Download The Greek Roots of Democracy

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SECTION
1
Standards-Based
Instruction
Standards-at-a-Glance
• History-Social Science
Students will learn how democracy
developed in the Greek city-state of Athens
and how the Greek philosophers viewed
reason, democracy, tyranny, and rule of law.
They will also study how Greek ideas spread
during the Hellenistic Age.
• Analysis Skills
HR1 Students distinguish valid arguments
from fallacious arguments in historical
interpretations.
• English-Language Arts
Writing 2.4
L3
Ask students to name several forms of
government. Then have them name the
one that ancient Greece is famous for.
Set a Purpose
■
L3
WITNESS HISTORY Read the selection
aloud or play the audio.
AUDIO Witness History Audio CD,
The Government of Athens
Ask What aspects of Athenian government is Pericles proud of? (The
government serves as an example to others, it is in the hands of the many, and it
secures equal justice under its laws.)
Have students predict what kind of
leader Pericles would become.
■
1
WITNESS HISTORY
AUDIO
The Government of Athens
Pericles, the leader of Athens, described
the superior qualities of Athenian
democracy in his famous Funeral Oration
for the dead soldiers of Athens, given in
431 B.C.:
our government is not copied from
“ For
those of our neighbors: we are an example to
them rather than they to us. Our constitution is
named a democracy, because it is in the hands not
of the few but of the many. But our laws secure
equal justice for all in their private disputes, and our
public opinion welcomes and honors talent in every
branch of achievement. . . .
A bust of Pericles and
a Greek amphora, or
jar with two handles
”
Focus Question What ideas arose in ancient Greece
that contributed to the development of democratic
values in the modern world?
The Greek Roots of Democracy
Prepare to Read
Build Background Knowledge
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Focus Point out the Section Focus
Question and write it on the board.
Tell students to refer to this question
as they read. (Answer appears with
Section 1 Assessment answers.)
Standards Preview
H-SS 10.1.1 Analyze the similarities and differences in
Judeo-Christian and Greco-Roman views of law, reason and
faith, and duties of the individual.
H-SS 10.1.2 Trace the development of Western political
ideas of the rule of law and illegitimacy of tyranny, using
selections from Plato’s Republic and Aristotle’s Politics.
Terms, People, and Places
legislature
Pericles
jury
Socrates
Plato
Aristotle
city-state
monarchy
Sparta
Athens
democracy
tyrant
Reading Skill: Identify Main Ideas As you
read, use a table like the one below to record
information about ancient Greek rulers and
philosophers.
Rulers
Ideas
Solon
Pisistratus
Cleisthenes
Pericles
Greece lies at the southern end of the Balkan peninsula, where
the land mass thrusts into the Mediterranean Sea. Greece’s geography greatly influenced its history. The region’s mountainous terrain restricted overland travel, and it also limited farming. The
Greeks turned instead to the sea, becoming fishers and sailors and
traders. They also became thinkers and writers and artists. In
time, the Greeks generated a burst of creativity that we call the
classical age, a period of great artistic and literary abundance.
Western civilization would draw heavily on the ideas produced
during this era, which began around 500 B.C.
The Rise of Greek City-States
The geography of Greece influenced how its centers of power
developed. The Greeks, isolated in mountain valleys or on islands,
built small, independent city-states. A city-state is a political unit
made up of a city and the surrounding lands. In the 700s B.C., the
lack of fertile land encouraged Greek expansion overseas. Gradually, a scattering of Greek colonies appeared throughout the Mediterranean, from Spain to Egypt. Wherever they traveled, Greek
settlers and traders carried their ideas about literature and art
and also government.
Governing the City-States As their world expanded, the
Greeks evolved a unique version of the city-state, which they
called the polis. Typically the city itself was built on two levels. On
■
Preview Have students preview the
Section Standards and the list of
Terms, People, and Places.
Vocabulary Builder
■
Reading Skill Have students use the
Reading Strategy: Understand Effects
worksheet.
Use the information below and the following resources to teach the high-use words from this section.
Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 7; Teaching Resources, Skills Handbook, p. 3
Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 8
High-Use Words
civic, p. 13
emerge, p. 17
8 Sources of the Democratic Tradition
Definitions and Sample Sentences
adj. of a city or citizen, or citizenship
I believe it is my civic duty to vote in every election.
v. to develop or evolve as something new
Most sportswriters expected a local runner to emerge as the favorite in the
upcoming regional meet.
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a hilltop stood the acropolis (uh KRAH puh lis), or high city, with its great
marble temples dedicated to different gods and goddesses. On flatter
ground below lay the walled main city with its marketplace, theater, public buildings, and homes.
The population of each city-state was fairly small, which helped citizens share a sense of responsibility for its triumphs and defeats. In the
warm climate of Greece, free men spent much time outdoors in the marketplace, debating issues that affected their lives. The whole community
joined in festivals honoring the city’s special god or goddess.
Between 750 and 500 B.C., Greeks evolved different forms of government. At first, a king ruled the polis. A government like this, in which a
king or queen exercises central power, is a monarchy. Slowly, though,
power shifted to a class of noble landowners. They served as the military
defenders of the city-states, because only they could afford bronze weapons and horse-drawn chariots. At first this aristocracy, or small ruling
group, defended the king. In time, they won power for themselves. As
trade expanded, a new middle class of wealthy merchants, farmers, and
artisans emerged in some cities. This new aristocracy challenged the
landowning nobles for power and came to dominate some city-states.
■
Teach
The Rise of Greek
City-States H-SS 10.1.2
the power of the middle class. By about 650 B.C., iron weapons
replaced bronze ones. Since iron was cheaper, ordinary citizens
could afford iron helmets, shields, and swords. Meanwhile, a
new method of fighting emerged. The phalanx was a massive formation of heavily armed foot soldiers. Mastering
this formation required many hours of practice. This
intensive training created a strong sense of unity
among citizen-soldiers.
By putting the defense of the city-state in the hands
of ordinary citizens, the phalanx reduced class differences. The new type of warfare, however, led the two most
influential city-states to develop very different ways of life.
While Sparta stressed stern discipline, Athens glorified the individual and extended political rights to more citizens.
A Greek Warrior
This bronze statue
shows a Greek
warrior with his
shield lifted and
ready for battle.
What development
allowed ordinary
citizens to become
the defenders of
Greece’s city-states
during war time?
■
Introduce: Vocabulary Builder
Have students read the Vocabulary
Builder term and definition. Ask What
does it mean to say that democracy
first emerged in Athens? (Democracy
developed in Athens before it appeared
elsewhere.)
■
Teach Discuss with students how government evolved in the Greek citystates. On the board, make a flowchart
to show the main power shifts during
this transition. Have students volunteer information to fill it in. Have students determine where the flow chart
should fork to show how Sparta’s government came to differ from that of
Athens.
■
Quick Activity Ask students to work
in small groups and to create a list of
reasons why public debate of public
issues is beneficial to a community or
society.
Independent Practice
Have students fill in the Outline Map
Ancient Greece, labeling geographical and
political elements, including seas and
city-states.
Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 14
Monitor Progress
■
As students fill in their tables, circulate
to make sure they are listing the main
ideas about ancient Greek rulers and
philosophers. For a completed version
of the table, see
Note Taking Transparencies, 49
■
Check students’ Outline Maps for
accuracy.
Solutions for All Learners
L1 Special Needs
L2 Less Proficient Readers
The visuals in this section can help students get a
sense of ancient Greek society. Have students compare these three photos: the Athenian Pericles on
page 8, the Spartan on page 9, and the vase on
page 11. Ask What do these pictures suggest
about Greek society? (Warfare played a large role
in people’s lives.)
L3
Instruct
Changes in Warfare Changes in military technology increased
Sparta: A Nation of Soldiers The city-state of Sparta was
located in the Peloponnesus (pel uh puh NEE sus), a near-island
in the southern part of Greece. Starting around 600 B.C., the
Spartans transformed themselves into a military state. At the
age of seven, boys began training for a lifetime in the army.
Toughened by a coarse diet, hard exercise, and a rigid system of discipline, Spartan boys became excellent soldiers.
Girls, too, had a rigorous upbringing. As part of a warrior
society, they were expected to produce healthy sons for
the army. They therefore worked to exercise and
strengthen their bodies.
The Spartan government included two kings and a
council of elders who advised the monarchs. An
assembly, or group made up of all citizens, approved
major decisions. Citizens were male, native-born
Spartans over the age of 30. The assembly also
elected five ephors, officials who held the
real power and ran day-to-day affairs.
Have students read this
section using the Structured Read
Aloud strategy (TE, p. T21). As they
read, have students fill in the table
describing Greek rulers and
philosophers.
Reading and Note Taking
Study Guide, p. 6
Use the following resources to help students acquire
basic skills.
Adapted Reading and Note Taking
Study Guide
■ Adapted Note Taking Study Guide, p. 6
■ Adapted Section Summary, p. 7
Answer
Caption the development of iron weapons rather
than bronze
Chapter 1 Section 1 9
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The Persian Wars
H-SS 10.1.2
L3
Instruct
Quick Activity Ask groups of students to write a fictional story that
explains how the Athenians managed
to bounce back from battlefield defeats
and the burning of Athens to triumph
by smashing the Persian fleet. Select
one group to research and write about
what actually happened. Then have all
groups present their stories.
a
■
Se
Teach Discuss the Persian Wars. Refer
students to the map on the previous
page. Have them find Athens and Asia
Minor. Ask What route could Persians have taken to invade Athens?
(They could have marched from Asia
Minor west and south into Greece or
sailed across the Aegean Sea.) What
were the three main stages of the
Persian Wars? (Athenians repelled the
first invasion; a combined Greek naval
force defeated the Persian fleet after a
second invasion resulted in the burning
of Athens and several battlefield defeats
for the Greeks; the Greeks defeated the
Persians in Asia Minor.)
n
■
gea
Introduce Ask Why would a powerful state invade another state’s
territory? (to add to its territory and
power; to avenge an earlier defeat; to
gain natural resources; to spread its
ideas)
Athens: A Limited Democracy Just northeast of the Peloponnesus,
in the region of Attica, lay the city-state of Athens. There, the idea of
democracy, or government by the people, first took root. This idea developed gradually. As in many Greek city-states, the government of Athens
started as a monarchy and evolved into an aristocracy. Around 700 B.C.,
noble landowners held power and chose the chief officials. Nobles judged
major cases in court and dominated the assembly.
Under the aristocracy, Athenian wealth and power grew. Yet discontent spread among ordinary people. Merchants and soldiers resented the
power of the nobles. They argued that their service to Athens entitled
them to more rights. Farmers, too, demanded change. During hard times,
many farmers were forced to sell their land to nobles. A growing number
even sold themselves and their families into slavery to pay their debts.
As discontent spread, Athens moved slowly toward democracy.
In 594 B.C., a wise and trusted leader named Solon made many needed
Solon of Athens
reforms. He outlawed debt slavery and freed those who had already been
This later painting shows Solon, a leader in
sold into slavery to pay off debts. He opened offices to more citizens, loosAthens, (seated) defending his sweeping
ened some restrictions on citizenship, and gave the Athenian assembly
reforms against the objections of some
Athenians. Where is Athens located in
more say in important decisions.
relation to Sparta?
Solon’s reforms ensured greater fairness and justice
to some groups. Still, citizenship remained limited, and
M AC E D O N I A
many government positions were open only to wealthy
landowners. Widespread and continued unrest led to
Mt. Olympus
40° N
Troy
9,570 ft.
the rise of tyrants, or leaders who gain power by force.
2,917 m
Miller Projection
0
50
100 mi
Tyrants often won support of the merchant class and
the poor by imposing reforms to help these groups.
0 50 100 km
Delphi
The Athenian tyrant Pisistratus (pih SIS truh tus)
Attica
A
S
I
A
GREECE
Athens
seized power in 546 B.C. He gave farmers and poor citiM
I
N
O
R
Mycenae
Olympia
zens a greater voice, weakening the aristocracy. In 507
Peloponnesus
B.C., another reformer, Cleisthenes (KLYS thuh neez),
Sparta
Ae
■
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N
W
36° N
E
S
20° E
Medite r ranean
Sea
Crete
Knossos
24° E
28° E
Independent Practice
Have students make a timeline of events
related to the Persian Wars.
Monitor Progress
Check to see that students have included
in their timelines these four dates: 500
B.C., 490 B.C., 480 B.C. (“Ten years later”),
and 479 B.C. (“The following year”).
Connect to Our World
Connections to Today Democracy developed
slowly in Athens. Periods of unrest led to the rise of
tyrants. Eventually, reformers brought more and more
ordinary citizens into the process of governing.
Answer
Caption northeast
10 Sources of the Democratic Tradition
Ask students to think of places in the world today
where democracy is developing. Encourage them to
compare the process of democratization today with
the development of democracy in ancient Greece.
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broadened the role of ordinary citizens in government. He set up the
Council of 500, whose members were chosen by lot from among all citizens. The council prepared laws for the assembly and supervised the dayto-day work of government. Cleisthenes made the assembly a genuine
legislature, or lawmaking body. It debated laws before deciding to
approve or reject them. The assembly included all male citizens over the
age of 30.
By modern standards, Athenian democracy was quite limited. Only
male citizens could participate in government, and few people qualified
for citizenship. Women, for example, had no share in public life. Neither
did the tens of thousands of Athenian slaves, whose labor gave citizens
the time to participate in government.
Athens in the Age
of Pericles H-SS 10.1.1
Instruct
■
Introduce: Vocabulary Builder
Have students read the Vocabulary
Builder term civic and its definition.
Ask them to suggest phrases that
include this term. (e.g., civic duty, civic
pride, civic education, civic center)
Have them define what civic means in
each phrase. Ask Why is this term
important to the history of democracy? (The participation of citizens in
government is a vital element of
democracy.)
■
Teach Discuss direct democracy in
Pericles’ time. Ask Who attended the
Athenian assembly during the Age
of Pericles? (at least 6,000 male citizens over the age of 18) Who made up
juries? (hundreds or even thousands of
male citizens over the age of 30) Do you
think Athens was a successful city
during its time of democratic rule?
Why or why not? (Answers should
recognize that although Athens prospered economically and culturally during the Age of Pericles, it could not
avoid the power struggle that led to the
Peloponnesian War.)
■
Quick Activity Point out the Infographic on the next page. Ask students
to read the introductory paragraph.
Have them define or explain each of the
fundamental democratic characteristics that trace their origins to Athens.
(majority rule: a decision passes if more
than half of a group votes for it; civic
debate: thoughtful discussion by citizens of public issues; impartial juries:
groups of citizens who make objective,
unbiased judgments at a trial; term
limits: restrictions on the amount of
time an elected official can serve) Then
ask students to look at each visual and
its caption.
Standards Check What process took city-states from monarchy to
aristocracy and, in Athens, to democracy? H-SS 10.1.2
The Persian Wars
By 500 B.C., Athens had emerged as the wealthiest Greek city-state.
But Athens and the entire Greek world soon faced a fearsome threat
from the Persians, whose empire stretched from Asia Minor all the
way to India. In 490 B.C., a Persian army landed at Marathon, a
plain north of Athens. Athenian forces rushed to meet the enemy,
and through fierce hand-to-hand combat, forced the Persians to
retreat.
Ten years later, a much larger Persian force landed in
Greece. This time, Sparta and other city-states joined Athens to
defend their homeland. After disheartening battlefield defeats
and the burning of Athens, the Greeks gained victory by smashing the Persian fleet off the Athenian coast. The following year,
the Greeks defeated the Persians on land in Asia Minor, ending
the threat of further Persian invasions.
Standards Check How did the Greeks meet the threat of
invasion by the Persians? H-SS 10.1.2
Athens in the Age of Pericles
Athens emerged from the Persian Wars as the most powerful city-state in
Greece. It used its position of power in Greece to dominate other citystates, slowly establishing an empire. Under the able statesman
Pericles (PEHR uh kleez), the economy thrived and the government
became more democratic. Because of his wise and skillful leadership, the
period from 460 to 429 B.C. is often called the Age of Pericles.
The Persian Wars
This Greek vase shows a Greek
warrior in combat with a Persian
warrior. Study the two warriors.
Which do you think is Greek, and
which do you think is Persian?
Cite evidence for your choice.
Political Life Under Pericles, Athenians participated in a direct democracy. A large number of citizens took direct part in the day-to-day affairs
of government. By contrast, in most democratic countries today, citizens
participate in government indirectly, through elected representatives.
By the time of Pericles, the Athenian assembly met several times a
month. At least 6,000 members had to be present in order to decide
important issues. Pericles believed that all male citizens, regardless of
wealth or social class, should take part in government. Athens therefore
began to pay a fixed salary to men who held public office. This reform
enabled poor men to serve in government.
History Background
Slavery and Democracy Ironically, the system of
slavery in ancient Athens probably had a great deal to
do with the success of democracy there. Since many
Athenians owned slaves, they were freed from the
necessity of daily chores and the routine work of
L3
commerce and manufacturing. Thus, while slaves
labored, there were many who could devote their
time to discussing public affairs in the marketplace,
debating issues and voting on laws in the assembly,
and holding public office.
Answers
The noble landowners who defended the king
gradually took power for themselves, ruling as
an aristocracy. Changes in military technology
increased the power of the middle class, and in
Athens, leaders gave ordinary citizens control
over government.
The Greeks fought courageously to defend
their homeland, and, with a force drawn from
several city-states, they defeated the Persians.
Caption Sample: The warrior on the right seems
to be Greek because he is represented with a
Greek helmet and shield.
Chapter 1 Section 1 11
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Independent Practice
Point out the picture of Pynx hill on this
page. Invite students to imagine how
Athenian direct democracy actually functioned, with a legislature of 6,000 citizens
gathered on this hill to discuss and vote
on vital political issues. Have them list
possible procedural or other problems
that the Greeks had to overcome to make
this system work.
Monitor Progress
Check to be sure that students are listing
problems that might have come up
because such a huge number of citizens,
assembled in one place, were involved in
discussing and resolving issues.
Thinking Critically
1. Identify Main Ideas Why is Athen’s system
of government described as a “direct
democracy” as opposed to an “indirect
democracy”?
2. Making Comparisons How does Athenian
democracy compare to the democratic
system of the United States?
H-SS 10.1.2
Answers
Thinking Critically
1. Athenian citizens were directly involved with
government and were not governed through
elected representatives.
2. Both systems used majority rule, civic debate,
juries, courts, and rule of law. However, Athenian citizens participated directly in decisionmaking while U.S. citizens participate indirectly.
12 Sources of the Democratic Tradition
Solutions for All Learners
L4 Advanced Readers
L4 Gifted and Talented
In the direct democracy of Athens, free, native male
youths were officially enrolled as citizens at age 18.
Each young man received a shield and spear and took
this oath of allegiance: “Never to disgrace his holy
arms, never to forsake his comrade in the ranks, but
to fight for the holy temples and the common welfare,
alone or with others; to leave his country not in a
worse, but in a better state than he found it; to obey
the magistrates and the laws, and defend them
against attacks; finally, to hold in honor the religion of
his country.” Have students answer these questions:
(1) What does this oath reveal about Athenian values?
(2) How do you think these values affected life in
Athens?
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In addition to serving in the assembly, Athenians served on juries. A
jury is a panel of citizens who have the authority to make the final judgment in a trial. Unlike a modern American jury, typically made up of
12 members, an Athenian jury might include hundreds or even thousands
of jurors. Male citizens over 30 years of age were chosen by lot to serve on
the jury for a year. Like members of the assembly, jurors received a salary.
The Funeral Oration After a funeral for Athenians slain in battle,
Pericles praised the Athenian form of government. In his civic speech, he
pointed out that in Athens, power rested in the hands “not of a minority
but of the whole people.” Pericles stressed not only the rights but also the
duties of the individual. As citizens of a democracy, he said, Athenians
bore a special responsibility. “We differ from other states,” he stated, “in
regarding the man who holds aloof from public life not as ‘quiet’ but as
useless.” Pericles’ Funeral Oration is one of the earliest and greatest
expressions of democratic ideals.
Greek Philosophers
H-SS 10.1.1, 10.1.2
L3
Instruct
■
Introduce: Key Terms Ask Who are
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle?
(Greek philosophers) Did any of them
know each other? (Plato was a student of Socrates, and Aristotle was a
student of Plato.) Point out that these
three Athenians influenced our ideas
about democracy.
■
Teach Ask How did Socrates show
his loyalty to the Athenian democracy? (He accepted the laws of the
democratic state, even though they condemned him to death.) Display Color
Transparency 1: The Key Ideas of
Plato and Color Transparency 2:
The Key Ideas of Aristotle. Ask How
did the ideas of Socrates, Plato,
and Aristotle differ concerning
democracy? (Socrates believed in
democracy; Plato distrusted it; Aristotle
was also suspicious of it.)
Color Transparencies, 1, 2
■
Quick Activity Ask students to informally debate the following question: Is
democracy the best form of government? Divide the class into three
groups. Have the first group speak to
the issue from the point of view of
Socrates, the second from the point of
view of Plato, and the third from the
point of view of Aristotle.
Vocabulary Builder
civic—(SIV ik) adj. of a city or citizen, or
citizenship
Economic and Cultural Life Athens prospered during the Age of
Pericles. With the riches of the Athenian empire, Pericles hired the
best architects and sculptors to rebuild the Acropolis, which the Persians had destroyed. This and other building projects increased Athenians’ prosperity by creating jobs for artisans and workers. They also
served to remind both citizens and visitors that the gods had favored
the Athenians.
Athenians, like all Greeks, honored their gods with temples and festivals. To discover the will of the gods, they consulted the oracles, priests
or priestesses through whom the gods were thought to speak. Although
religion was important, some Greek thinkers came to believe that the
universe was regulated not by the will of the gods, but by natural laws.
Pericles surrounded himself with such thinkers, as well as writers and
artists, and in this way he transformed Athens into the cultural
center of Greece.
The Peloponnesian War Pericles’ Funeral Oration honored Athenians killed in 431 B.C., the first year of the Peloponnesian War. This war
represented a power struggle between Athens and Sparta. Sparta’s bid to
end Athenian supremacy triggered the war, which soon engulfed all of
Greece. The fighting dragged on for 27 years.
In 404 B.C., the Spartans captured Athens, ending Athenian domination of the Greek world. Athens survived for many years as a center of
culture, however its spirit and vitality declined. Democratic government
suffered. Corruption and selfish interests replaced older ideals such as
service to the city-state.
Standards Check What progress did the Greeks under Pericles make
toward democratic government? H-SS 10.1.1
Greek Philosophers
Despite wars and political turmoil, Greeks had confidence in the power of
the human mind. As you have read, some Greek thinkers challenged the
belief that events were caused by the whims of gods. Instead, they used
observation and reason to determine why things happened. In the process, they opened up new ways of looking at human existence. The
Greeks called these thinkers “philosophers,” meaning “lovers of wisdom.”
Link to Art
Realism and Color It is somehow satisfying to
think that we can, in museums, see some of the same
sculptures that Greeks enjoyed during the Age of Pericles. Yet we do not see exactly what the Greeks saw.
The classical statues that we admire are only pale
reminders of a colorful past bleached white by the
passage of time. Greek sculptors portrayed the human
figure as accurately and realistically as possible. Facial
lines and poses conveyed the physical beauty of the
individual. Color heightened the realism and natural
beauty even more. From the traces of paint that remain
on the marble, art historians know that classical Greek
statues were usually painted in bright colors.
Answer
Under Pericles, Athenian citizens participated
in direct democracy, deciding important issues
as a group in the Athenian assembly and also
serving on large juries.
Chapter 1 Section 1 13
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Their search for the principles, or laws, that governed the universe contributed greatly not only to modern science, but also to the development
of Western political thought.
Independent Practice
Display Color Transparency 3: The
School of Plato. Use the lesson suggested in the transparency book to guide
a discussion on the legacy of Greek
philosophers.
Color Transparencies, 3
Moral and Ethical Principles Some Greek philosophers focused on
ethics and morality. Ethics and morality concern the idea of goodness
and the establishment of standards of human behavior. These philosophers debated issues ranging from how people should dress in public to
the best form of government.
In Athens, the Sophists questioned accepted ideas. To them, moral and
ethical truths were just opinions, not principles. Success was more
important. For a fee, they would teach the art of persuasive speaking,
especially to men in public life. Ambitious students hoped to use clever
speeches to persuade others and advance their careers. The turmoil of
the Peloponnesian War led many young Athenians to follow the Sophists.
Older citizens, however, accused the Sophists of undermining traditional
Athenian values.
Monitor Progress
Monitor students’ understanding of the
different views held by the three Greek
philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Discuss with students some of the
reasons Plato and Aristotle were wary of
democracy.
BIOGRAPHY
Socrates
Many Athenians found Socrates
annoying—and he knew it. But young
men loved to watch him as he
questioned citizens, leading them to
contradict themselves. When he was put
on trial, he told the jury, “All day long and
in all places I am always fastening upon
you, stirring you and persuading you and
reproaching you. You will not easily find
another like me.” But Plato had a
different view of his teacher. He called
Socrates “the wisest, justest, and best of
all I have ever known.” Socrates said,
“The unexamined life is not worth
living.” How did his actions support
this idea?
Socrates and Citizenship One outspoken critic of the Sophists was
Socrates, an Athenian stonemason and philosopher. Most of what we
know about Socrates comes from his student Plato. Socrates himself
wrote no books. Instead, he roamed about the marketplace, questioning
his fellow citizens about their beliefs. He repeatedly asked the question
“What is the greatest good?”
Using a process we now call the Socratic method, he posed a series of
questions to his students and challenged them to examine the implications of their answers. To Socrates, this patient examination was a way
to help others seek truth and self-knowledge. To many Athenians, however, such questioning threatened accepted traditions.
When he was about 70 years old, Socrates was put on trial. His enemies accused him of corrupting the city’s youth and failing to respect the
gods. Standing before a jury of 501 citizens, Socrates offered a calm
defense. Nevertheless, the jurors condemned him to death. According to
Plato, Socrates refused to try to
escape from prison. He was a loyal
citizen of Athens and a longtime
defender of the democratic system.
Socrates maintained that the
duties of the individual included
submitting to the laws of the state.
Accepting the death penalty, he
drank a cup of hemlock, a deadly
poison.
Plato and Reason The execution of Socrates left Plato with a
deep distrust of democracy. He fled
Athens for ten years. When he
returned, he set up a school called
the Academy. There, he taught and
wrote about his own ideas. Like
Socrates, Plato believed that reason, not the experience of the
Link to Science
Answer
BIOGRAPHY He was constantly questioning others and reassessing things.
14 Sources of the Democratic Tradition
Philosopher-Scientists Ancient Greek philosophers established a break with traditional ways of
perceiving the world. Their reliance on logic and reason countered a widespread belief in the irrational.
They looked for natural causes for natural events, such
as lightning or eclipses, that others might attribute to
magic or witchcraft. Their rational thinking laid the
foundation for modern science.
Many Greek philosophers did more than think about
abstract ideas. They also applied their ideas to practical
pursuits. Pythagoras won fame as a mathematician for
whom an important theorem in geometry is named. The
philosophers Leucippus and Democritus anticipated
modern physics when they described atoms as the
building blocks of matter. Another philosopher,
Eratosthenes, used mathematics, geography, and
astronomy to determine the circumference of Earth.
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senses, led to genuine knowledge. Through rational thought, he argued,
people could discover unchanging ethical principles, recognize perfect
beauty, and learn how best to organize society.
In the Republic, Plato described his vision of an ideal state. He
rejected Athenian democracy because it had condemned Socrates.
Instead, he argued that the state should regulate every aspect of its citizens’ lives in order to provide for their best interests. Plato believed in
the equality of all people at birth, but he maintained that they could rise
only as high in society as their abilities allowed. He divided his ideal
society into three classes: workers to produce the necessities of life, soldiers to defend the state, and philosophers to rule. The rulers, or philosopher-kings, would be specially trained to ensure order and justice.
Aristotle and the Rule of Law Plato’s most famous student,
Aristotle, developed his own ideas about government. He analyzed all
forms of government, from monarchy to democracy, and found good and
bad examples of each. Aristotle preferred government by the many, not
by the few. Like Plato, however, he was suspicious of democracy, which he
thought could lead to mob rule. Instead, he favored a constitutional government ruled by members of the middle class. He called this form of
government a “polity.” The goal of the polity was to establish just
and stable rule.
For Aristotle, the city-state represented the best and most
natural form of human community. He believed that within
the city-state, people could reach their full potential and
achieve the “good life.” This could come about, however,
only under the rule of law. In his book Politics, Aristotle
wrote: “And the rule of the law, it is argued, is preferable to
that of any individual. On the same principle, even if it be better for certain individuals to govern, they should be made only
guardians and ministers of the law.” This principle, that even rulers
must be subject to the law, lies at the heart of modern constitutional
governments. Aristotle especially despised tyranny, in which an individual ruler—a tyrant—stood above the law.
The ethical question of how people ought to live also concerned Aristotle. In his view, good conduct meant pursuing the “golden mean,” a moderate course between extremes.
Aristotle promoted reason as the guiding force for learning. Following
Plato’s example, he set up a school, the Lyceum, for the study of all
branches of knowledge. Aristotle left writings on politics, ethics, logic,
biology, literature, and many other subjects. When the first European
universities appeared some 1,500 years later, their courses were based
largely on the works of Aristotle.
Alexander and the
Hellenistic Age H-SS 10.1.1
L3
Instruct
■
Introduce Invite students to look at
the map on the next page. Ask them to
trace the route that Alexander’s army
took, starting in Macedonia. Have them
note the names of cities on the route.
Ask Why do you think there are so
many cities named Alexandria
along this route? (They were either
founded by Alexander or named after
him.)
■
Teach Ask How long did it take
Alexander to conquer the entire
Persian empire? (seven years—334
B.C. to 327 B.C.) How did Alexander’s
conquest lead to the formation of a
new culture? (The Greeks who settled
in conquered lands blended Greek ideas
with those of various local cultures.)
Point out that Hellenism would influence the Roman empire and the Jewish
and Christian religions, and it would
thus contribute to what came to be
known as Western civilization.
Aristotle
Standards Check What did Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle think of
democracy? H-SS 10.1.1, 10.1.2
Alexander and the Hellenistic Age
Following the death of Plato, Aristotle moved out of Athens. In 345 B.C.,
he traveled to the place of his birth, the kingdom of Macedonia. Macedonia was a frontier region in the rugged mountains of the northern
Balkans. There he began tutoring the Macedonian king’s 13-year-old son,
Alexander. The king, Philip II, admired Greek culture. In fact, he
History Background
Aristotle’s Lyceum At his school, the Lyceum,
Aristotle set up a comprehensive system of education
whose goal was to develop citizens who could apply
reason in their daily lives. The youngest students, up
to age seven, received rigorous physical training. Children in the next oldest group, up to around age 12,
gained knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic,
as well as music and gymnastics. From around age 12
to 17, students added the study of grammar, literature, and geography. At this point, the most gifted students moved on to higher education, which in the
Lyceum included the intensive study of physics, biology, psychology, ethics, and logic.
Answer
Socrates defended the democratic system,
even as it condemned him to death. Plato
deeply distrusted democracy. Aristotle feared
that democracy could lead to mob rule,
although he favored stable and just rule by the
many in what he called a polity.
Chapter 1 Section 1 15
For: Audio guided tour
Web Code: mzp-0111
Empire of Alexander the Great
E
up
Damascus
Jerusalem
Alexandria
Alexandropolis
Alexandria
hra
tes
Babylon
Riv
er
Alexandria
Persepolis
Pe
r
si
an
ea
Towns founded by
Alexander and his
followers
Other cities
0
Alexandria
Gu
lf
Miller Projection
200
400 mi
0
200 400 km
E
1. 40°
Locate
On the map, locate (a) Aegean
Sea (b) Arabian Sea (c) Euphrates River
(d) Indus River (e) Macedonia (f) Persia
2. Place How did Alexander’s conquests
change the human characteristics of
the places he conquered?
DU
H IN
H
KUS
Nicaea
Bucephala
PERSIA
Susa
Alexander’s death, 323 B.C.
Map Skills Alexander’s ambitions led
him to conquer a vast empire. As the silver coin (below) stamped with his image
reflects, Alexander spread Greek culture
throughout a wide area.
s
Alexandria
Ecbatana
dS
Macedonia, 336 B.C.
Alexander’s empire
at its height, 323 B.C.
Route of Alexander,
334 B.C.–323 B.C.
E
S
ver
Ri
Thapsacus
Memphis
sR
W
Tigris
Issus
Gaza
O
ea
an S
ASIA MINOR
Alexandria
xu
spi
Athens
Re
Check answers to map skills questions.
S.
Troy
r
ive
Nile R
Monitor Progress
MT
Gordium
Tyre
Have students access Web Code mzp0111 to take the Geography Interactive Audio Guided Tour and then
answer the map skills questions in
the text.
US
Ca
Dardanelles
Mediterranean Sea
Independent Practice
CA S
Jax
ar
te
r
ive
CA U
Black Sea
MACEDONIA
N
Aral
Sea
ver
Danube Ri
ver
Ri
Quick Activity Show students Alexander the Great from the Witness
History Discovery School™ video
program. Ask them to identify the keys
to Alexander’s success. (He had a
superb army and great abilities as a
commander; the Persian Empire had
weakened under Darius III; and Greece
and the lands he conquered had sufficient wealth and resources to pay for his
campaigns.)
r
■
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Alexandria
Alexandria
Alexandria
Indus Riv
e
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Alexandria
Ara b i a n
Sea
20° N
E
70° E
3. 60°
Predicting
Consequences
Judging
from this map, do you think Alexander’s empire would be difficult to
keep united? Explain.
dreamed of conquering the prosperous city-states to the south. In
338 B.C., when Athens and the city-state of Thebes joined forces against
him, he defeated them. Philip then brought all of Greece under his control. Philip’s dreams eventually grew more grand—he vowed to conquer
the Persian empire. However, an assassin cut short his plans.
Conquest of Persia Alexander took the throne after his father’s murder. Just 20 years old, he was already an experienced soldier who shared
his father’s ambition to conquer Persia. He organized an army of Greeks
and Macedonians and, in 334 B.C., set out across the strait separating
Europe from Asia Minor. He moved rapidly from victory to victory, using
brilliant tactics to overcome the Persian forces. Alexander’s army
marched through Asia Minor into Palestine and south into Egypt. Turning back toward the east, he took Babylon and then seized the other Persian capitals. By 327 B.C., he had conquered an empire that stretched
more than 2,000 miles from the Mediterranean Sea across the Middle
East to Central Asia and India, and he had become Alexander the Great.
The Legacy of Alexander Four years later, Alexander died, the victim of a sudden fever. Three generals divided up the empire. For
300 years, their descendants competed for power over the lands that
Alexander had conquered. Although his empire crumbled, Alexander had
Answers
Map Skills
1. Review locations with students.
2. The places he conquered adopted some aspects
of Greek culture.
3. Sample: Yes, it would be very difficult to keep
such a far-flung empire united, especially during a time when transportation and communication was difficult.
16 Sources of the Democratic Tradition
Solutions for All Learners
L2 Less Proficient Readers
L2 English Language Learners
Because the earliest surviving sources about Alexander the Great were written three centuries after his
exploits, modern historians must carefully sift the evidence to separate the man from the myths that have
grown around him. Ask students what they know of
more modern men who attempted to conquer much
of the world (Napoleon, Hitler, etc.) and how they
compare to Alexander. In the case of Alexander, his
utter focus on war and conquest meant terrible bloodshed and violence across thousands of miles. And his
empire collapsed as soon as he died. Ask students to
explain whether Alexander and more recent would-be
conquerors deserve the title “the great.”
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unleashed changes that would ripple across the Mediterranean world
and the Middle East for centuries.
Alexander had founded many new cities, and the generals who succeeded him founded still more. Greek soldiers, traders, and artisans settled these new cities. Local people absorbed Greek ideas. In turn, the
Greek settlers adopted local customs. Gradually, a blending of eastern
and western cultures occurred. A new culture emerged that combined
Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian influences. This Hellenistic civilization would flourish for centuries.
In the Hellenistic world, some city-states with their citizen-run
governments continued to exist, and even a few democracies survived.
For the most part, though, powerful individuals or groups ruled the cities, distant governors managed them, and a king held ultimate control.
In this changing political world, earlier Greek codes of behavior no longer
seemed relevant.
These uncertain times contributed to the rise of new schools of philosophy. The most influential was Stoicism. Its founder, an Athenian named
Zeno, urged people to avoid desires and disappointment by calmly
accepting whatever life brought. Stoics preached high moral standards,
such as the belief in the dignity and equality of all. They taught that all
people, including women and slaves, though unequal in society, were
morally equal because all had the power of reason.
During the Hellenistic age, Rome emerged as a powerful new state.
After its conquest of Asia Minor in 133 B.C., it replaced Greece as the
dominant power in the Mediterranean world. Still, by then, the Greeks
had already made their greatest contributions. Greek ideas about law,
freedom, justice, and government have influenced political thinking to
the present day.
WITNESS HISTORY VIDEO
Watch Alexander the Great on the Witness
History Discovery School™ video program to
learn more about Alexander’s conquests.
Vocabulary Builder
emerge—(i MURJ) v. to develop or evolve
as something new
Terms, People, and Places
1. What do each of the key terms listed at
the beginning of the section have in
common? Explain.
2. Reading Skill: Identify Main Ideas
Use your completed table to answer the
Focus Question: What ideas arose in
ancient Greece that contributed to the
development of democratic values in
the modern world?
1. They all relate to the rise of democracy in
ancient Greece.
2. direct democracy, a legislative assembly of
citizens, juries staffed by citizens, moral
and ethical principles, equality, and the
rule of law
3. Over time, political power in Greece
shifted from the monarchy to an aristocracy and then to the citizenry.
Have students complete the
Section Assessment.
■
Administer the Section Quiz.
■
To further assess student understanding, use
Progress Monitoring Transparencies, 1
If students need more instruction, have
them read the section summary.
Reading and Note Taking
L3
Study Guide, p. 7
Adapted Reading and
L1 L2
Note Taking Study Guide, p. 7
Spanish Reading and
Note Taking Study Guide, p. 7
Extend
Standards Monitoring Online
Section 1 Assessment
L3
■
Reteach
For: Self-quiz with vocabulary practice
Web Code: mza-0111
Comprehension and Critical Thinking
3. Summarize How did democracy arise
in ancient Greece?
4. Recognize Cause and Effect What
effect did the Persian Wars have on the
role of Athens in the Greek world?
5. Compare Points of View How did
Plato’s opinion of democracy differ
from that of Socrates? Why did it
differ?
6. Predict Consequences As Rome’s
power grew in the Mediterranean
region, how do you think it was
affected by Hellenistic civilization?
Assess Progress
Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 2
Standards Check How did the ideas of the ancient Greeks spread
beyond Greece during the Hellenistic age? H-SS 10.1.1
1
Assess and Reteach
z Writing About History
Quick Write: Generate Arguments
Choose a form of government that existed
in ancient Greece. Think about the favorable aspects of that form of government.
Generate a list of several arguments, each
of which might serve as the focus of a persuasive essay in support of that form of
government.
4. Athens emerged from the Persian Wars as
the dominant city-state in Greece, and it
used that power to establish an empire.
5. As a longtime defender of the democratic
system, Socrates believed deeply in
democracy. That same democratic system
condemned Socrates to death, so his student Plato distrusted democracy.
6. Sample: Roman culture blended with Hellenistic culture.
L2
L4
Ask groups of students to discuss the
applicability of direct democracy to any
level of government—local, state, or
federal—in the present-day United
States. Have them present their
conclusions to the class.
Answer
Alexander’s conquest carried Greek ideas into
Egypt and throughout the Persian empire. Also,
Greeks settled in those conquered lands,
adopting local customs and creating the blend
of Eastern and Western cultures known as
Hellenism.
Standard
H-SS 10.1.1
H-SS 10.1.2
E-LA W 2.4
Assessment
2, 3, 4, 6
2, 3, 5
Quick Write
● Writing About History
Responses should show that students can
use details to generate arguments that
could serve as the focus of a persuasive
essay in support of a form of government.
For additional assessment, have students
access Standards Monitoring Online at
Web Code mza-0111.
Chapter 1 Section 1 17
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H-SS 10.1.2; Analysis Skills HR1, HR4
The Republic by Plato
The Republic by Plato
Standards-at-a-Glance
In the Republic, completed around 360 B.C., the Greek
philosopher Plato sets out to explain the ideal of justice. He
is concerned not only with what makes a just state but also
with what makes a just individual. Plato’s writings appear
in the form of dialogues, with the character of his former
teacher Socrates often leading the conversation. In this
excerpt, Plato has Socrates ask questions of a follower
named Glaucon in order to develop the argument that
tyranny is not a legitimate form of government.
• Analysis Skills HR1 Students distinguish
valid arguments from fallacious arguments in
historical interpretations.
• Also covered H-SS 10.1.2; Analysis Skills HR4
Build Background Knowledge
L3
Ask students to define tyranny, and write
the answers on the board. (government
by a ruler who has seized power by force,
or the unfair use of power) Then have
them describe what a dialogue is. Tell
students Plato used the dialogue format
in his writings. Invite students to read
the introduction and the selection.
Instruct
S
L3
■ As
students read the selection, have
them list all the descriptive terms that
Plato uses to describe a tyrannical
state or individual.
A bust of Plato and a mosaic of Socrates
surrounded by his students
■ Have
students explain how Plato
makes use of “the parallel of the individual and the State” to make his
point. (Plato draws parallels between a
tyrannical individual and a state governed by a tyrant, both of whom are
enslaved, degraded, and fearful.)
Independent Practice
Primary Source Ask students to read
the selections from Plato’s Republic and
complete the worksheet.
Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 9
Monitor Progress
Ask students whether they would want
to live under a tyrannical government,
and have them explain why or why not.
Thinking Critically
1. He thinks tyranny is the most miserable form of
government. His character Glaucon describes
the tyrannical state as “completely enslaved”
and “poor” and its people as “miserably degraded and enslaved,” and he agrees that no
state has “more of lamentation and sorrow and
groaning and pain.”
2. Some students might find dialogue a clever way
to move an argument along, and others might
think that a straightforward essay would be
clearer.
18
Thinking Critically
1. Draw Inferences What is Plato’s
opinion of tyranny as a way of
governing a state? Support your
answer with details.
2. Analyze Literature Do you think
Plato’s dialogue format is an effective
way to make an argument? Why or
why not?
ocrates: Let me ask you not to forget the parallel of the individual and
the State; bearing this in mind, and glancing in turn from one to the
other of them, will you tell me their respective conditions?
Glaucon: What do you mean? he asked.
S: Beginning with the State, I replied, would you say that a city which
is governed by a tyrant is free or enslaved?
G: No city, he said, can be more completely enslaved.
S: And yet, as you see, there are freemen as well as masters in such a
State?
G: Yes, he said, I see that there are—a few; but the people, speaking
generally, and the best of them, are miserably degraded and enslaved.
S: Then if the man is like the State, I said, must not the same rule prevail? His soul is full of meanness and vulgarity—the best elements in him
are enslaved; and there is a small ruling part, which is also the worst and
maddest.
G: Inevitably. . . .
S: And is the city which is under a tyrant rich or poor?
G: Poor.
S: And the tyrannical soul must be always poor and insatiable1?
G: True.
S: And must not such a State and such a man be always full of fear?
G: Yes, indeed.
S: Is there any State in which you will find more of lamentation2 and
sorrow and groaning and pain?
G: Certainly not.
S: And is there any man in whom you will find more of this sort of
misery than in the tyrannical man, who is in a fury of passions and
desires?
G: Impossible.
S: Reflecting upon these and similar evils, you held the tyrannical
State to be the most miserable of States?
G: And I was right, he said.
1. insatiable (in SAY shuh bul) adj. never able to be satisfied
2. lamentation (lam un TAY shun) n. mourning; wailing
History Background
Plato’s Life and Works Plato lived from around
429 B.C. to 347 B.C. Both of his parents came from
wealthy and respected Athenian families. The Peloponnesian War created a split in Plato’s family, as it did in
Athenian society at large. Plato’s stepfather, a friend of
Pericles, supported democracy, but two of Plato’s uncles
joined a radical antidemocratic movement. Beyond this,
we know little about Plato’s personal life. His dialogues,
including the Republic, shed little light on the man or,
some say, his ideas. The dialogue form, as Plato
designed it, is open to interpretation. Instead of presenting a firm set of doctrines, they force readers to
think—and draw their own conclusions.
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H-SS 10.1.2; Analysis Skills HR1, HR4
Politics by Aristotle
Politics by Aristotle
The Greek philosopher Aristotle, a student of Plato, admired many of his
teacher’s ideas. Yet he criticized Plato for
his impractical idealism. In Politics, completed around 322 B.C., Aristotle concerns
himself with the actual workings of government. Specifically, he attempts to
determine what kind of government best
suits the city-state. This excerpt shows
Aristotle’s firm belief that reliance on the
rule of law is far superior to trusting government to a monarch or other individual. This idea strongly influenced the
development of modern constitutional
government.
Standards-at-a-Glance
• Analysis Skills HR1 Students distinguish
valid arguments from fallacious arguments in
historical interpretations.
• Also covered Analysis Skills HR4; H-SS 10.1.2
Build Background Knowledge
Instruct
ow, absolute monarchy, or the arbitrary rule of
a sovereign over all citizens, in a city which
consists of equals, is thought by some to be quite
contrary to nature; it is argued that those who are by nature equals must
have the same natural right and worth, and that for unequals to have an
equal share, or for equals to have an uneven share, in the offices of state, is
as bad as for different bodily constitutions1 to have the same food and
clothing. Wherefore it is thought to be just that among equals every one be
ruled as well as rule, and therefore that all should have their turn. We
thus arrive at law; for an order of succession implies law. And the rule of
the law, it is argued, is preferable to that of any individual. On the same
principle, even if it be better for certain individuals to govern, they should
be made only guardians and ministers of the law. For magistrates2 there
must be—this is admitted; but then men say that to give authority to any
one man when all are equal is unjust. Nay, there may indeed be cases
which the law seems unable to determine, but in such cases can a man?
Nay, it will be replied, the law trains officers for this express purpose, and
appoints them to determine matters which are left undecided by it, to the
best of their judgment. Further, it permits them to make any amendment
of the existing laws which experience suggests. Therefore he who bids the
law rule may be deemed to bid God and Reason alone rule, but he who bids
man rule adds an element of the beast; for desire is a wild beast, and
passion perverts3 the minds of rulers, even when they are the best of men.
The law is reason unaffected by desire.
A detail from Raphael’s School of Athens
shows Plato (left) and his student
Aristotle (right).
the first sentences of the selection,
Aristotle argues that the city-state needs
laws. Have students analyze this argument by picking out the key ideas. Make
a master list of ideas on the board.
■ Ask
students why, according to Aristotle, the rule of law better suits the citystate than rule by an individual.
Independent Practice
Primary Source To help students better understand Aristotle, have them read
the selections from Aristotle’s Politics
and complete the worksheet.
Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 10
Monitor Progress
Thinking Critically
1. Draw Conclusions Does Aristotle
believe that human beings are
incapable of governing in a just way?
2. Compare Points of View Do you
think Aristotle might have approved
of Plato’s idea that philosopher-kings
should rule? Explain.
Have students draw a diagram that
reflects the idea that the law should be
the ultimate authority, whether the government is a monarchy, an aristocracy, a
democracy, or a polity (Aristotle’s preferred form). (Students might draw a
flowchart with the law at the top and the
four forms of government below it.)
Thinking Critically
History Background
Law and Constitutions Aristotle’s fascination
with the law can be seen in his study of existing constitutions. To Aristotle, a state’s constitution included
its system of laws, its government offices, and its traditional political practices. (The first written constitution would not appear for nearly 2,000 years.)
Aristotle and his Lyceum staff collected descriptions of
L3
■ In
N
1. constitution (kahn stuh TOO shun) n. a person’s basic physical makeup
2. magistrate (MAJ is trayt) n. a high public official
3. pervert (pur VURT) v. corrupt
L3
Remind students that Aristotle lived in
the democratic city-state of Athens
where laws were made by citizens in the
assembly. Have students read the introduction and selection to find out how
Aristotle felt about the law.
the constitutions of 158 city-states in Greece and elsewhere. Aristotle himself wrote the Constitution of
Athens for this collection. In it he describes the original (unwritten) constitution of Athens and the many
changes it underwent over time. This work has proved
a great help to historians in piecing together the history of ancient Athens.
1. Some students may say that the “element of the
wild beast” makes humans incapable of just
rule, according to Aristotle. Others may interpret Aristotle differently, saying that as long as
officials are guardians and ministers of the law,
they are capable of ruling justly.
2. Some students might say that Aristotle would
have accepted philosopher-kings because they
were expected to rule justly and by the law.
Others might say that Aristotle would have
found the idea too idealistic and impractical.
19