epitaph)
Thucydides (Histories)
Simonides of Ceos
Archaeological Evidence (Artefacts and Artwork)
23
23
25
26
27
27
28
Internal Assessment Instructions
Marking Schedule
Authenticity Certificate
33
43
44
Introduction
The purpose of this unit is to prepare you for this Classical Studies internal. The internal is
Achievement Standard 91202 – demonstrate understanding of a significant event of the
classical world. We will be examining the significance of the Battle of Marathon using
provided ancient Greek primary sources such as Herodotus, Aristophanes, Aeschylus and
Thucydides plus relevant archaeological evidence to examine the battle’s importance to
Athenian and Greek society.
We will start the internal in class in Week 7 of Term 1 when we study the overview of the
Persian Wars with a focus on the Battle of Marathon. The internal is due Monday 3rd April
Resources
Most of the resources that you will need for this unit and for your internal are provided in
this booklet. They are a mixture of primary and secondary sources. If you intend on taking
Classical Studies in Year 13, this unit and course book will also be very useful for you.
Timeline: Greek History – Dates relevant to the Persian Wars
You will want to add to this timeline throughout the unit.
480-479BC
The Second Persian
Invasion of Greece.
522 – 485 BC
Reign of King
Darius I. Height
of Persian
Empire
550 BC King
Cyrus II founds
Achaemenid
Dynasty.
480 BC
The Battle of
Thermopylae and
Naval Battle of Salamis
429 BC
The Death of Pericles
499 – 493 BC
The Ionian Revolt
THE GOLDEN AGE OF GREECE (500 – 300 BC)
Archaic Greece (800 BC to 480 BC)
550
BC
540
BC
530
BC
520
BC
510
BC
500
BC
490
BC
492 BC
The First Persian
Invasion of
Greece.
490 BC
Athens victory at
Battle of Marathon
Classical Greece (480 BC to 280 BC)
480
BC
470
BC
479 BC
The Battles of Mycale
and Plataea to defeat
Persians
486-465 BC
The Reign of
Xerxes I
460
BC
450
BC
440
BC
430
BC
420
BC
410
BC
400
BC
431 – 404 BC
The Peloponnesian War between Athens
and Sparta
465- 330 BC
Persian Empire declines until conquered by Alexander the Great
1|Page
Background to the Persian Wars
Archaic Greece
The period leading up to the Persian Wars is also known as the Archaic Period. The
Archaic Period began in 800 BC, around the time that Homer wrote the Odyssey (a text
you have will study this year) and ended immediately after the Persian Wars.
At the beginning of this period, there was a drastic increase in the population of Greece,
and this lead to the creation of new settlements and the expansion of old settlements.
These Greek settlements were split into several poleis, or city-states. These city states were
autonomous units. It was during this time period the poleis began to colonise other poleis
as well as foreign cities. Towards the end of the Archaic Period, the ‘superpower’ empires
were Athens, Sparta and the Persian Empire.
A Brief Introduction
The Persian Wars were a particularly important part of Greek history for many reasons.
Watch the first 6.5 mins of the YouTube clip The Persians & Greeks: Crash Course World
History #5
NB: While John Green is interesting and some of his information is accurate, not everything
is accurate. For example, the Persian Wars were fought during the 5th Century BC (not the
4th Century as John Green states).
1. The Persian Wars were fought between whom?
2. Most of the information about the Persians was written by a Greek, who is he?
3. Cyrus the Great founded the Persian Empire in
4. Describe what life under Persian rule was like:
BC.
5. What are the two battles that are mentioned in the clip:
i.
ii.
6. What was the direct cause of the Persian Wars (it has something to do with Ionia):
7. Before the Persian Wars, the Greeks identified themselves with what (give three
examples)?
8. Why did this change after the Persian Wars?
2|Page
The Persian Empire
By 490 BC, the Persian Empire covered most of Western Asia and parts of Europe and
Africa. Persia itself is modern-day Iran. During the Archaic Period it was known as the
Achmaemenid Empire or the First Persian Empire.
It was founded in the 6th Century BC by Cyrus the Great.
(pictured) During Cyrus’ rule, Persia began a period of
expansion gaining control over the ancient Near East
(civilisations like Mesopotamia (the Middle East), Egypt, Iran,
Anatolia (Turkey and Armenia), the Levant (Syria, Lebanon,
Israel and Jordan), Cyprus and the Arabian peninsulas),
Western Asia and most of Central Asia. He ruled the Empire
for approximately thirty years before dying and passing his
rule over to his son Cambyses II.
Cambyses II continued in his father’s footsteps by
expanding the Empire further into Egypt. He ruled for eight
years until he died in 522 BC.
Cyrus the Great
3|Page
For a history of the Persian Empire watch the following
documentary THE PERSIAN EMPIRE
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OHW4uJdL8As
How did the Persians and Greek forces first meet? What was the
result?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Watch only until approx. 42 mins.
What happened in 486 BC?
What were the qualities that Cyrus the Great held that began the
_______________________________________________________________
Achaemenid dynasty?
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
What was the aim of Xerxes in invading Greece in 480BC?
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
What was unique about how Cyrus the Great ruled towards his
subjects?
_______________________________________________________________ What were the major battles and personalities that occurred
during the Persian Wars?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
How did Darius I gain power after Cyrus the Great’s death?
_______________________________________________________________ What was the impact of the Wars on both Athens and Persia?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
What innovative engineering did Darius use during the Persian
Wars?
How did the Persian Empire end?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4|Page
Darius I – Persian King (521-486 BC)
Darius I was one of Persia’s greatest leaders and it was during his rule that
Persia was at its largest and strongest. After the death of Cambyses, an
imposter king ruled for seven months before being overthrown in a revolution
led by members of seven leading families, one of whom was Darius. From this
group Darius was chosen as king in 521BC, but within a few months he faced
revolt in many parts of his empire. The subduing of these uprisings – in Babylon,
Elam, Media and Armenia – showed his cool and ruthless determination and
his ability to rule. He consolidated his hold on the empire by marrying two
daughters of Cyrus. He next organised his empire with such thoroughness and
attention to detail that his arrangements lasted with little trouble for nearly 200
years, for example:
 Satrapies – A satrapy was a province ruled by a satrap (a governor). Darius
increased the number of these and instituted a fixed yearly tribute. The
satraps had great power and independence in their regions, although, the
royal assent was needed for major decisions and even for minor wars of
conquest. Sometimes the administrative and military commands were
separated, to act as a check.
 Royal Road – to improve communications, he developed an efficient road
and courier system throughout the Empire. There were many rest houses
and guard posts along the road. The size of the Empire meant that it could
take the King weeks and sometimes months before he received messages
from his satrapies. In the long run, the unity and effectiveness of the empire
was due to the autocracy of Darius and to his constant inspections, either
directly or through trusted agents.
The Persian Empire under Darius I
In 513, after sending out an expedition to gain information about Greece and
Italy, Darius marched an army through Thrace and into Scythia. Historians are
still unsure what Darius’ intentions were, some say he wanted to subdue Thrace
(a city state on the border of ancient Greece and Asia Minor) in order to
further control Asia Minor, or a revenge attack on Scythia for a previous attack
on Persia. He was unsuccessful in Scythia; however, he managed to form two
satrapies in Europe and had secured control of the easy route through Thrace
to the Strymon River. This route was of great strategic importance.
Darius I
5|Page
The Ionian Revolt, 499-493 BC
Ionia or the Ionian League was a collection of Greek poleis in Anatolia (modernday Turkey) that became satrapies of the Persian Empire in the 6 th Century BC. The
Ionians continued to have a considerable amount of autonomy, but were required
to pay a yearly tribute to the King of the Persian Empire and considered
themselves to be Greek not Persian. This made the Ionians very uncomfortable with
their situation and trouble had been brewing in the area for years before the
Ionians eventually revolted.
The immediate cause of the Ionian Revolt was when a man named Aristagoras,
was left in charge of Miletus, a Persian satrapy and a polis of the Ionian League.
Aristagoras was a very ambitious leader and wanted to make himself the leader of
a neighbouring city state called Naxos. His intention was to make Naxos a satrapy
of the Persian Empire and rule it as the satrap under Darius. Aristagoras gained the
support from other satrapies, including one ruled by Darius’ half-brother
Artaphernes, which enabled Aristagoras to gain Darius’ consent. The plan,
however, misfired as the Naxians were warned of the attack and were prepared
for a long siege. Aristagoras was fearful of Darius’ reaction, so he decided to
convince the Ionian satrapies to revolt against the Persian Empire instead of facing
Darius I.
Aristogoras went to mainland Greece to seek support from Sparta and Athens. The
Spartans were not interested when they realised the distance of Susa (in Ionia)
from the sea. Athens and Eretria agreed to send aid; Athens contributed twenty
warships and Eretria five. Aristagoras and the Greeks were unsuccessful in their
attempt to revolt against the Persians. There were two main reasons why the
Ionians were defeated:


The Persians had enough resources to maintain a prolonged war effort.
The Ionians lacked unity and discipline.
Darius sent troops to destroy Miletus and other parts of Ionia. The Ionians were
forced to agree that any future conflicts needed to be settled through discussion
rather than through war. He also surveyed their land to determine a fair land tax.
The Ionians remained under Persian control until 479 BC, when they were liberated
by the Athenians. While the Ionians were let off rather lightly, Darius was angered
that the Athenians had involved themselves in Persian matters and so in 492 BC
Darius made the decision to invade Greece.
6|Page
What happened after the First Persian War?
Xerxes I – Persian King (486 – 465 BC)
Xerxes I of Persia, also known as Xerxes the Great, (519 BC-465 BC), was the
fourth king of the Achaemenid Empire.
Immediately after seizing the kingship, Darius I of Persia (son of Hystaspes)
married Atossa (daughter of Cyrus the Great). Marrying a daughter of Cyrus
strengthened Darius' position as king.
(Shahanshah) and King of Nations (i.e. of the world). Even though Herodotus'
report in the Histories has created certain problems concerning Xerxes'
religious beliefs, modern scholars consider him a Zoroastrian.
Darius died while in the process of preparing a second army to invade the
Greek mainland, leaving to his son the task of punishing the Athenians,
Naxians, and Eretrians for their interference in the Ionian Revolt, the burning of
Sardis and their victory over the Persians at Marathon. From 483 BC Xerxes
prepared his expedition: A channel was dug through the isthmus of the
peninsula of Mount Athos, provisions were stored in the stations on the road
through Thrace, two pontoon bridges later known as Xerxes' Pontoon Bridges
were built across the Hellespont. Soldiers of many nationalities served in the
armies of Xerxes, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Egyptians
and Jews.
According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes' first attempt to bridge the
Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus
cables of the bridges; Xerxes ordered the Hellespont (the strait itself) whipped
Darius was an active emperor, busy with building programs in Persepolis, Susa, three hundred times and had fetters thrown into the water. Xerxes' second
Egypt, and elsewhere. Toward the end of his reign he moved to punish Athens, attempt to bridge the Hellespont was successful. Xerxes concluded an
but a new revolt in Egypt (probably led by the Persian satrap) had to be
alliance with Carthage, and thus deprived Greece of the support of the
suppressed.
powerful monarchs of Syracuse and Agrigentum. Many smaller Greek states,
moreover, took the side of the Persians, especially Thessaly, Thebes and Argos.
Xerxes was not the oldest son of Darius, and according to old Iranian traditions Xerxes set out in the spring of 480 BC from Sardis with a fleet and army which
should not have succeeded the King. Xerxes was however the oldest son of
Herodotus exaggerated to be more than two million strong with at least 10,000
Darius and Atossa hence descendent of Cyrus. This made Xerxes the chosen
elite warriors named Persian Immortals. The actual Persian strength was around
King of Persia. Xerxes was crowned and succeeded his father in Octobertwo to three hundred thousands. Xerxes was victorious during the initial battles.
December 486 BC when he was about 36 years old. The transition of power to
Xerxes was smooth due again in part to great authority of Atossa and his
The Battle of Thermopylae, a small force of Greek warriors led by King Leonidas
accession of royal power was not challenged by any person at court or in the of Sparta resisted the much larger Persian forces, but were ultimately
Achaemenian family, or any subject nation.
defeated. According to Herodotus, the Persians broke the Spartan phalanx
after a Greek man called Ephialtes betrayed his country by telling the Persians
Almost immediately, he suppressed the revolts in Egypt and Babylon that had of another pass around the mountains. After Thermopylae, Athens was
broken out the year before, and appointed his brother Achaemenes as
captured and the Athenians and Spartans were driven back to their last line of
governor or satrap (Old Persian: khshathrapavan) over Egypt. In 484 BC, he
defense at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf.
outraged the Babylonians by violently confiscating and melting down the
golden statue of Bel (Marduk, Merodach), the hands of which the rightful king What happened next is a matter of some controversy. According to
of Babylon had to clasp each New Year's Day. This sacrilege led the
Herodotus, upon encountering the deserted city, in an uncharacteristic fit of
Babylonians to rebel in 484 BC and 482 BC, so that in contemporary
rage particularly for Persian kings, Xerxes had Athens burned. He almost
Babylonian documents, Xerxes refused his father's title of King of Babylon,
immediately regretted this action and ordered it rebuilt the very next day.
being named rather as King of Persia and Media, Great King, King of Kings
7|Page
However, Persian scholars dispute this view as pan-Hellenic propaganda,
arguing that Sparta, not Athens, was Xerxes' main foe in his Greek campaigns,
and that Xerxes would have had nothing to gain by destroying a major centre
of trade and commerce like Athens once he had already captured it.
In August 465 BC, Xerxes was murdered by Artabanus, the commander of the
royal bodyguard and the most powerful official in the Persian court with the
help of a eunuch, Aspamitres. He put his seven sons in key positions and had a
plan to dethrone the Achamenids.
At that time, anti-Persian sentiment was high among many mainland Greeks,
and the rumour that Xerxes had destroyed the city was a popular one, though
it is equally likely the fire was started by accident as the Athenians were
frantically fleeing the scene in pandemonium, or that it was an act of
"scorched earth" warfare to deprive Xerxes' army of the spoils of the city.
Greek historians give contradicting accounts of events. According to Ctesias
(in Persica 20), Artabanus then accused the Crown Prince Darius, Xerxes' eldest
son, of the murder and persuaded another of Xerxes' sons, Artaxerxes, to
avenge the patricide by killing Darius.
At Artemisium, large storms had destroyed ships from the Greek side and so
the battle stopped prematurely as the Greeks received news of the defeat at
Thermopylae and retreated. Xerxes was induced by the message of
Themistocles (against the advice of Artemisia of Halicarnassus) to attack the
Greek fleet under unfavourable conditions, rather than sending a part of his
ships to the Peloponnesus and awaiting the dissolution of the Greek armies.
The Battle of Salamis (September, 480 BC) was won by the Greek fleet, after
which Xerxes set up a winter camp in Thessaly.
But according to Aristotle (in Politics 5.1311b), Artabanus killed Darius first and
then killed Xerxes. After Artaxerxes discovered the murder he killed Artabanus
and his sons. Participating in these intrigues was the general Megabyzus,
whose decision to switch sides probably saved the Achamenids from losing
their control of the Persian throne
Due to unrest in Babylon, Xerxes was forced to send his army home to prevent
a revolt, leaving behind an army in Greece under Mardonius, who was
defeated the following year at Plataea. The Greeks also attacked and burned
the remaining Persian fleet anchored at Mycale. This cut off the Persians from
the supplies they needed to sustain their massive army, and they had no
choice but to retreat. Their withdrawal roused the Greek city-states of Asia.
After the military blunders in Greece, Xerxes returned to Persia and completed
the many construction projects left unfinished by his father at Susa and
Persepolis. He built the Gate of all Nations and the Hall of a Hundred Columns
at Persepolis, which are the largest and most imposing structures of the
Xerxes' Tomb
palace. He completed the Apadana, the Palace of Darius and the Treasury all
started by Darius as well as building his own palace which was twice the size of
Source: http://www.crystalinks.com/Achaemenid_Empire.html accessed
his father's. He also maintained the Royal Road built by his father and
16/11/16
completed the Susa Gate and built a palace at Susa.
8|Page
The Military Life of a Greek Read the information below to create a day in the life of a typical Athenian hoplite or cavalry warrior. Describe their life in the
barracks, the training they underwent and what tactics were used in battles. (Source: Chisholm, J (ed.), The Greeks: The Usborne Illustrated World History, Usborne Publishing, 1990.)
9|Page
The Battle of Marathon, 490 BC
Watch the Prezi, (https://prezi.com/nhdg_mt7mmua/the-persian-wars/) to complete the activities below:
What two city states were destroyed and why?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What distance is Marathon from Athens? _______________________________________________________
According to the Greek historian Herodotus, how many Persian soldiers landed at Marathon?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Why must we be cautious about this number?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How many Greeks were there? ____________________________
How come Sparta did not join the fight?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How many ships arrived at the Bay of Marathon in September 490 BC?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What happened in Athens in 510 BC?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What did the Greeks do to the Persian convoy that arrived in Athens and Sparta demanding earth
and water?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What role did Hippias play in the Battle of Marathon?
________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
When Hippias lost his tooth, what did he think it meant?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What type of relationship did each Greek tribe that fought at Marathon have with Athens?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Why did the Greeks often use runners as messengers instead of horses?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What do we know about Miltiades?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What was the name of the type of soldier the Greeks were?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How did they get this name?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
In what formation did they fight in?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Describe this formation:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Describe the shield that the Greeks carried:
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How many generals did Miltiades have? _______________________________________________
10 | P a g e
What different ethnicities made up the Persian army?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How many days did the armies face each other before fighting?
Why is this?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Describe Datis’ battle strategy?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Describe what happened next?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How did the Greeks deal with the archers?
________________________________________________________________________________________
List some of the reasons why the Greeks won even though they were outnumbered?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How long did it take for the Greeks to beat the Persians?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What did the Greeks do immediately after the battle?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What happened to Pheidippides?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What were the casualties for both sides?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Sparta and Athens were old rivals. Sparta was a very traditionalist and conservative society,
whereas, Athens was a modern and liberal society. What type of impact do you think Sparta’s
refusal to fight had on the already tense relationship between the Spartans and the Athenians?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
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11 | P a g e
Battle of Thermopylae, 480 BC
Why was Thermopylae chosen as the site of a battle?
What battle was to coincide with the Battle of Thermopylae and which group of Greek
states would fight it?
Who fought at Thermopylae?
What was the result of Thermopylae?
Battle of Artemisium, 480 BC
What was the point of this battle?
How many ships in total did Persia lose before the battle even started?
Why did the Athenian navy retreat and where did they take refuge?
The Destruction of Athens, 480 BC
After Thermopylae, the Persians marched south to attack Athens. The Athenian leader,
Themistocles, was still determined to fight the Persians at sea, so he withdrew most of his
troops and allowed the Persians to seize the city. They murdered the few defending
Athenians, burned the temples on the Acropolis and plundered the city.
The Decisive Greek Victories, 480-479 BC
Following the Battles of Artemisium and Thermopylae, the Greeks (led by the Athenians)
defeated the Persians in two sea battles and one land battle. The sea battles were the
Battle of Salamis in 480 BC and the Battle of Mycale in 479 BC and the land battle was the
Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. The battles of 480 and 479 were the last major battles and it
was very clear that the Greeks were the winners of the Persian Wars despite fights over
various territories such as Egypt, Cyprus and Ionia continuing. The Persian Wars officially
ended in 449 BC with a peace treaty being signed with Persia. This resulted in an
economical, political and social boom in Greece. While most Greeks continued to dislike
and fear the Persians, Athens emerged out of the Persian Wars as the superpower of
Greece. Many Greeks believed that it was only a matter of time before the Persians tried
to avenge their defeat. In order to be ready for this, many of the Greek states formed a
league led by Athens (called the Delian League). Members of the Delian League
contributed money and ships for the Athenian navy to defend them. Members met at
Delos, where the common treasury was kept (hence the reason why it was called the
Delian League). The period following 480 BC is known as the Classical Age of Greece and
the Golden Age of Athens. Portrayals and depictions of the famous victories and ongoing
attitudes towards the Persians developed in Athenian art and culture and in the writings
of Herodutus, Aritsophanes and other famous poets, playwrights and historians in the years
following the war.
12 | P a g e
Herodotus on the Persian Wars and the Battle of Marathon
One of the biggest issues we have when studying ancient societies is the lack of evidence. Most
of the information we have about the Battle of Marathon comes from one man: Herodotus.
Herodotus is often referred to as the ‘father of history’. Herodotus wrote about the Persian Wars in
his text The Histories.
Herodotus
Herodotus was born c.484 BC (c. stands for circa which is the Latin word
meaning around, it is used to show that the date is an approximate date) in
Halicarnassus, Caria, in modern-day Turkey. His home town was a part of the
Persian Empire and so he grew up hearing stories about life within the Empire
as well as stories about the Persian preparations for their second invasion of
Greece. His family was very influential. He was the first person to place his
writings in a logical and systematic fashion and publish these in his text The
Histories. Many authors who came after Herodotus often refer to his text. Not
much is known about Herodotus’ personal history; though we do know he
was about 60 when he died.
Some of his writings are very unlikely and a lot of his facts are over
exaggerated, however, Herodotus constantly reiterated the fact that his
information came from eye-witnesses. It was a tradition for authors to ‘publish’ their works by
reciting them at religious festivals and so upon finishing his work; Herodotus travelled to the
Olympic Games in Greece and recited his Histories. A young Thucydides (an Athenian who would
become a very famous historian, philosopher and a military general) was in the audience and
burst into tears. Herodotus took Thucydides under his wing and the two were buried in the same
tomb.
Limitations of Ancient Sources
As classicists all ancient sources need to be evaluated for any issues that may surround our ability
to use them as evidence. While Herodotus is often seen as a primary source – he was not an eyewitness to the events of the Persian Wars himself, although he claims to have relied on
eyewitnesses for his information. A lot of our information about him also comes from later and
other ancient sources such as Thucydides, who while a contemporary was also a rival. Before the
21st century Herodotus was often considered a “charming but inaccurate and gullible historian”.
This view has been shaped by these earlier commentators’ views. We need to be careful to look
at his achievements for their own merits and not as a comparison to others and not for what or
how we think a modern historian should write. Finding out the “historical truth” will always be
elusive and difficult no matter what time period the author is writing about or writing within.
Herodotus was careful to ensure that the historian must not accept the random informant’s
version or what merely seems plausible to him, but must base his published account on eyewitness reports which are meticulously compared, since memory and allegiance (not to mention
limited perspective on the battlefield) produce conflicting versions (1.22.2-3). We must ask
ourselves how well he achieved this.
What are the pros and cons of using Herodotus as an ancient source?
Consider the following points: Heritage/background of Herodotus, timeliness of writing,
aim/purpose of writing, accuracy of “facts” vs hearsay – can they even be fact checked?
problems with memory and potential for bias or propaganda.
13 | P a g e
Herodotus’ Histories, Book 6 ERATO
While reading extracts from Book 6 of Herodotus’ Histories, highlight and
make notes in the margins about what you are reading and why you
think it is relevant information to know about the Battle of Marathon.
Herodotus, The Histories, Book 6,
http://www.parstimes.com/history/herodotus/persian_wars/erato.ht
ml , accessed 16/11/16
6-18 Ionian preparations and battle of Lade; Miletus falls
6.12] These words prevailed with the Ionians, and forthwith they
committed themselves to Dionysius; whereupon he proceeded every day
to make the ships move in column, and the rowers ply their oars, and
exercise themselves in breaking the line; while the marines were held
under arms, and the vessels were kept, till evening fell, upon their
anchors, so that the men had nothing but toil from morning even to night.
Seven days did the Ionians continue obedient, and do whatsoever he bade
them; but on the eighth day, worn out by the hardness of the work and
the heat of the sun, and quite unaccustomed to such fatigues, they began
to confer together, and to say one to another, "What god have we
offended to bring upon ourselves such a punishment as this? Fools and
distracted that we were, to put ourselves into the hands of this Phocaean
braggart, who does but furnish three ships to the fleet! He, now that he
has got us, plagues us in the most desperate fashion; many of us, in
consequence, have fallen sick already - many more expect to follow. We
had better suffer anything rather than these hardships; even the slavery
with which we are threatened, however harsh, can be no worse than our
present thraldom. Come, let us refuse him obedience." So saying, they
forthwith ceased to obey his orders, and pitched their tents, as if they had
been soldiers, upon the island, where they reposed under the shade all
day, and refused to go aboard the ships and train themselves.
[6.13] Now when the Samian captains perceived what was taking place,
they were more inclined than before to accept the terms which Aeaces,
the son of Syloson, had been authorised by the Persians to offer them, on
condition of their deserting from the confederacy. For they saw that all
was disorder among the Ionians, and they felt also that it was hopeless to
contend with the power of the king; since if they defeated the fleet which
had been sent against them, they knew that another would come five
times as great. So they took advantage of the occasion which now offered,
and as soon as ever they saw the Ionians refuse to work, hastened gladly
to provide for the safety of their temples and their properties. This Aeaces,
who made the overtures to the Samians, was the son of Syloson, and
grandson of the earlier Aeaces. He had formerly been tyrant of Samos, but
was ousted from his government by Aristagoras the Milesian, at the same
time with the other tyrants of the Ionians.
[6.14] The Phoenicians soon afterwards sailed to the attack; and the
Ionians likewise put themselves in line, and went out to meet them. When
they had now neared one another, and joined battle, which of the Ionians
fought like brave men and which like cowards, I cannot declare with any
certainty, for charges are brought on all sides; but the tale goes that the
Samians, according to the agreement which they had made with Aeaces,
hoisted sail, and quitting their post bore away for Samos, except eleven
ships, whose captains gave no heed to the orders of the commanders, but
remained and took part in the battle. The state of Samos, in consideration
of this action, granted to these men, as an acknowledgment if their
bravery, the honour of having their names, and the names of their fathers,
inscribed upon a pillar, which still stands in the market-place. The Lesbians
also, when they saw the Samians, who were drawn up next them, begin to
flee, themselves did the like; and the example, once set, was followed by
the greater number of the Ionians.
[6.15] Of those who remained and fought, none were so rudely handled as
the Chians, who displayed prodigies of valour, and disdained to play the
part of cowards. They furnished to the common fleet, as I mentioned
above, one hundred ships, having each of them forty armed citizens, and
those picked men, on board; and when they saw the greater portion of the
allies betraying the common cause, they for their part, scorning to imitate
the base conduct of these traitors, although they were left almost alone
and unsupported, a very few friends continuing to stand by them,
notwithstanding went on with the fight, and ofttimes cut the line of the
14 | P a g e
enemy, until at last, after they had taken very many of their adversaries'
ships, they ended by losing more than half of their own. Hereupon, with
the remainder of their vessels, the Chians fled away to their own country.
[6.16] As for such of their ships as were damaged and disabled, these,
being pursued by the enemy, made straight for Mycale, where the crews
ran them ashore, and abandoning them began their march along the
continent. Happening in their way upon the territory of Ephesus, they
essayed to cross it; but here a dire misfortune befell them. It was night,
and the Ephesian women chanced to be engaged in celebrating the
Thesmophoria - the previous calamity of the Chians had not been heard of
- so when the Ephesians saw their country invaded by an armed band,
they made no question of the new-comers being robbers who purposed to
carry off their women; and accordingly they marched out against them in
full force, and slew them all. Such were the misfortunes which befell them
of Chios.
[6.17] Dionysius, the Phocaean, when he perceived that all was lost,
having first captured three ships from the enemy, himself took to flight. He
would not, however, return to Phocaea, which he well knew must fall
again, like the rest of Ionia, under the Persian yoke; but straightway, as he
was, he set sail for Phoenicia, and there sunk a number of merchantmen,
and gained a great booty; after which he directed his course to Sicily,
where he established himself as a corsair, and plundered the
Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians, but did no harm to the Greeks.
Pretext to Marathon
43-45 Mardonius imposes democracies in Ionia; fleet wrecked on Athos and
army destroyed by the Brygi
[6.43] The next spring Darius superseded all the other generals, and sent
down Mardonius, the son of Gobryas, to the coast, and with him a vast
body of men, some fit for sea, others for land service. Mardonius was a
youth at this time, and had only lately married Artazostra, the king's
daughter. When Mardonius, accompanied by this numerous host, reached
Cilicia, he took ship and proceeded along shore with his fleet, while the
land army marched under other leaders towards the Hellespont. In the
course of his voyage along the coast of Asia he came to Ionia; and here I
have a marvel to relate which will greatly surprise those Greeks who
cannot believe that Otanes advised the seven conspirators to make Persia
a commonwealth. Mardonius put down all the despots throughout Ionia,
and in lieu of them established democracies. Having so done, he hastened
to the Hellespont, and when a vast multitude of ships had been brought
together, and likewise a powerful land force, he conveyed his troops
across the strait by means of his vessels, and proceeded through Europe
against Eretria and Athens.
[6.44] At least these towns served as a pretext for the expedition, the real
purpose of which was to subjugate as great a number as possible of the
Grecian cities; and this became plain when the Thasians, who did not even
lift a hand in their defence, were reduced by the sea force, while the land
army added the Macedonians to the former slaves of the king. All the
tribes on the hither side of Macedonia had been reduced previously. From
Thasos the fleet stood across to the mainland, and sailed along shore to
Acanthus, whence an attempt was made to double Mount Athos. But here
a violent north wind sprang up, against which nothing could contend, and
handled a large number of the ships with much rudeness, shattering them
and driving them aground upon Athos. 'Tis said the number of the ships
destroyed was little short of three hundred; and the men who perished
were more than twenty thousand. For the sea about Athos abounds in
monsters beyond all others; and so a portion were seized and devoured by
these animals, while others were dashed violently against the rocks; some,
who did not know how to swim, were engulfed; and some died of the cold.
[6.48] After this Darius resolved to prove the Greeks, and try the bent of
their minds, whether they were inclined to resist him in arms or prepared
to make their submission. He therefore sent out heralds in diverse
directions round about Greece, with orders to demand everywhere earth
and water for the king. At the same time he sent other heralds to the
various seaport towns which paid him tribute, and required them to
provide a number of ships of war and horse-transports.
[6.49] These towns accordingly began their preparations; and the heralds
who had been sent into Greece obtained what the king had bid them ask
from a large number of the states upon the mainland, and likewise from
all the islanders whom they visited. Among these last were included the
Eginetans, who, equally with the rest, consented to give earth and water
to the Persian king.
15 | P a g e
[6.50] Hereupon Cleomenes, the son of Anaxandridas, who was then king
of the Spartans, went in person to Egina, intending to seize those whose
guilt was the greatest. As soon however as he tried to arrest them, a
number of the Eginetins made resistance; a certain Crius, son of Polycritus,
being the foremost in violence. This person told him "he should not carry
off a single Eginetan without it costing him dear - the Athenians had bribed
him to make this attack, for which he had no warrant from his own
government - otherwise both the kings would have come together to
make the seizure." This he said in consequence of instructions which he
had received from Demaratus. Hereupon Cleomenes, finding that he must
quit Egina, asked Crius his name; and when Crius told him, "Get thy horns
tipped with brass with all speed, O Crius!" he said, "for thou wilt have to
struggle with a great danger."
[6.51] Meanwhile Demaratus, son of Ariston, was bringing charges against
Cleomenes at Sparta. He too, like Cleomenes, was king of the Spartans,
but he belonged to the lower house - not indeed that his house was of any
lower origin than the other, for both houses are of one blood - but the
house of Eurysthenes is the more honoured of the two, inasmuch as it is
the elder branch.
[6.56] The prerogatives which the Spartans have allowed their kings are
the following. In the first place, two priesthoods, those (namely) of
Lacedaemonian and of Celestial Jupiter; also the right of making war on
what country soever they please, without hindrance from any of the other
Spartans, under pain of outlawry; on service the privilege of marching first
in the advance and last in the retreat, and of having a hundred picked men
for their body guard while with the army; likewise the liberty of sacrificing
as many cattle in their expeditions as it seems them good, and the right of
having the skins and the chines of the slaughtered animals for their own
use.
94-120 Preparation and Persian expedition to Marathon
94 Datis and Artaphernes replace Mardonius as commanders
95-101 Persian capture of Eretrians on Euboea
102 Persians go to Marathon
103-104 Background of Miltiades
105-106 Athenians send Pheidippides to Sparta; vision of Pan
107 Hippias' dream
108 Why Plataea had become an ally of Athens and came to help at
Marathon
109-120 The battle and its aftermath; Spartans view the battlefield
[6.94] … Meantime the Persian pursued his own design, from day to day
exhorted by his servant to "remember the Athenians," and likewise urged
continually by the Pisistratidae, who were ever accusing their countrymen.
Moreover it pleased him well to have a pretext for carrying war into
Greece, that so he might reduce all those who had refused to give him
earth and water. As for Mardonius, since his expedition had succeeded so
ill, Darius took the command of the troops from him, and appointed other
generals in his stead, who were to lead the host against Eretria and
Athens; to wit, Datis, who was by descent a Mede, and Artaphernes, the
son of Artaphernes, his own nephew. These men received orders to carry
Athens and Eretria away captive, and to bring the prisoners into his
presence.
[6.95] So the new commanders took their departure from the court and
went down to Cilicia, to the Aleian plain, having with them a numerous
and well-appointed land army. Encamping here, they were joined by the
sea force which had been required of the several states, and at the same
time by the horse transports which Darius had, the year before,
commanded his tributaries to make ready. Aboard these the horses were
embarked; and the troops were received by the ships of war; after which
the whole fleet, amounting in all to six hundred triremes, made sail for
Ionia. Thence, instead of proceeding with a straight course along the shore
to the Hellespont and to Thrace, they loosed from Samos and voyaged
across the Icarian sea through the midst of the islands; mainly, as I believe,
because they feared the danger of doubling Mount Athos, where the year
before they had suffered so grievously on their passage; but a constraining
cause also was their former failure to take Naxos.
16 | P a g e
[6.100] Meanwhile the Eretrians, understanding that the Persian
armament was coming against them, besought the Athenians for
assistance. Nor did the Athenians refuse their aid, but assigned to them as
auxiliaries the four thousand landholders to whom they had allotted the
estates of the Chalcidean Hippobatae. At Eretria, however, things were in
no healthy state; for though they had called in the aid of the Athenians,
yet they were not agreed among themselves how they should act; some of
them were minded to leave the city and to take refuge in the heights of
Euboea, while others, who looked to receiving a reward from the Persians,
were making ready to betray their country. So when these things came to
the ears of Aeschines, the son of Nothon, one of the first men in Eretria,
he made known the whole state of affairs to the Athenians who were
already arrived, and besought them to return home to their own land, and
not perish with his countrymen. And the Athenians hearkened to his
counsel, and, crossing over to Oropus, in this way escaped the danger.
[6.101] The Persian fleet now drew near and anchored at Tamynae,
Choereae, and Aegilia, three places in the territory of Eretria. Once
masters of these posts, they proceeded forthwith to disembark their
horses, and made ready to attack the enemy. But the Eretrians were not
minded to sally forth and offer battle; their only care, after it had been
resolved not to quit the city, was, if possible, to defend their walls. And
now the fortress was assaulted in good earnest, and for six days there fell
on both sides vast numbers, but on the seventh day Euphorbus, the son of
Alcimachus, and Philagrus, the son of Cyneas, who were both citizens of
good repute, betrayed the place to the Persians. These were no sooner
entered within the walls than they plundered and burnt all the temples
that there were in the town, in revenge for the burning of their own
temples at Sardis; moreover, they did according to the orders of Darius,
and carried away captive all the inhabitants.
[6.102] The Persians, having thus brought Eretria into subjection after
waiting a few days, made sail for Attica, greatly straitening the Athenians
as they approached, and thinking to deal with them as they had dealt with
the people of Eretria. And, because there was no Place in all Attica so
convenient for their horse as Marathon, and it lay moreover quite close to
Eretria, therefore Hippias, the son of Pisistratus, conducted them thither.
[6.103] When intelligence of this reached the Athenians, they likewise
marched their troops to Marathon, and there stood on the defensive,
having at their head ten generals, of whom one was Miltiades.
Now this man's father, Cimon, the son of Stesagoras, was banished from
Athens by Pisistratus, the son of Hippocrates. In his banishment it was his
fortune to win the four-horse chariot-race at Olympia, whereby he gained
the very same honour which had before been carried off by Miltiades, his
half-brother on the mother's side. At the next Olympiad he won the prize
again with the same mares; upon which he caused Pisistratus to be
proclaimed the winner, having made an agreement with him that on
yielding him this honour he should be allowed to come back to his
country. Afterwards, still with the same mares, he won the prize a third
time; whereupon he was put to death by the sons of Pisistratus, whose
father was no longer living. They set men to lie in wait for him secretly;
and these men slew him near the government-house in the night-time. He
was buried outside the city, beyond what is called the Valley Road; and
right opposite his tomb were buried the mares which had won the three
prizes. The same success had likewise been achieved once previously, to
wit, by the mares of Evagoras the Lacedaemonian, but never except by
them. At the time of Cimon's death Stesagoras, the elder of his two sons,
was in the Chersonese, where he lived with Miltiades his uncle; the
younger, who was called Miltiades after the founder of the Chersonesite
colony, was with his father in Athens.
[6.104] It was this Miltiades who now commanded the Athenians, after
escaping from the Chersonese, and twice nearly losing his life. First he was
chased as far as Imbrus by the Phoenicians, who had a great desire to take
him and carry him up to the king; and when he had avoided this danger,
and, having reached his own country, thought himself to be altogether in
safety, he found his enemies waiting for him, and was cited by them
before a court and impeached for his tyranny in the Chersonese. But he
came off victorious here likewise, and was thereupon made general of the
Athenians by the free choice of the people.
[6.105] And first, before they left the city, the generals sent off to Sparta a
herald, one Pheidippides, who was by birth an Athenian, and by profession
and practice a trained runner. This man, according to the account which
he gave to the Athenians on his return, when he was near Mount
Parthenium, above Tegea, fell in with the god Pan, who called him by his
17 | P a g e
name, and bade him ask the Athenians "wherefore they neglected him so
entirely, when he was kindly disposed towards them, and had often
helped them in times past, and would do so again in time to come?" The
Athenians, entirely believing in the truth of this report, as soon as their
affairs were once more in good order, set up a temple to Pan under the
Acropolis, and, in return for the message which I have recorded,
established in his honour yearly sacrifices and a torch-race.
[6.106] On the occasion of which we speak when Pheidippides was sent by
the Athenian generals, and, according to his own account, saw Pan on his
journey, he reached Sparta on the very next day after quitting the city of
Athens - Upon his arrival he went before the rulers, and said to them:"Men of Lacedaemon, the Athenians beseech you to hasten to their aid,
and not allow that state, which is the most ancient in all Greece, to be
enslaved by the barbarians. Eretria, look you, is already carried away
captive; and Greece weakened by the loss of no mean city."
Thus did Pheidippides deliver the message committed to him. And the
Spartans wished to help the Athenians, but were unable to give them any
present succour, as they did not like to break their established law. It was
then the ninth day of the first decade; and they could not march out of
Sparta on the ninth, when the moon had not reached the full. So they
waited for the full of the moon.
[6.107] The barbarians were conducted to Marathon by Hippias. the son of
Pisistratus, who the night before had seen a strange vision in his sleep. He
dreamt of lying in his mother's arms, and conjectured the dream to mean
that he would be restored to Athens, recover the power which he had lost,
and afterwards live to a good old age in his native country. Such was the
sense in which he interpreted the vision. He now proceeded to act as
guide to the Persians; and, in the first place, he landed the prisoners taken
from Eretria upon the island that is called Aegileia, a tract belonging to the
Styreans, after which he brought the fleet to anchor off Marathon, and
marshalled the bands of the barbarians as they disembarked. As he was
thus employed it chanced that he sneezed and at the same time coughed
with more violence than was his wont. Now, as he was a man advanced in
years, and the greater number of his teeth were loose, it so happened that
one of them was driven out with the force of the cough, and fell down into
the sand. Hippias took all the pains he could to find it; but the tooth was
nowhere to be seen: whereupon he fetched a deep sigh, and said to the
bystanders:"After all, the land is not ours; and we shall never be able to bring it under.
All my share in it is the portion of which my tooth has possession."
So Hippias believed that in this way his dream was fulfilled.
[6.108] The Athenians were drawn up in order of battle in a sacred close
belonging to Hercules, when they were joined by the Plataeans, who came
in full force to their aid. Sometime before, the Plataeans had put
themselves under the rule of the Athenians; and these last had already
undertaken many labours on their behalf. The occasion of the surrender
was the following. The Plataeans suffered grievous things at the hands of
the men of Thebes; so, as it chanced that Cleomenes, the son of
Anaxandridas, and the Lacedaemonians were in their neighbourhood, they
first of all offered to surrender themselves to them. But the
Lacedaemonians refused to receive them, and said:"We dwell too far off from you, and ours would be but chill succour. Ye
might oftentimes be carried into slavery before one of us heard of it. We
counsel you rather to give yourselves up to the Athenians, who are your
next neighbours, and well able to shelter you."
This they said, not so much out of good will towards the Plataeans as
because they wished to involve the Athenians in trouble by engaging them
in wars with the Boeotians. The Plataeans, however, when the
Lacedaemonians gave them this counsel, complied at once; and when the
sacrifice to the Twelve Gods was being offered at Athens, they came and
sat as suppliants about the altar, and gave themselves up to the
Athenians. The Thebans no sooner learnt what the Plataeans had done
than instantly they marched out against them, while the Athenians sent
troops to their aid. As the two armies were about to join battle, the
Corinthians, who chanced to be at hand, would not allow them to engage;
both sides consented to take them for arbitrators, whereupon they made
up the quarrel, and fixed the boundary-line between the two states upon
this condition: to wit, that if any of the Boeotians wished no longer to
belong to Boeotia, the Thebans should allow them to follow their own
inclinations. The Corinthians, when they had thus decreed, forthwith
departed to their homes: the Athenians likewise set off on their return;
but the Boeotians fell upon them during the march, and a battle was
fought wherein they were worsted by the Athenians. Hereupon these last
would not be bound by the line which the Corinthians had fixed, but
18 | P a g e
advanced beyond those limits, and made the Asopus the boundary-line
between the country of the Thebans and that of the Plataeans and
Hysians. Under such circumstances did the Plataeans give themselves up
to Athens; and now they were come to Marathon to bear the Athenians
aid.
Hereupon all those generals who had been desirous of hazarding a battle,
when their turn came to command the army, gave up their right to
Miltiades. He however, though he accepted their offers, nevertheless
waited, and would not fight until his own day of command arrived in due
course.
[6.109] The Athenian generals were divided in their opinions; and some
advised not to risk a battle, because they were too few to engage such a
host as that of the Medes, while others were for fighting at once; and
among these last was Miltiades. He therefore, seeing that opinions were
thus divided, and that the less worthy counsel appeared likely to prevail,
resolved to go to the Polemarch, and have a conference with him. For the
man on whom the lot fell to be Polemarch at Athens was entitled to give
his vote with the ten generals, since anciently the Athenians allowed him
an equal right of voting with them. The Polemarch at this juncture was
Callimachus of Aphidnae; to him therefore Miltiades went, and said:"With thee it rests, Callimachus, either to bring Athens to slavery, or, by
securing her freedom, to leave behind thee to all future generations a
memory beyond even Harmodius and Aristogeiton. For never since the
time that the Athenians became a people were they in so great a danger
as now. If they bow their necks beneath the yoke of the Medes, the woes
which they will have to suffer when given into the power of Hippias are
already determined on; if, on the other hand, they fight and overcome,
Athens may rise to be the very first city in Greece. How it comes to pass
that these things are likely to happen, and how the determining of them in
some sort rests with thee, I will now proceed to make clear. We generals
are ten in number, and our votes are divided; half of us wish to engage,
half to avoid a combat. Now, if we do not fight, I look to see a great
disturbance at Athens which will shake men's resolutions, and then I fear
they will submit themselves; but if we fight the battle before any
unsoundness show itself among our citizens, let the gods but give us fair
play, and we are well able to overcome the enemy. On thee therefore we
depend in this matter, which lies wholly in thine own power. Thou hast
only to add thy vote to my side and thy country will be free, and not free
only, but the first state in Greece. Or, if thou preferrest to give thy vote to
them who would decline the combat, then the reverse will follow."
[6.111] Then at length, when his own turn was come, the Athenian battle
was set in array, and this was the order of it. Callimachus the Polemarch
led the right wing; for it was at that time a rule with the Athenians to give
the right wing to the Polemarch. After this followed the tribes, according
as they were numbered, in an unbroken line; while last of all came the
Plataeans, forming the left wing. And ever since that day it has been a
custom with the Athenians, in the sacrifices and assemblies held each fifth
year at Athens, for the Athenian herald to implore the blessing of the gods
on the Plataeans conjointly with the Athenians. Now, as they marshalled
the host upon the field of Marathon, in order that the Athenian front
might he of equal length with the Median, the ranks of the centre were
diminished, and it became the weakest part of the line, while the wings
were both made strong with a depth of many ranks.
[6.110] Miltiades by these words gained Callimachus; and the addition of
the Polemarch's vote caused the decision to be in favour of fighting.
[6.112] So when the battle was set in array, and the victims showed
themselves favourable, instantly the Athenians, so soon as they were let
go, charged the barbarians at a run. Now the distance between the two
armies was little short of eight furlongs. The Persians, therefore, when
they saw the Greeks coming on at speed, made ready to receive them,
although it seemed to them that the Athenians were bereft of their
senses, and bent upon their own destruction; for they saw a mere handful
of men coming on at a run without either horsemen or archers. Such was
the opinion of the barbarians; but the Athenians in close array fell upon
them, and fought in a manner worthy of being recorded. They were the
first of the Greeks, so far as I know, who introduced the custom of
charging the enemy at a run, and they were likewise the first who dared to
look upon the Median garb, and to face men clad in that fashion. Until this
time the very name of the Medes had been a terror to the Greeks to hear.
[6.113] The two armies fought together on the plain of Marathon for a
length of time; and in the mid battle, where the Persians themselves and
the Sacae had their place, the barbarians were victorious, and broke and
pursued the Greeks into the inner country; but on the two wings the
19 | P a g e
Athenians and the Plataeans defeated the enemy. Having so done, they
suffered the routed barbarians to fly at their ease, and joining the two
wings in one, fell upon those who had broken their own centre, and fought
and conquered them. These likewise fled, and now the Athenians hung
upon the runaways and cut them down, chasing them all the way to the
shore, on reaching which they laid hold of the ships and called aloud for
fire.
with blindness, without blow of sword or dart; and this blindness
continued thenceforth during the whole of his afterlife. The following is
the account which he himself, as I have heard, gave of the matter: he said
that a gigantic warrior, with a huge beard, which shaded all his shield,
stood over against him; but the ghostly semblance passed him by, and
slew the man at his side. Such, as I understand, was the tale which Epizelus
told.
[6.114] It was in the struggle here that Callimachus the Polemarch, after
greatly distinguishing himself, lost his life; Stesilaus too, the son of
Thrasilaus, one of the generals, was slain; and Cynaegirus, the son of
Euphorion, having seized on a vessel of the enemy's by the ornament at
the stern, had his hand cut off by the blow of an axe, and so perished; as
likewise did many other Athenians of note and name.
[6.118] Datis meanwhile was on his way back to Asia, and had reached
Myconus, when he saw in his sleep a vision. What it was is not known; but
no sooner was day come than he caused strict search to be made
throughout the whole fleet, and finding on board a Phoenician vessel an
image of Apollo overlaid with gold, he inquired from whence it had been
taken, and learning to what temple it belonged, he took it with him in his
own ship to Delos, and placed it in the temple there, enjoining the Delians,
who had now come back to their island, to restore the image to the
Theban Delium, which lies on the coast over against Chalcis. Having left
these injunctions, he sailed away; but the Delians failed to restore the
statue; and it was not till twenty years afterwards that the Thebans,
warned by an oracle, themselves brought it back to Delium.
[6.115] Nevertheless the Athenians secured in this way seven of the
vessels; while with the remainder the barbarians pushed off, and taking
aboard their Eretrian prisoners from the island where they had left them,
doubled Cape Sunium, hoping to reach Athens before the return of the
Athenians. The Alcmaeonidae were accused by their countrymen of
suggesting this course to them; they had, it was said, an understanding
with the Persians, and made a signal to them, by raising a shield, after they
were embarked in their ships.
[6.116] The Persians accordingly sailed round Sunium. But the Athenians
with all possible speed marched away to the defence of their city, and
succeeded in reaching Athens before the appearance of the barbarians:
and as their camp at Marathon had been pitched in a precinct of Hercules,
so now they encamped in another precinct of the same god at Cynosarges.
The barbarian fleet arrived, and lay to off Phalerum, which was at that
time the haven of Athens; but after resting awhile upon their oars, they
departed and sailed away to Asia.
[6.117] There fell in this battle of Marathon, on the side of the barbarians,
about six thousand and four hundred men; on that of the Athenians, one
hundred and ninety-two. Such was the number of the slain on the one side
and the other. A strange prodigy likewise happened at this fight. Epizelus,
the son of Cuphagoras, an Athenian, was in the thick of the fray, and
behaving himself as a brave man should, when suddenly he was stricken
[6.120] After the full of the moon two thousand Lacedaemonians came to
Athens. So eager had they been to arrive in time, that they took but three
days to reach Attica from Sparta. They came, however, too late for the
battle; yet, as they had a longing to behold the Medes, they continued
their march to Marathon and there viewed the slain. Then, after giving the
Athenians all praise for their achievement, they departed and returned
home.
Book 5 of Herodotus covers the situation in Attica, the origins of the
Ionian Revolt and the uprisings against Persia by the Ionian cities. He
tells how Aristagoras arrived in Greece to enlist help from the Greek
cities especially 5:97 for the Athenian Assembly
Books 7-9 deal with the Second Persian Invasion by Xerxes I in 480BC.
20 | P a g e
What key events took place in Ionia before the Battle of Marathon?
How does this relate to the cultural expectations and codes of behaviour placed upon Athens?
What actions did the Persian forces (fleet and land army) take as they invaded Greece before the
battle at Marathon?
Why was Marathon chosen as the site of battle? Think of strategic and physical reasons.
21 | P a g e
The Battle Formation
Who were the key Athenians involved?
Who were the key Persians involved?
Numbers of troops involved:
Numbers of troops involved:
List the different Greek allies who were also at
Marathon?
Describe the battle.
Troop actions and movements during the course of the battle (include maps of battle)
Events immediately after the Battle – Actions of the Athenian and Persian Commanders including
actions of the Spartans.
What are the limitations of this text?
22 | P a g e
Other Primary Source Accounts of the Battle of Marathon
Although we usually turn to Book 6 of Herodotus to read about the Battle of Marathon,
there are other indirect accounts of the Battle or its impact on Athenian society.
Aristophanes
Aristophanes was alive between 446 and 386 BC. He was an Athenian
playwright of comedic plays. He wrote approximately 40 comedies, of
which only 11 survive. Many of them incorporate key attitudes and
political events of the period and as a result they provide us an insight
into what Athenian attitudes were towards war, peace, and the Persians.
His two most famous plays are Wasps and Frogs. Wasps is of importance
here as it includes a commentary on the survivors and victors of the
Battle of Marathon and satirises the current political corruption within
Athens in 422BC when the play was performed during the Peloponnesian War at a point
when political corruption and questioning of the status quo were common. The main
character’s father represents the generation of men who fought at Marathon:
Wasps
Should it strike you, dear spectators, as a somewhat curious thing / to find me thus embellished
with a wasp-waist and a sting / a word will be sufficient to complete your education / and elucidate
the meaning of our costume and formation / allow me, then, to mention that I feel a certain pride /
in the very handy weapon that protrudes from my backside / for the warriors who possess it are of
native Attic birth, as stubborn and as brave as ever trod the earth / it was we who served the city
best when those barbarians came / to try to smoke us from our nests, and filled the streets with
flame / inflamed with rage; we ran straight out with warlike spear and shield / our hearts were set
on battle, and we faced them in the field / all day we went on fighting, but Athena’s owl had flown /
above our ranks that morning, and we knew we weren’t alone / so thick with arrows was the air,
we couldn’t see the sun / but when the shades of evening fell we had them on the run / we stung
them in eyebrows and we stung them on the cheeks / we jabbed them in the buttocks through their
baggy Persians breeks / and among barbarian nations we’re respected to this day / ‘there’s
nothing more ferocious as an Attic Wasp,’ they say.
Source: Aristophanes, Frogs and Other Plays, trans. David Barrett, Penguin Group, London, 1964.
In his comic play Acharnians, produced in 425 BC, Aristophanes’ Chorus contrast the
heroism of the Athenians who proved victorious at Marathon to current Athenians, whose
valour was disregarded. “Heroes” were prey for those wishing to make a buck, by pushing
false accusations and hoping the accused would settle instead of enduring a lengthy
trial.
23
Acharnians
How is this fair or right, ruining a greybeard in court beside the water-clock? He has borne his
share of toil, he has wiped off manly sweat by the bucket when he fought for the city at Marathon.
In our prime, at Marathon, we pursued the enemy. But nowadays evil men eagerly sue and pursue
us. What can the shysters say to this?
Lines 692-702
This theme of comparing the decline of contemporary Athens with the great heroes of the past is
continued in the play Thesmophoriazusae translated as The Women Celebrating the Festival of
the Thesmophoria or “The Poet and The Women” produced in 411BC during the Peloponnesian
War against Sparta. It focuses on a parody of Athenian society and in particular the subversive
role of women in the male dominated society. The women are planning to hold Euripides another
famous playwright to account for how his misogynistic depiction of women in his plays. The
reference to Marathon acts as an example, as well as a challenge, urging the Athenians to
compete with their glorious past and beat the new Persian menace. (Persia was an ally of Sparta
at this time in the war). The particular reference to Marathon is an appeal to this historical
paradigm challenging the Athenian men to overcome the shortcomings of their recent military
and political activity and a covert indication that dealing with the Persians is a betrayal of the
Athenian tradition.
Thesmophoriazusae
Charminos is weaker than Nausimache (‘Naval Battle’) – the facts are evident – and Cleophon is
in every aspect inferior to Salabaccho.
As for Aristomache (‘Excellent Battle’), that one at Marathon, and Stratonice (‘Army Victory’), it
has been a long time since any of you has even attempted to compete with either one of them
Lines 805-806
Source: AS THREATENING AS THE PERSIANS: EURIPIDES IN ARISTOPHANES’ THESMOPHORIAZUSAE* IOANNA KARAMANOU
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254862505_'As_Threatening_as_the_Persians_Euripides_in_Aristophanes'_Thes
mophoriazusae'_in_C_Carey_ed_Proceedings_of_the_International_Conference_on_the_Completion_of_2500_years_fro
m_the_Battle_of_Marathon_BICS accessed 17/11/16
Aristophanes’ play The Knights, produced 424 BC at the Lenaia, won first prize. The play is a satire
on political and social life in 5th Century BC Athens, and in particular a verbal attack against the
pro-war populist politician, Cleon. In the play, a sausage-seller, Agoracritus, vies with
Paphlagonian (representing Cleon) for the confidence and approval of Demos (an elderly man
who symbolizes the Athenian citizenry) and Agoracritus emerges triumphant from a series of
contests and miraculously restores Demos to his former youth and glory.
Agoracritus returns to the stage, announcing a new development: he has rejuvenated Demos by
boiling him down like a piece of meat, and the new Demos is introduced, wondrously restored to
youth and vigour and dressed in the garb of the old Athenians of the times of the victory at
Marathon. (Source: http://www.ancient-literature.com/greece_aristophanes_knights.html
accessed 17/11/16)
24
The Knights
CLEON
Is it possible, Demos, to love you more than I do? And firstly, as long as you have governed with my
consent, have I not filled your treasury, putting pressure on some, torturing others or begging of them,
indifferent to the opinion of private individuals, and solely anxious to please you?
AGORACRITUS
There is nothing so wonderful in all that, Demos; I will do as much; I will thieve the bread of others to serve
up to you. No, he has neither love for you nor kindly feeling; his only care is to warm himself with your
wood, and I will prove it. You, who, sword in hand, saved Attica from the Median yoke at Marathon; you,
whose glorious triumphs we love to extol unceasingly, look, he cares little whether he sees you
seated uncomfortably upon a stone; whereas I, I bring you this cushion, which I have sewn with my own
hands. Rise and try this nice soft seat. Did you not put enough strain on your bottom at Salamis?
He gives DEMOS the cushion; DEMOS sits on it.
Source http://classics.mit.edu/Aristophanes/knights.html accessed 17/11/16
What are some limitations of Aristophanes as a source?
Consider the purpose of these plays – satire and political diatribes, the timeframe between the
event and the production of this play, possible propaganda vs bias, factual accuracy, would
members of the audience have been eyewitnesses to these events?
To what extent is Aristophanes a reliable or useful source for modern classicists using him to gain
information about the importance of the Battle of Marathon on Athenian society?
How do these portrayals of the men who fought at Marathon show the cultural expectations and
codes of behaviour held by Athenians towards military service and bravery?
25
Aeschylus
Aeschylus was an early Athenian tragic playwright who fought at Marathon and Salamis, and
possibly Plataea, whose brother died at Marathon. His most famous contribution to Greek plays
was the introduction of a second actor. Today, only seven of Aeschylus’s plays survive, although
he wrote more than 90.
Some critics (including Aristotle) have interpreted “The Persians” as being sympathetic toward the
defeated Persians, while others (such as Aristophanes) have seen it as a celebration of Greek
victory within the context of an ongoing war. In fact, it can be argued that “The Persians” is not a
tragedy at all in the true Greek sense, but that its real aim is the triumphant glorification of Athens
and the exultation of the whole nation over the ruin of their foe. Source Luke Matson 2009
http://www.ancient-literature.com/greece_aeschylus_persians.html accessed 17/11/16
His play Persians provides words to Atossa, mother of King Xerxes, upon learning of the Persian
defeat at Salamis. She bewails the Persians killed at Marathon, and attributes her son’s expedition
against the Greeks as retribution for that battle. Aeschylus told the story of the battle from the
viewpoint of the defeated Persians. In this play, Aeschylus included the first ghost scene in theatre.
The Persians takes place in Susa, the capital of Persia. The time is 480 B.C.E., shortly after the battle
of Salamis. The chorus of “trusted ones” have gathered near the tomb of Darius the Great to
await news of King Xerxes' expedition against the Athenians. The chorus describes how King
Darius, Xerxes’ father, created a vast empire but was unable to defeat the Greeks at Marathon.
Naturally, when Xerxes inherited his father’s throne, he desired to be as great as his father was.
Therefore, he launched this expedition to conquer the Greeks and rule the world. The entire
Persian citizenry has been drafted and the capital city is vacant. Now, without word or report of
the war’s progress, those on the home front are oppressed with worry. Wives, mothers and
grandfathers watch as the realm is drained of its youth and splendour.
In Aeschylus’ mind, as well as of most Athenians, to have fought in such an epic battle was more
noteworthy than anything else one can accomplish. While Herodotus is known as the “Father of
History”, Aeschylus is known as the “Father of Tragedy”.
Persians
On, sons of the Hellenes! Fight for the freedom of your country! Fight for the freedom of your children and of
your wives, for the gods of your fathers and for the sepulchers of your ancestors! All are now staked upon the
strife!” / O hateful divinity, how have you foiled the purpose of the Persians! Cruel was the vengeance which my
son brought upon himself for his designs against illustrious Athens; the barbarians whom Marathon destroyed
were not enough. It was in an effort to exact retribution for them that my son has drawn upon himself so great a
multitude of woes.
Even at the time of his death in 456 BC, 35 years after the Battle of Marathon, Aeschylus considers
his participation at Marathon as indicative of his worth as a Greek, and he makes certain that it
appears on the inscription on his gravestone which was written by himself before his death.
Despite having won several prizes for his plays, Aeschylus refrains from showcasing his writing
abilities and instead has chosen to commemorate only his military achievements.
Epitaph of Aeschylus
"This gravestone covers Aeschylus, son of Euphorion, from Athens, who died in fertile Gela. The field of
Marathon will speak of his bravery, and so will the longhaired Mede who learnt it well."
Source: http://www.crystalinks.com/aeschylus.html accessed 17/11/16
NOTE: The historical origins and thus accuracy of this epitaph is unknown and so it may not be the
most reliable primary source evidence.
26
Thucydides
Thucydides was the pupil and mentee of Herodotus. Thucydides heard Herodotus’ recital of his
Histories at a festival and was so taken with Herodotus’ style he cried. Thucydides and Herodotus
became so close to each other, that they were even buried in the same tomb. While Herodotus
was the expert on the Persian Wars, Thucydides was the expert on the Peloponnesian Wars
(fought between Sparta and Athens from 431 to 404 BC) and wrote the History of the
Peloponnesian War.
“my work is not a piece of writing designed to meet the taste of an immediate public, but was
done to last for ever" (1.22.4).
Unlike Herodotus, Thucydides writes in mostly chronological order and uses many “historical”
speeches to expand on his main points to which his Greek audience were familiar with. However
he does not name many of his sources although he was also a contemporary of the battle like
Herodotus. He is regarded as being more neutral and unbiased in his account of the conflict and
towards the different sides involved however he does display a clear bias towards some
individuals involved in the war such as the politician Cleon who was also a target of Aristophanes’
satire.
History of the Peloponnesian Wars 1.73
However, the story shall be told not so much to deprecate hostility as to testify against it, and to show, if you are so illadvised as to enter into a struggle with Athens, what sort of an antagonist she is likely to prove. We assert that at
Marathon we were at the front, and faced the barbarian singlehanded. That when he came the second time, unable to
cope with him by land we went on board our ships with all our people, and joined in the action at Salamis.
History of the Peloponnesian Wars 2.34
The dead are laid in the public sepulchre in the most beautiful suburb of the city, in which those who fall in war are
always buried; with the exception of those slain at Marathon, who for their singular and extraordinary valour were
interred on the spot where they fell.
Simonides of Ceos
A lyric poet (c. 556-468 BC) he composed an epitaph for the fallen, noting that they are
“Greece’s champions” and that, much as David defeated Goliath, they “laid low the might of the
gold-apparelled Persians.” The Athenians were not decked out in gold and did not have a
cavalry or extensive weaponry. However, as Simonides makes evident, they proved their worth
against insurmountable odds: Fighting as Greece's champions the Athenians at Marathon Laid
low the might of the gold-apparelled Persians. A similar epitaph was written for the Spartans after
Thermopylae: “Tell them in Lacedaemon, passer-by / That here, obedient to their word, we lie”.
How do these portrayals of the Persians and Athenians who fought at Marathon show similarities
and or differences?
27
Archaeological Evidence
Funeral Mound (tumulus) and Battlefield Debris
Marathon around 1838:
Arrow Heads:
Source:
http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/rpr/index.php/component/joomgaller
y/the-oxford-collection/figure-6-marathon-around-1838-823Itemid=41.html
Source: http://www.livius.org/pictures/greece/marathon/marathon-
Marathon today:
arrowheads/ accessed 17/11/16
Spear Heads:
Source: http://www.athensattica.gr/en/you-are-here/what-tosee/sightseeing/item/5407-tumulus-of-marathon accessed
17/11/16
Helmet:
Source: http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/rpr/index.php/object-biographyindex/1-prmcollection/648-marathon-spearheads/ accessed
17/11/16
Source: https://seanmunger.com/2014/01/02/42-historicalobjects-no-5-athenian-helmet-from-the-battle-of-marathon/
accessed 17/11/16
28
Artwork
Ancient Greek artists almost never depicted historical events in their artwork unlike their literary
counterparts who referred to specific battles and individuals in their texts or transcripts. In order to
show the importance of the Athenian and Greek victory over the Persians, sculptors and painters
instead preferred to showcase victory using mythological battles with a preference for the
Amazons to represent their ideas about the greatness of Athens.
Vase Paintings
Inscriptions/ Monumental Releifs
Theseion – The Temple of Hephaiston Athens
Exterior and Interior Relief
Red Figure Volute Krater (Wine Mixing Bowl) by the
Painter of the Woolly Satyrs ca 450BC
http://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/247
964 accessed 18/11/16
(Photo Sources: B McKeage 2006)
Temple of Athene Nike on the Acropolis rebuilt
approx. 420BC
Oinochoe by the Chicago Painter c 450BC (23cm h)
depicting Greek and Persian
Source:
http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/pitcheroinochoe-with-greek-warrior-attacking-persian-archer153828 accessed 18/11/16
Source
https://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/Sculpture/ashmolean/site/Tem
pleAthenaNike.htm accessed 18/11/16
29
Bell Krater (mixing bowl) by the Pan Painter
Source: http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/mixingbowl-bell-krater-153654 accessed 18/11/16
(note: the depiction of Pan represents the Panic that
went through the Persian forces)
South Frieze
Red Figure Kylix (drinking cup) depicting Greek and
Persian 5th C BC
Source: http://www.wikiwand.com/en/GrecoPersian_Wars accessed 18/11/16
Source:
http://museum.classics.cam.ac.uk/collections/casts/templeathena-nike-acropolis-south-frieze accessed 18/11/16
Other examples of vases are available see you teacher
for permission to use them.
Reconstruction at Delphi of the Treasury of Athens built to
commemorate the victory at Marathon
Source:
https://catbirdingreece.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/p910573
8.jpg accessed 29/11/016
30
Stoa Poikile (Painted Portico) in Athens
(Photo Sources: B McKeage 2006)
Depiction of wall painting that was at the Stoa Polike
(Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marathon_battle_in_Stoa_Poikile,_Carl_R
obert.jpg)
Sarcophagus (tomb) depicting Battle of Marathon from Brescia, Museo di Santa Giulia
Source: http://www.livius.org/pictures/greece/marathon/marathon-relief/
More digital resources:
An audio version of Herodotus’ Histories Book 6
Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=87mcxeogHPo
Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IdsUnsbF1Kg
Battle of Marathon http://www.stjohnbrebeuf.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/Herodotus-Battle-ofMarathon.pdf
For commentary on Book 6 go to http://www.reed.edu/humanities/Hum110/Hdt/Hdt6.html
31
How do these literary accounts and archaeological artefacts show similarities or differences to
Herodotus’ explanation of the Battle?
What are the limitations of these archaeological sources?
32
LEVEL 2 CLASSICAL STUDIES 2017
RANGITOTO COLLEGE INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
CLASSICAL STUDIES
Classical Studies AS91202 version 2
Demonstrate understanding of a significant event in the classical
world
Resource title: Let Battle Commence
4 Credits
University Entrance – Reading Credits NCEA Literacy Credits
Contents:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
●
Achievement Standard
Task Instructions
Assessment Notes: Placing Battle in Context and Examination of Sources
Hand-in Date and Checkpoints
Resources
Exemplars
Overview
Marking Schedule
Authenticity Statement
34
35
36
38
39
40
41
43
44
33
2
Achievement Standard
Subject Reference
Title
Level
Subfield
Domain
Status
Review date
Classical Studies 2.3
Demonstrate understanding of a significant event in
the classical world
2
Credits
4
Assessment
Internal
Social Science Studies
Classical Studies
Registered
Status date
17 November 2011
31 December 2018
Date published 20 November 2014
Demonstrate in-depth understanding involves:
 placing the event in context to give an informed
explanation of why the event was important.
Features of an informed explanation include:
 using primary source evidence of specific relevance to the
context
 explaining a range of aspects and/or factors.
This achievement standard involves demonstrating understanding of
a significant event in the classical world.
Demonstrate perceptive understanding involves:
 giving an explanation that shows insight into why the event
was important.
Features of a perceptive explanation may include but are not
limited to:
 reasons for similarities and differences
 cultural expectations and codes of behaviour
 recognition of limitations of sources of evidence.
Achievement Criteria
Achievement
Achievement with
Merit
Achievement with
Excellence
 Demonstrate
understanding of a
significant event in
the classical world.
 Demonstrate indepth
understanding of a
significant event in
the classical world.
 Demonstrate
perceptive
understanding of a
significant event in
the classical world.
3
Significant event may refer to events in the classical world such
as:
 the Persian Wars
 the rebuilding of the Acropolis under Pericles
 the Peloponnesian War
 the fall of the Republic
 the eruption of Vesuvius
 Masada.
Elaboration of specific contexts is provided in the Teaching and
Learning Guide.
4
Conditions of Assessment related to this achievement standard
can be found at http://ncea.tki.org.nz/Resources-for-InternallyAssessed-Achievement-Standards.
Explanatory Notes
1
This achievement standard is derived from Level 7 of the Social
Sciences learning area of The New Zealand Curriculum,
Learning Media, Ministry of Education, 2007, and is related to
the material in the Teaching and Learning Guide for Classical
Studies, Ministry of Education, 2010 at
http://seniorsecondary.tki.org.nz.
Demonstrate understanding involves:
 using primary source evidence
 placing the event in context to explain why the event was
important.
34
Internal Assessment Resource
Student Instructions
Assessment Conditions
This assessment task will take three weeks of homework time and two weeks of in-classtime. On completion of the assessment you must sign and hand in an authenticity
certificate to verify that their work is your own. You must submit an accurate bibliography
that includes all sources that you have used in this activity. This will be used for
authentication purposes.
For more information on referencing and bibliographies, please check your Year 12
Classics Google Folder.
Introduction
In class you have studied the Persian Wars with a specific focus on the Battle of Marathon.
You have focused on the origins of the Persian Wars, the various battles and participants
who fought in the wars and studied the results of the wars on Athenian society. This has
helped you to develop an understanding of the significance of the Battle of Marathon on
the classical world.
This assessment task requires you to demonstrate your understanding of the Battle of
Marathon by using specific and relevant primary source evidence (examples of primary
source evidence are provided in this resource booklet) to place the battle in context and
explain the importance of the event.
In your explanation, you should consider a range of aspects/factors to demonstrate a
perceptive understanding of why the event was important to Athenian society which
may include but are not limited to:



Reasons for similarities and differences.
Cultural expectations and codes of behaviour.
Recognition of limitations of sources of evidence.
Support your explanation with primary and secondary source evidence that is specific
and relevant to the context.
Task
This internal requires you to demonstrate an understanding of a significant event in the
classical. In this case you will:
Demonstrate understanding of a significant event in the classical world:


Using primary source evidence to place the Battle of Marathon in context by
explaining the causes of the Persian Wars, the course of the Battle including key
information on key participants, and tactics and manoeuvres used in the battle.
Explain the significance of the battle for Athenian society using primary source
evidence. This could include reference to its social, cultural, military or political
importance.
35
You will present you assessment as text for an illustrated presentation about the Battle of
Marathon in 490 BC in one of the following presentation methods:





An informative poster for a classroom
A booklet for Years 9/10
A newspaper article
An interview with the commander of the Athenian and / or Persian forces
Other forms of presentation are acceptable, however, your teacher must approve
it.
Only the written component of the presentation is marked, however, you still need to
incorporate a visual element to your presentation. Make specific and accurate reference
to translated primary source extracts from ancient authors in your presentation and
assemble relevant illustrations of works of art or artefacts in order to provide primary and
secondary evidence to support what you are saying.
These ancient primary sources must come from the following materials provided to you:
Herodotus, Aristophanes, Aeschylus, Thucydides, Simonides as well as archaeological
evidence. Extracts of these sources can be found in this booklet.
You should aim to write 1000-1500 words, keeping mind that the quality of your ideas is
more important than the quantity of your words you write.
In your written text place the battle in context and examine a range of aspects/factors
contributing to the importance of the Battle of Marathon.
To place the Battle of Marathon in context, you will need to explain the origins of the Persian
Wars with a brief background on the Athenian and Persian society during this period. Also
discuss information about the participants, commanders and who was involved for the
Athenians and Persians, with numbers of forces and details of the battle itself.
The significance of the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC for our knowledge of ancient Athenian
life can include an explanation of its impact on the following aspects:
● politics
● social classes
● military life
● entertainment
● foreign influence
Provided examples of primary sources include:
● Primary evidence surviving from the classical world, including written material in
translation and artefacts of all kinds.
● Literary: Extracts from ancient authors (Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristophanes,
Aeschylus), burial or monument inscriptions
● Art: Depiction of Battle and participants in Greek pottery and sculptural relief
● Other Archaeological remains (e.g. burial tombs, statues, memorials, examples of
armour and weapons)
● Secondary sources include evidence drawn from later commentaries, for example,
books, websites, encyclopaedias, and later works of art and architecture. (This can
include diagrams and maps of battle sites and formations)
36
2.3 Let Battle Commence - The Battle of Marathon
Achieved
Demonstrate understanding of a significant event in
the classical world.
Place the significant event in its context by
explaining why the event was important
To place the battle in context, explain
aspects/factors contributing to the significance of
the battle such as:
● The composition of the combatants
(Athenian vs Persian forces).
● The background to the battle.
● The location of the battle site and battle
formations (show this information on a map or
diagram).
● Events following the battle.
● Impact of the battle on Athenian Society
(e.g. socially, culturally, militarily, politically)
Use primary source evidence to support your
explanation of the context
Merit
Excellence
Demonstrate in-depth understanding of a significant
event in the classical world.
Place the significant event in its context to give an
informed explanation of why the event was
important
Demonstrate perceptive understanding of a
significant event in the classical world
Place the significant event in its context to give an
insightful explanation of why the event was
important
To place the battle in context, explain a range of
aspects/factors contributing to the significance of
the battle such as:
● The composition of the combatants (Athenian
vs Persian forces).
● The background to the battle.
● The location of the battle site and battle
formations (show this information on a map or
diagram).
● Events following the battle.
● Impact of the battle on Athenian Society
(e.g. socially, culturally, militarily, politically)
Use specific and relevant primary source evidence
to support your explanation of the context.
To place the battle in context, explain a range of
aspects/factors contributing to the significance of
the battle for such as:
● The composition of the combatants (Athenian
vs Persian forces).
● The background to the battle.
● The location of the battle site and battle
formations (show this information on a map or
diagram).
● Events following the battle.
● Impact of the battle on Athenian Society
(e.g. socially, culturally, militarily, politically)
REMEMBER TO SUBMIT A BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR AUTHENTICATION PURPOSES
Features of a perceptive explanation may include
but are not limited to :
 reasons for similarities and differences,
 cultural expectations and codes of
behaviour,
 recognition of the limitations of the sources of
evidence.
For Excellence: Select AT LEAST two of the following points to examine perceptively (other points are possible, please discuss with your teacher):
● Reasons for similarities and differences
e.g. in the battle tactics used by the Athenian Hoplites/Cavalry vs Persian army/archers.
e.g in the government after the battle
● Cultural expectations and codes of behaviour
e.g. private and public motives of the leaders involved in the battle
e.g. the relationships between the peoples involved in the battle,
e.g. how the citizens of Athens viewed the participants, the battle and its consequences on Athenian society
● Recognition of limitations of sources of evidence.
e.g. discussing the issues surrounding the reporting of the Battle: possibility of bias in historical sources
37
Check-points and hand-in date
The due date for this assessment is Monday 3rd April.
YOU MUST SUBMIT YOUR INTERNAL TO K5 BEFORE 8:40AM ON THIS DATE.
There will also be three check-in points along the way.
1. The first check-in point will be Thursday March 16th. You must submit your first draft
identifying your selection of PSE that you will be focusing on to explain the context
of the battle to your teacher by this date.
2. The second check-in point will be Thursday March 23rd. You must submit your draft
using specific and relevant PSE to explain the context of the battle and
importance of the battle on Athenian Society to your teacher by this date.
3. The third check-in point will be Thursday March 30th. This checkpoint will take place
within class. It will be expected you have finalised your explanations of importance
of the battle. A final draft of your assessment is due to your teacher by this date.
These checkpoints are designed for a variety of reasons:
 For your teacher to give you feedback on your work. They will give you suggestions
for things to fix up/consider adding and will let you know what is working.
 For your teacher to ensure that you are up to date and you are not leaving things
to the last minute.
 For you to get an idea about how you’re going before you hand in your final copy.
All drafts of your work must be electronic format such as google docs and shared with
your teacher for checking purposes.
NB: These check-ins are a requirement of your internal and are not optional.
If at any time these check-in points are not meet contact will be made with home to
ensure completion of these assessment task deadlines.
PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is when you have taken information from a certain source and have not
acknowledged you have done so. Teachers have the right to check for authenticity of a
student’s work. If you are found to have plagiarised and/ or copied another student’s
work will result in a NOT ACHIEVED for both parties and could face disciplinary
consequences.
Submission Checklist
K5 before 8:40 am
✓
✓
✓
✓
Submit a copy of your illustrated presentation
Submit a bibliography
Submit the signed Authenticity Certificate
Submit the named marking schedule
38
Resources
The Classics Department will make available a selection of books and other resources
while researching in class. It is expected however that you do your own research beyond
these resources.
Rangitoto College Library: Books from the Rangitoto College Library have been put on
desk copy. You will have access to these while in the library.
Aristophanes, The Frogs and Other Plays: Wasp; Women at the Thesmophoria; Penguin Books 2007.
Artus, Paul, The Battle of Marathon Bellona Books
Bradley, Pamela, Ancient Greece : using evidence Cambridge University Press 2001.
Bury, J.B. and Meiggs, Russell, A history of Greece, Palgrave Macmillan 1978.
David, Saul, The encyclopedia of war : from Ancient Egypt to Iraq DK Publishing (Dorling Kindersley) 2009
Estensen, Miriam G., Understanding Ancient Worlds Science Press 1995
Herman Hansen, Mogen, The Athenian Democracy in the age of Demosthenes : structure, principles and
ideology University of Oklahoma Press 1999.
Herodotus, The Histories Penguin Books 2003.
Kitto, H.D, The Greeks, Penguin Books 1991.
Nardo, Don, A History of the Ancient Greeks, Lucent Books 2004.
Nelson, Eric D. et al, The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Ancient Greece Alpha 2005.
Sansone, David, Ancient Greek civilization Wiley-Blackwell 2003.
Stockton, David, The Classical Athenian Democracy Oxford University Press 1990.
Websites:
Herodutus Histories extract of Book Six The Battle of Marathon
http://www.sjsu.edu/people/james.lindahl/courses/Hum1A/s3/Marathonsm.pdf
Herodotus and his Histories http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/1320Hist&Civ/PP/slides/02herodotus.pdf
Herodotus – The Persian Wars: The Battle of Marathon (primary source)
www.thenagain.info/classes/sources/herodotus-marathon.html
Herodotus on the Victory at Marathon (primary source) – from the History Guide (UK)
www.historyguide.org/ancient/marathon.html
The History of Herodotus (primary source) – full text version of the entire work by Herodotus from MIT.
http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html
Background on the Battle of Marathon (worksheet PDF) – from Guilford High School (CT)
www.guilford.k12.ct.us/sites/rebhunj/documents/DAY6MARATHON.pdf
History of Herodotus (worksheet PDF)
http://dcgacademics.com/csd/highschool/socialstudies/U2%20Classical%20Gr...
The Marathon Story: The Battle that Changed Human History www.lakepowell.net/marathon.html
The Battle of Marathon, 490 BCE
www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/marathon.htm
Pheidippides Heroic Journey – true story of the “marathon” runner
www.helleniccomserve.com/pheidippides.html
The Battle of Marathon (PowerPoint) www.slideshare.net/calmacarlo/the-battle-of-marathon
Ancient Battles: Victory at Marathon (video). 45-minute video from the History Channel.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=v7dZU8sPR18
Decisive Battles: Marathon (video). 22-minute video from the History Channel.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_jVCzTfIqY
Battle of Marathon – Wikipedia article www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon
First Persian Invasion of Greece – Wikipedia article
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Persian_invasion_of_Greece
Remember to check out www.rangiclassics.com for interesting websites and tips for
success.
39
Exemplars for 2.3 – Significant Event: The Persian Wars
Evidence/Judgements for Achievement
Evidence/Judgements for Achievement with Merit
Evidence/Judgements for Achievement with
Excellence
The student has written a response that places the event
in context and explains why the battle was significant
using primary source evidence.
The student has written a response that places the event
in context and gives informed explanation, through the
inclusion of relevant primary evidence, of a range of
aspects/factors contributing to the significance of the
battle.
The student has written a response that places the event
in context and gives explanation showing insight,
through the inclusion of relevant primary evidence, of a
range of aspects/factors contributing to the significance
of the battle.
For example: an informed explanation of an aspect of
the importance of the sea battle of Salamis (480 BCE):
After the battle of Salamis, won decisively by a
combined Greek fleet of Athenians and other states, the
Persian navy withdrew to Samos in Asia. The poet
Aeschylus wrote that the defeat of the Persian seaenemy at sea was the defeat of the Persian land-enemy
as well, because they were leaving their army in Greece
without the means of receiving supplies. However the
Persian land force left behind managed to winter over
successfully in the north of mainland Greece.
This was because the outcome of the battle had proved
his plan to establish Athens as a sea power had been
justified and his stratagem to lure and trap the Persians
had worked well.
Also included: a reproduction of a Greek vase painting
of the time, depicting a warrior or warship.
For example: an explanation showing insight of an
aspect of the importance of the sea battle of Salamis
(480 BCE):
In the battle of Salamis the Persians lost decisively to the
Greek fleet after the Athenian commander Themistocles
managed to fool Xerxes, the leader of the Persians. He
sent a slave to say that he himself was inclined to be on
their side and that the Greek fleets consisting of the
Athenians, combined with the other Greek states’ fleets,
were about to flee in disarray. There had in fact been
much argument between the different Greeks about
strategy, for they were not used to co-operative effort,
but they prevailed by trapping the Persian ships in
narrows and ramming them. The Persian navy withdrew
to Samos in Asia and as a consequence their army in
Greece was left without the means of receiving supplies.
The claim of the poet Aeschylus that the defeat of the
Persian sea-enemy at sea was the defeat of the Persian
land-enemy as well was true only for a short while. The
Persian army managed to winter over in Thessaly and
were ready to fight again in the spring against Athens
and Sparta, with Thebes as their ally. This was because his
plan to establish Athens as a sea power had been
justified. The naval policy of the Delian League, formed
afterwards in 478BCE became a continuation of the
Greek success in Salamis.
This victory of the Greeks inspired artists and authors of
drama. The battle, the turning point in the Persians’
attempts at an invasion of Greece, did not itself end the
war, but it showed that a people living under a
democratic system was able to defeat one ruled by an
autocrat.
Also included: a reproduction of a Greek vase painting
of the time, depicting a warrior or warship.
For example: an explanation of an aspect of the
importance of the sea battle of Salamis (480 BCE):
The Persians lost the battle of Salamis to the combined
Greek fleet. It was a decisive battle, in which Persian
ships, confined in narrows, rammed each other by
accident and were rammed deliberately by the Greeks,
under the leadership of Themistocles.
The Persian navy withdrew to Asia, with the result that
their army in Greece had their supply-line cut off, but
Xerxes had no intention of stopping his attempts to
invade and conquer Greece. He knew that he had the
north of Greece under control, even although his navy
was shattered.
Because of this naval victory, Themistocles was highly
praised. The outcome of the battle had proved that his
plan to establish Athens as a sea power had been
justified
40
Let Battle Commence!
Your strategy to victory in the 2.3 Campaign
PLACE BATTLE IN CONTEXT
Causes of the Persian War
Situation of the Persian Empire
Situation of the Greek Empire
SIGNIFICANT EVENT
Consider these aspects:
Politics/Government
Military
Social
Marathon 490 BC
Break down the Battle into its
KEY COMPONENTS
Consider these aspects:
When
Where
Who (Leaders, Numbers of
Combatants)
What
Why
How
Result
Do this to show understanding of military
makeup of the Greek and Persian forces,
the battle tactics used, and the outcome of
the battle.
PERCEPTIVENESS
Carefully Navigate the
Waters towards to find your
information
HALT!
WHERE IS YOUR
PRIMARY SOURCE
EVIDENCE (PSE)?
IS IT IN YOUR OWN
WORDS OR CORRECTLY
QUOTED
Consider these:
Reasons for Similarities and
Differences
Cultural Expectations and Codes of
Behaviour
Limitations of Sources
HALT!
WHERE IS YOUR
PRIMARY SOURCE
EVIDENCE (PSE)?
Explain insightfully why the Battle of Marathon
was significant for Athenian Society.
Consider these aspects:
Social
Historical
Economic
Environmental
Political
Cultural
+ve / -ve
Short Term vs Long Term
Do this to show understanding of the battle’s
importance on Athenian society
PRESENTATION
Consider these Formats:
 A classroom poster
 A booklet for Years 9/10 textbook
 A newspaper article
 An interview with the commander of the
Athenian and / or Persian forces
DISCUSS ALL PLANNING WITH YOUR
TEACHER
IS IT IN YOUR OWN
WORDS OR CORRECTLY
QUOTED?
SIGNIFICANCE OF BATTLE
SOURCES
Have you included correct Source
information?
Bibliography
You must submit an accurate
bibliography that includes all
sources that you have used in
this activity. This will be used for
authentication purposes.
Refer to www.rangiclassics.com
for bibliography exemplars.
Any authenticity issues or
plagiarism could result in a NOT
ACHIEVED
41
PAGE LEFT BLANK ON PURPOSE
42
Student Name:
Teacher: GTV | MCG | KRP
Marking Schedule – This is used as a guideline for your marker.
Demonstrate understanding of a significant event in the classical world
Standard
Title
Standar 91202
Version 2
Level
2
Credits
4
d
Achieved
Merit
Excellence
Demonstrate
Demonstrate in-depth
Demonstrate perceptive
understanding of a
understanding of a
understanding of a significant
significant event in the
significant event in the
event in the classical world.
classical world.
classical world.
Non-assessed tasks (✓):
Bibliography
Key requirements (✓):
A
M
E
Has placed the significant event in context (C).
Has provided an explanation of the significance of the
battle for our knowledge of Athenian socio-political life
(S).
Used primary source evidence to support their
explanation (PSEa).
Has provided an informed explanation of the significant
event in context (IC).
Has provided an informed explanation of a range of
aspects/factors contributing to the significance of the
battle for our knowledge of Athenian socio-political life
(IS).
Has used primary source evidence of specific
relevance to the context (PSEm).
Has provided an explanation which shows insight into
the significance of the Battle of Marathon (I).
Has demonstrated understanding of some of the
following perceptively (P): providing and explaining
reasons for similarities and differences (RSD), limitations
on sources of evidence (L), explaining cultural
expectations and codes of behaviour (CC). Note: other
points are possible.
CIRCLE OVERALL GRADE
Resubmission:
Y
Reason:
N
A
M
E
N
Comments:
Marker & Date:
Check-Marker & Date:
Fix-Up Marker & Date:
43
Classics Studies 91202
Authenticity Certificate
Name: ______________________________________________________________________________
Option: ___________________________
Teacher Code:
GTV | MCG | KRP
I state that this task is an original piece of work that I completed on my own, with some
direction from my teacher, for this subject, this year.
I understand what the term Plagiarism means and state that there are no plagiarised
pieces of information within my work.
I accept that if there is evidence to the contrary, I will receive a NOT ACHIEVED grade for
the Achievement Standard/s in question.
Signed: ______________________________________________________________________________
Date: ________________________________________________________________________________
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