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PACKET #2 River Valley Civilizations PART I: Egypt and Mesopotamia 8,000-600 B.C.E. PACKET #2 This packet includes information on the following topics: Mesopotamia (Middle East) Egypt (Africa) OTHERS (PHOENECIANS AND HEBREWS) Remember: In the ancient civilizations there are generally 3 P’s—patriarchal, peasants (most of the population), and polytheistic MESOPOTAMIA: The Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land “between the rivers.” The region receives little rain but the soil of the plain of southern Mesopotamia was enlarged and enriched over the years by layers of silt deposited by the two rivers. In the late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates overflow their banks and deposit their fertile silt, but since this flooding depends on the melting of snows in the mountains, it is irregular and unpredictable. It can be catastrophic. A complex system of irrigation was developed to control the flow of the rivers and produce crops. Large-scale irrigation made possible the expansion of agriculture in this region, and the abundant food provided the material base for the emergence of civilization in this region. City-States in Ancient Mesopotamia-Political: Sumerians—the creators of the first civilization in Mesopotamia The Sumerians created independent citystates in southern Mesopotamia: Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Umma, and Lagash. City-states were the basic units of Sumerian civilization Sumerian cities were surrounded by walls (built of sun-dried bricks). Mud bricks are still used in some areas of the Middle East today Sumerians believed the gods ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy (government by a divine authority). Eventually, ruling power passed onto worldly figures—kings. Kingship seen as divine in origin. Kings were the agents of the gods The army, government bureaucracy, and the priests all aided the king in his rule. Kings lived in large palaces with wives and children. City-states were constantly at war Located in the flat land of Mesopotamia, the Sumerian city-states were prone to invasion o To the north of the Sumerians was the Akkadians (known as Semites). The Akkadians overran the Sumerian city-states and established an PACKET #2 o o o o empire that included most of Mesopotamia in Hammurabi’s Code: Hammurabi is best remembered for his 2340 b.c.e. Sargon is known for creating the law code. first empire Collection of 282 laws Offers a glimpse of life in Mesopotamia By 1792 b.c.e. Babylonian leader Hammurabi A system of strict justice conquered over the area and created the new Penalties for criminal offenses were severe and varied based on social class capital at Babylon. Hammurabi created The largest portion of the code focused defensive walls, temples, and canals. His on marriage and the family Sexual relations were strictly regulated empire only lasted as long as he did. By 1500 b.c.e. the major empire of the Hittites had conquered much of Mesopotamia. Hittites came from Anatolia (Turkey) and were able to conquer because they had IRON. The Assyrians succeeded the Hittites. Assyrians were known to be a military powerhouse. Their empire fell by 612 BCE because their empire was too big to control. The second reign of the Babylonians was under Nebuchadnezzar Nebuchadnezzar rebuilt Babylon—canals, walls, temples, a defensive mote Built first great, illustrious city of the ancient world Known for exiling the Jews and destroying their temple. Built the “hanging gardens of Babylon” Cultural: Each civilization had a temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess of the city and often built atop a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat. The people were polytheistic. Humans were subservient to gods Sumerians believed gods and goddesses owned the cities, and much wealth was used to build temples as well as elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who served the deities. Priests and priestesses who served the temples had much power. Temples were at the physical and economic/political center of the city. Most important gods: An: god of the sky and most important Enki: god of the earth, rivers, wells, canals, inventions Enlil: god of wind Ninhursaga: goddess of the soil, mountains, vegetation Sumerian city-states contained three major social groups: nobles, commoners, and slaves. o Nobles— royal and priestly officials and their families. o Commoners— the noble’s clients who worked for the palace and temple estates and other free citizens who worked as farmers, merchants, fishers, and craftsmen. o Slaves— belonged to palace officials who used them in building projects; to temple officials, who used mostly female slaves to weave PACKET #2 cloth and grind grain; and to rich landowners who used them for farming and domestic work. The physical environment had an apparent impact on the peoples’ worldview. Floods and oppressive humidity were all part of the Mesopotamian climate. These conditions and famines easily convinced Mesopotamians that supernatural forces controlled this world and that the days of human beings are numbered. They felt helpless in the presence of nature. Cuneiform: oldest Mesopotamian texts date to around 3000 b.c.e. written by Sumerians who used cuneiform (‘wedge shaped’). Cuneiform used pictographic signs. Writing was important because it enabled the society to keep records (taxes!) and maintain knowledge of previous practices and events. Epic of Gilgamesh: most famous piece of Mesopotamian literature. An epic poem that records the exploits of a legendary king of Uruk Education: Most education was vocational. Yet Mesopotamians also established formal schools. Most who learned to read and write became scribes or government officials. Some became priests, physicians or engineers. Literacy was very important for Mesopotamia. Leads to the expansion of knowledge. Astronomy and Math: Knowledge of astronomy made them prepare accurate calendars. Enabled them to chart the rhythms of the seasons for harvesting crops. They used math to allocate land plots. Mesopotamian scientists divided the year into 12 months. They divided the hours of the day into 60 minutes composed of 60 seconds each! Pretty good! The Emergence of a Stratified Patriarchal Society Compared to Neolithic cultures, cities provided more opportunities for wealth. Social distinctions in Mesopotamia therefore became much more sharply defined than those of Neolithic villages. Elites: In early Mesopotamia, ruling classes consisted of kings and nobles. Legends portrayed them as offspring of the gods. Priests and priestesses were allied with the elites. They intervened with the gods to ensure good fortune for the community. They lived in temples Free Commoners and slaves also encompassed much of the society. Slaves were fro3m one of three sources: 1. Prisoners of war 2. Convicted criminals 3. Debtors. Most served a certain duration and then were let free. Patriarchy: Men dominated public affairs; they were kings and policy makers. Hammurabi’s code recognized men as heads of their households PACKET #2 Women: legally subjugated. However, some women advised kings in their governments and others were influential priestesses. Others were formally educated and worked as scribes. Women could be midwives, shopkeepers, brewers, bakers, tavern keepers and textile manufactures. No women held high level administrative positions. o Continuity in history: During the second millennium, Mesopotamian men insisted on the virginity of brides at marriage and forbade casual socializing between married women and men outside the family. o By 1,500 b.c.e. women in Mesopotamian cities had begun to wear veils when they ventured beyond their households to discourage outside attention. A way of controlling women’s social and sexual behavior and reinforcing patriarchal social structures. Economic: Agricultural economy Sumerians invented the wheel in 3000 bce- made transporting goods much easier. Bronze Metallurgy: Metallurgical innovations ranked among the most important developments that came about because of specialized labor. Around 4,000 b.c.e. Mesopotamians alloyed tin and copper, leading to the invention of bronze. Bronze is an invented metal. It was used militarily and for knives and plows instead of bone, wood, stone and obsidian. Iron Metallurgy: About 1,300 b.c.e. craftsmen from Hittite society in Anatolia developed techniques for forging strong iron tools and weapons. News spread quickly and iron became the metal of choice for Mesopotamians. The Wheel: the wheel is the most important innovation in trade and transportation. The wheel enabled long distance trade. The Sumerians built wheeled carts by 3,000 b.c.e. Shipbuilding: Sumerians also experimented with technologies of maritime transportation. By 3500 b.c.e. they built watercraft that allowed them to venture into the Persian Gulf. By 2300 b.c.e. they were trading regularly with merchants in the Indus River valley of northern India. Ships revolutionized trade. PACKET #2 SOCIAL POLITICAL ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENTAL EGYPT: “The Gift of the Nile” The Nile begins in the heart of Africa and goes northward for thousands of miles. Longest river in the world. Created fertile land capable of producing abundant harvests. It flooded annually and deposited nutrient rich silt. Flooding was predictable. The river was life-enhancing not life-threatening Egyptian civilization was rural with many small population centers congregated along a narrow band on both sides of the Nile. The Nile unified Egypt. It was the fastest way to travel through land, making both transportation and communication easier. Winds pushed sailboats from north to south and currents carried boats north Unlike Mesopotamia, which was subject to constant invasion, Egypt had natural barriers that fostered isolation, protected it from invasions, and gave it a sense of security. Desert, river, Mediterranean sea were all barriers. Political: Egyptian history divided into three major periods known as the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. These were periods of long-term stability characterized by strong monarchical authority, competent bureaucracy, and freedom from invasion, much construction of temples and pyramids, and considerable intellectual and cultural activity. There were also times of political chaos known as the Intermediate Periods, which were characterized by weak political structure and rivalry for leadership, invasions, and a decline in building activity. PACKET #2 King Menes was the first Egyptian royal king united both Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom (3100 bce) o Old Kingdom—2686-2125 bce; construction of largest pyramids. After collapse there was a period of chaos. Ruled by a pharaoh with absolute power. Considered a divine institution o Middle Kingdom—new royal dynasty lasted from 2055-1650 bce Golden age of Egypt Invaded by the Hyksos who used horse-drawn war chariots and overwhelmed the Egyptian soldiers who fought from donkey carts. They ruled for 100 years o New Age—1550-1085 b.c.e. eventually a new line of pharaohs made use of new weapons and overran the Hyksos to establish the New Kingdom Egypt created an empire and became the most powerful state in the Middle East Queen Hatshepsut became one of the only female pharaohs. Often shown with a beard in paintings because that was what the norm was for male pharaohs. The New Kingdom fell under the 20th dynasty in 1085. For the next thousand years, Egypt was dominated by Libyans, Nubians, Persians and finally (spoiler alert!) Macedonians (Alexander the Great) Culture: Had no word for religion because it was an inseparable element of the entire world order to which Egyptian society belonged. Polytheistic Remarkable number of gods and goddesses. Sun gods and land gods had special prominence Pharaoh took the title “Son of Re” – Re was the sun god. The pharaoh was the earthly form of Re (pictured left). Osiris and Isis were river and land deities – As a symbol of resurrection and judge of the dead, Osiris took on an important role for the Egyptians. By identifying with Osiris, one could hope to gain new life just as Osiris had done. The dead, embalmed and mummified, were placed in tombs (or pyramids in the case of the kings). They were given the name of Osiris, and by a process of magical identification became Osiris in hopes of being reborn. Pyramids: Occurred in the Old Kingdom. Part of a larger complex of buildings dedicated to the dead. Built as tombs for dead pharaohs. Arts and Writing: largely functional. Wall painting and statues of gods and kings in temples served a strictly spiritual purpose. Hieroglyphics were sacred characters used as picture signs that depicted objects and had a sacred value at the same time. Carved in stone but later were written on papyrus (paper from a reed that grew on the Nile) PACKET #2 Ancient Egyptians had a very positive attitude toward daily life on earth. Husband was the master of the house but wives were very much respected and in charge of household education of the children. Female property & inheritance remained in their hands, even in marriage. Chief role of female was to have children. Marriages could end in a divorce o Adultery for women could result in the cutting off of the nose or burning at the stake. o Like Mesopotamia, Egyptian peoples built patriarchal societies that vested authority over public and private affairs in their men. Social Hierarchy: o Slaves and peasants: played roles in society similar to those of their Mesopotamian counterparts. They supplied the hard labor and made complex agricultural society possible. o Unlike Mesopotamia: no series of urban kings in Egypt. Egyptians recognized the pharaoh as a supreme central ruler. He was theoretically an absolute ruler. No noble class in Egypt. Egypt relied on professional military forces and an elaborate bureaucracy of administrators and tax collectors who served the central government. In Egypt, more than Mesopotamia, individuals of common birth could attain high positions in society through government service. Economic: Specialized labor and efficient means of transportation encouraged the development of long distance trade. Egypt had few natural resources so needed to trade. Traded with Mesopotamians as early as 3500 b.c.e. Agricultural based economy SOCIAL POLITICAL ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENTAL PACKET #2 Egypt Mesopotamia pp#: 73-83 The Phoenicians: Established the first powerful naval city-state along the Mediterranean. They were epic traders all over the Mediterranean. Historians have called Phoenicians “carriers of civilization” because they spread Middle Eastern civilization around the Mediterranean. They are credited with developing the first alphabet. Unlike cuneiform, in which symbols represent syllables or whole words, an alphabet is a writing system in which each symbol represents a single basic sound, such as a consonant or vowel. Greeks adapted the 22 letter alphabet of the Phoenicians into their own, adding only a few. Our alphabet is a further derivation. CONTINUITYYYY!! The Hebrews: The Hebrews were the first Jews. Unlike others in the Fertile Crescent, they were monotheistic. Around 1,000 b.c.e. the Hebrews established Israel in Palestine on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. They believed they were God’s chosen people and maintained their identity through their belief in this. PACKET #2 Vocabulary Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers Mesopotamia Sumerians Theocracy Sargon Hammurabi Hittites Assyrians Nebuchadnezzar Ziggurat An Cuneiform Definition PACKET #2 Epic of Gilgamesh The Nile Menes Hyksos Re Pyramids Hieroglyphics Hatshepsut Phoenicians Hebrews