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Joy Stanilka
2/1/2016
Topics To Know
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Cell structure and function
Levels of organization
Evolution: evidence and theories
Evolution: Classification of organisms (Taxonomy)
Diffusion and Osmosis
Ecology: Interrelationships
Plants and Photosynthesis
Genetics (Dominance, Segregation and Independent Assortment)
DNA
Research Procedures (data, light and electron microscope,
variables, constants, Lab Safety)
• Human A& P (see following slide – a lot of information to know!! )
• Health (Nutrition, Diet and Exercise; Sterilization Antisepsis and
Cleanliness; Smoking Alcohol and Drugs; Food Prep and Storage;
Disease Transmission*****
Topics To Know: A & P
• Digestion
• Circulation: Cardiovascular and Lymphatic Systems
• Respiration & Cellular Respiration
• Regulation: Nervous System
• Regulation: Endocrine System
• Support & Movement: The Musculoskeletal System
(Bones, Connective Tissue, Muscles)
• Excretion
• Reproduction
• Senses (sight, hearing)
Scientific Method
1. Form a question with a measurable outcome
2. Begin research on the topic (background
information)
3. Make a hypothesis (educated idea that answers
original question)
4. Test the hypothesis, conduct experiment
– Determines if the hypothesis is true or false
5. Analyze data, draw conclusions
– If the hypothesis is false, redesign the hypothesis and
make a new experiment
– If the hypothesis is true design further experiments
to validate results
Research Methods: Experimental
Design
• variables: measurable factors that change
during an experiment
– Independent variables: changed by the
experimenter
– Dependent variables: changes in response to the
independent variable
• constants: factors that do not change in the
experiment, often used to compare the
response of variables over time
Ferulic Acid Activation
Gamma Delta Activation from Ferulic Acid
Treatment (Exp.20)
Gamma Delta Activation from Ferulic Acid
Treatment (Exp.21)
25000
MFI of CD69
MFI of CD69
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0
20
40
60
Ferulic Acid (μg)
80
100
Ferulic Acid 24hr
Ferulic Acid 10 day
900000
800000
700000
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Ferulic Acid (μg)
Ferulic Acid 24hr
Ferulic Acid 10 day
Dependent Variable – MFI of cell surface marker CD69
Independent Variable – 3 concentrations of Ferulic Acid Used
10μg, 50μg, 100 μg
Lab Safety
• Emergency procedures – location of :
– fire extinguishers
– eye wash and shower stations
– body wash & decontamination areas
– alarm locations
KEEP AREA CLEAR
– emergency exits
– Signage on patient doors !!!!!!!
Lab Safety
Microscope
Light
2000x using light
Electron
2 x 106 using beam of electrons
Scientific Notation
Speed of Light
299,792,458 m/s or 2.99 x 108 m/s
On the other hand, the weight of an alpha
particle, which is emitted in the radioactive decay
of Plutonium-239, is
0.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,006,645 kg
Or 6.645 x 10-27 kg
Scientific Notation
Andromeda
Galaxy is the
closest to our
own and is
visible from
earth even with
the naked
eye…….
24,000,000,000,000,000,000
Kilometers from earth
Move the decimal over to the left until
it is between 2 numbers greater than 1
And you get 2.4 x 1019 km
Metrics
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King
Henry
Doesn’t
Usually
Drink
Chocolate
Milk
Made
Near
Poo
KILO
HECTO
DEKA
BASE UNIT (meters, liters or grams)
DECI
CENTI
MILLI
MICRO (106 from base)
NANO (109 from base)
PICO (1012 from base)
Evolution
1859 Charles Darwin “On the Origin of the
Species by Means of Natural Selection”
– evolved from ancestors
– evolution comes from natural selection
Natural Selection: traits that promote or
enhance organisms ability to
survive and reproduce are
passed on to following
generations
Evolution: Fossil Record
• Evolution is a theory but evidence comes from
the fossil record which gives a timeline of the
appearance of different organisms
• Carbon dating of fossils helps to create the
timeline
Fish
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds & Mammals
Evolution
• Biogeography: geographical distribution of plants
and animals
• Comparative anatomy: comparison of organisms’
structures
• Comparative embryology: comparing organisms’
embryos
• Molecular biology: biology at the molecular level
Evolution Today
Organisms resistant to
antibiotics
Pesticide resistant
insects
GMO mosquitos
C. difficile
http://time.com/3681770/gmomosquito-florida/
Earth’s History
• Precambrian Era: 455 billion years ago. Oceans
developed and lead to rise of single celled
organisms
• Paleozoic Era: 4.55 x 109 -2.54 x 108 years ago.
Appearance of plant, fish, reptiles, and
amphibians
• Mesozoic Era: 254 x 108 – 6.7 x 107 years ago.
Age of the Dinosaurs. Small mammals arose
Earth’s History: Cenozoic Era
• Tertiary period : 57.8 million-20,000 yrs ago.
Includes the where large mammals, apes and
primitive humans arose, also includes Ice Age.
• Quaternary Period: modern times. Covers the
last 10,000 yrs, where man learned how to
grow crops, make and use tools, domesticate
animals and use metals, beginning of history
Taxonomy
• The classification of living things according to
common characteristics
Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Taxonomy: Domains
• single celled prokaryote
Bacteria
• No cytoskeleton
• asexual reproduction
(binary fission or budding)
• DNA doesn’t organize
within a nucleus
• no organelles
Taxonomy:
Domains Archaea
• single celled prokaryote
• adapt quickly to extremes
such as high temps, high
acidity, high salinity and
high sulfuric environment
• Wide variety of food
sources (metals and
oxygen)
• Are mostly plankton
• More closely related to
eukaryotes than Bacteria.
Taxonomy:
Domains
Eukaryra
Dinoflagellates are
an example
of eukaryra
• Consists of plants, animals,
protists and fungi
• Different than prokaryotes
because they have an
organized nucleus and cells
contain organelles
• Multiply via mitosis and
meiosis
• More flexible in forming
colonies, such as multi
cellular organisms like
humans
Kingdom
• Monera: Prokaryotes, bacteria, nutrition by
absorption, unicellular
• Archaea: unicellular prokaryotes; adapt to extreme
conditions, unusual nutrition (photosynthetic or
chemosynthetic)
• Protista: mostly unicellular eukaryotes; nutrition by
photosynthesis (algae), absorption or ingestion
(protozoa). Also includes some molds.
Kingdom
• Plantae: Eukaryotes, multicellular, produce food by
photosynthesis, contain rigid cellulose cell walls and
chlorophyll a and b, food stored as starch, autotrophs,
plants, cell reproduction by mitosis and meiosis
• Animalia: Eukaryotes, multicellular, must obtain food
from outside source and digested in an internal cavity,
heterotrophs, most capable of movement, animals, cell
reproduction by mitosis and meiosis
• Fungi: multicellular eukaryotes, obtain food from
outside source by absorption, heterotrophs, almost
never capable of movement, usually have filaments,
spore formation during asexual and sexual
reproduction (molds, mushrooms, yeasts)
Matter
• 3 phases: Solid, Liquid, Gas
• Gas Laws
– Charles’ Law: V1T1 = V2T2. At constant pressure,
the temperature of a gas is proportional to its
volume
↑ Volume = ↑ Temperature
Matter-gas laws (cont)
– Boyle’s Law: V1P1 = V2P2. At a constant temperature,
the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure
↑ Volume = ↓ Pressure
Matter-gas laws (cont.)
• Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT. Indicates that the
relationship between pressure, temperature
and volume is constant
Osmosis in Red Blood Cells
Isotonic = concentration inside the cell is the same as the concentration outside
Hypotonic = solute concentration outside the cell is lower than inside the cell
Hypertonic = solute concentration outside the cell is higher than inside the cell
Diffusion
• Particles move randomly throughout a space
from areas of high concentration to low
concentration (ex. Open a bottle of perfume in
a room)
• Osmosis : type of diffusion specific to water
that moves from an area of high water
concentration to an area of low water
concentration
A & P: Musculoskeletal System
• Bones, connective tissue and muscle
• Support and protection of internal organs,
movement
• Red marrow: located in the long bones, place
where blood cells are made
• Osteocytes: type of cell in the bone that produce a
hard, calcium rich extracellular matrix
• ligaments : connect bones to other bones
• Tendons: connect muscles to bones
• Cartilage: cushion bones at the joints
A & P: Musculoskeletal System
• Axial portion of the
skeleton = skull,
vertebrae, ribs, sternum
• Appendicular =
shoulders, arms, pelvis,
legs
• Joints = connect bones to
skeletons
• Sutures = immovable
joints that join bones in
skull
• Movable
• Ball and socket
• Hinge
• Sliding or gliding
A & P: Musculoskeletal System
• Muscles use an enormous amount of energy in the
form of ATP.
1. Cardiac muscle: only in the heart, involuntary
2. Smooth muscle: involuntary, found in internal
organs of digestive tract and in blood vessels
3. Skeletal muscle: striated muscle b/c
appearance of individual muscle cells or fibers;
move bones and are responsible for voluntary
movements. Attached to bones by tendons,
move the bones when they contract and
shorten.
A & P: Musculoskeletal System
Skeletal muscles are found in opposing pairs
Flexor: any of the muscles that decrease the angle between
bones on two sides of a joint
Extensor: returns the limb to anatomical position, muscle that extends or
straightens a limb or body part
Musculoskeletal Example
Questions
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Which is an example of connective tissue?
Striated muscle
Epidermis
Nerve
tendon
A & P: Digestion
• Breaking down of nutrients into small, soluble
molecules that can be absorbed into the
blood.
– Mechanical digestion: breaking food down into
smaller pieces, increase surface area making it
easier to swallow and digest
– Chemical digestion: breaking nutrients into
smaller molecules
• Hydrolysis: process by which chemical digestion takes
place, splitting molecules by adding H2O
• Enzymes (hydrolases): speed up chemical digestion
A & P:
Digestion
Alimentary Canal
• The alimentary canal
includes the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and
anus.
• Tube that extends between 2
openings, the mouth and
anus.
• Carries out specific phases of
digestion through
mechanical digestion,
chemical digestion and
absorption.
• The liver, gallbladder and
pancreas are accessory
organs in the system.
A & P: Digestion
The lining of the stomach releases gastric juice
gastric juice: made up of HCl (contributing to the acidic pH
in the stomach) and proteases (protein digesting enzymes)
Chyme: partially digested liquid food mixed by the smooth
muscles in the stomach and released into the small
intestine.
Chyme is released in small
portions through the pyloric
sphincter into the small
intestine
A & P:
Digestion
• The liver produces bile that is
stored in the gallbladder and
helps break down fats.
– The pancreas supplies
enzymes needed for digestion.
• Villi line the small intestine
and help absorption take
place. In addition the surface
area of the intestine is
increased to aid with
absorption of end products
into the blood and lymph.
Nutrient
Enzymes
carbohydrate
Amylase
Sucrase
maltase
protein
proteases
lipids
lipases
End
Product
Location
starts in
mouth,
glucose
completed
in small
intestine
starts in the
stomach, is
amino acids completed
in the small
intestine
Fatty acid
Small
and glycerol intestine
Example Digestion Questions
1. The alimentary canal is associated with the:
a. Spinal cord
b. Digestive system
c. Urinary tract
d. Birth canal
2. The numerous villi in the small intestine serve to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Secrete enzymes for digestion
Absorb water from dissolved foods
Secrete hydrochloric acid to dissolve food
Provide greater surface area for absorption
Example Digestion Questions
1. To be absorbed by cells, proteins must be changed to:
a. Amino acids
b. Sucrose
c. Fatty acids
d. Glycerol
2. If a persons gallbladder were removed by surgery, which of the
following substances would they have the most difficulty digesting?
a. Carbohydrates
b. Nucleic acids
c. Fats
d. proteins
A & P : Respiration
A& P: Circulation - Cardiovascular &
Lymphatic Systems
• Circulation: transport of fluid throughout the
body allowing for gas exchange, absorption of
nutrients and disposal of waste.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM = cardiovascular system +
lymphatic system
A& P: Circulation - Cardiovascular &
Lymphatic Systems
• Cardiovascular system: heart, blood vessels,
blood
A& P: Circulation - Cardiovascular &
Lymphatic Systems
Systole : pressure
increases when the
heart contracts
Diastole: pressure
is lowered when the
heart is relaxed
Types of circulation:
Coronary = blood, pulmonary = lungs, systemic = body
A& P: Circulation - Cardiovascular &
Lymphatic Systems
Cells are suspended in plasma.
RBCs (erythrocytes) 45% of blood
WBCs (leukocytes)
< 1% of blood
Platelets
Plasma (proteins, ions, hormones
and gases) 55%
RBC = contains 250 million molecules
of hemoglobin (oxygen carrier)
WBC = host immune defense
Platelets = pieces of cells important
in blood clotting
A& P: Circulation - Lymphatic Systems
A&P: Excretion
A&P: Excretion
• Kidneys: principle excretory organ of the body
• Nephron: functional unit of the kidney
- Glomerulus
- Bowman’s capsule: materials such as water, soluble salts,
nutrients and urea diffuse out blood into the capsule.
- proximal convoluted tubule
- Loop of henle
- Distal convoluted tubule
• kidneys absorb any small soluble particles that are in
high concentrations in the blood
• Filtrate passes through the tubules of the nephron,
water, nutrients and ions are reabsorbed into blood by
diffusion, osmosis or active transport into the
capillaries surrounding the tubules.
A&P: Excretion
• Urine: concentrated
mixture of wastes that
is left in the tubules
• Ureters: urine enters
collecting tubules and
on to ureters
• Urinary bladder:
storage or urine coming
from ureters
• Urethra: location of
urine excretion
Excretion Example Questions
1. Most of the work done by the human kidney
occurs in the:
a. Nephron
b. Neuron
c. Ureter
d. alvelous
A & P : Regulation – Nervous System
• Neuron: functional unit of the nervous system
• Neurons have electrical potential due to sodium and
potassium ion concentration across the cell
membrane
• Impulse : when dendrites are stimulated by the
environment or by another neuron, creates a moving
electrical charge.
A & P : Regulation – Nervous System
Nervous System: Divisions
2 divisions coordinate activity
1. Central Nervous System
2. Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves &
Ganglia
Integrate/
interpret or
sense
Communicate
signals to and
from CNS to
rest of body
Nervous System
• Spinal cord: from brain
downward, enclosed by
bones of vertebral
column, passes messages
to and from the brain
and acts as the center for
reflex actions.
• Openings between
vertebrae allow nerves to
join with the spinal cord.
A & P : Regulation – Nervous System
1. cerebrum: largest
portion of brain, site of
high level thinking,
conscious and
voluntary actions,
speech, vision, hearing
and memory.
2. Cerebellum: muscular
coordination and
balance
3. Brain stem/medulla:
homeostatic functions
(body temp, blood
pressure, and
breathing)
Example Nervous System
Questions
1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
The spaces between neurons are called:
Synapses
Dendrites
Inter-neurons
Cell gaps
2. A neuron that transmits impulses from the receptors to the
spinal cord is called:
a. Motor neuron
b. An associative neuron
c. Interneuron
d. Sensory neuron
A & P: Senses- Sight
• Cornea: transparent and allows light to enter eye
• Iris: gives our eyes color and changes in size to
regulate light entry into the pupil (middle of the
iris)
• Lens: focuses light onto the retina
• Retina: innermost layer of eyeball, contains 2
types of photoreceptor cells
- rod cells: distinguish between black and white,
help you see at night
- Cone cells: distinguish colors in the day
- When stimulated they transmit information to
the optic nerve
A & P: Senses- Hearing
• Ear contributes to hearing and balance
- Outer ear: collects sound and transmits to tympanic
membrane
- Inner ear: many channels containing fluid move in
response to movement or to sound. Sound comes
through fluid which causes the cochlea (part of inner
ear) to convert movement into signals or action
potentials. Small hairs in cochlea influence signals sent
from sensory neurons to the brain.
- Middle ear: vibration from sound are transmitted
through 3 small bones ( malleus, incus, stapes).
Connected to the Eustachian tube which opens to
pharynx, tube equalizes pressure between middle ear
and atmosphere (i.e. what makes you ears POP!!!)
A & P: Reproduction
• Reproductive organs
• Male (external) = penis & scrotum; (internal)
testes (AKA primary male reproductive organs)
- Seminiferous tubules: inside testes where
sperm is formed
- Interstitial cells: produce male sex hormones
such as testosterone.
- Epididymis: coiled tubes that store sperm
while they mature
- Vas deferens: mature sperm are sent
through vas deferens into ejaculatory duct to
the urethra
A & P: Reproduction
• Reproductive organs
• Female (primary) = ovaries that produce eggs and
hormones progesterone and estrogen.
- Ovarian follicles contain an immature egg call oocyte
- Ovulation: follicle releases mature egg, occurs about
every 28 days
- Egg travels through fallopian tubes where it can be
fertilized
- If fertilized it will travel to the uterus and is
implanted in the uterine lining (endometrium)
- Menstruation: if egg is not fertilized the endometrial
lining is shed and thickens again to prepare for next
cycle
- Placenta: tissue of embryo and mother grow
together to form, blood of embryo and mother are
never directly connected but nutrients and oxygen
from the mother and waste from the embryo are
exchanged through the placenta
- Umbilical cord: connects fetus to placenta
Reproduction Example Questions
1. The organ in the human female that develops to
nourish the embryo is called the:
a. Amnion
b. Yolk sac
c. Fallopian tube
d. Placenta
A & P: Endocrine System
• Maintains homeostasis
• Homeostasis: keeping the internal body stable by
means of secretions from endocrine glands.
• Hormones: chemicals that act as messengers help
control growth, metabolism, reproduction, osmotic
balance and development.
- Hormones enter directly into bloodstream, bind to a
specific type of cell by a receptor and influence cell
activity
- Activated by a stimulus
• Negative feedback mechanism: prevents
oversecretion of hormones, when stimulus
decreases hormone production decreases also.
Gland
Location
Hormone(s)
Function
Pituitary gland
Under the brain
Growth-stimulating
hormone, folliclestimulating hormone
(FSH), thyroid stimulating
hormone
Master gland, controls
other endocrine glands
Thyroid gland
On the trachea, in the neck
region
Thyroxin (iodine
containing compound)
Regulates metabolism
Parathyroid
gland
Behind thyroid gland
parathormone
Regulates calcium
metabolism
Adrenal gland
On the kidneys
Adrenaline, steroids
(cortisone)
Fight-or-flight
syndrome; regulate
water balance, blood
pressure, joint
articulation
Isles of
Langerhans
pancreas
Insulin, glucagon
Control storage of
sugar in liver and blood
level of sugar
Testes (male)
In scrotum
testosterone
Male secondary sex
characteristics
Estrogen and
progesterone
Female secondary sex
characteristics,
menstrual cycle
Ovaries (female) Pelvic region