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PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 7 A
Memory
Memory
 Memory
 persistence of learning over
time via the storage and
retrieval of information
Memory Stages
 Sensory Memory (Stage 1)
 the immediate, initial recording of sensory information
 Lasts .25 seconds
 Short-Term Memory/Working Memory (Stage 2)
 Current active memory that holds a few items for up to
20 seconds
 Can hold 7 ± 2 items in your head
 Long-Term Memory (Stage 3)
 the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the
memory system
A Simplified Memory Model
Attention to important
or novel information
Sensory input
Rehearsal
Encoding
External
events
Sensory
memory
Encoding
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Retrieving
Storage
Memory Stages: Sensory
Memory
 Iconic Memory
 a momentary memory of visual stimuli
 a picture image memory lasting no more
than a few tenths of a second
 Echoic Memory
 momentary memory of auditory stimuli
Storage:
Short-Term Memory
Percentage
90
who recalled
consonants 80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
 Short-Term
Memory
3
6
9
12
15
18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
 limited in
duration and
capacity
 “magical”
number 7+/-2
Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory
involves learning an action while the individual does not
know or declare what she knows.
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Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 Explicit Memory (Declarative)
 memory of facts/experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
 hippocampus
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 Implicit Memory
 retention independent of
conscious recollection
 procedural memory
 Automatically muscles remember
actions
 Located in the Cerebellum
Storage: Types of Long-Term
Memory
 Episodic Memory
 Events that occurred during one’s life
 Flashbulb
 Emotionally significant events
 Semantic
 Understanding and meaning
Storage: Long-Term Memory
Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
Implicit
With conscious
recall
Without conscious
recall
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
memory”)
Skillsmotor
and cognitive
Dispositionsclassical and
operant
conditioning
effects
Memory Processes
 Encoding
 the processing of getting information into
the memory system
 Storage
 the retention of encoded information over
time
 Retrieval
 process of getting information out of
memory
Encoding: Getting
Information In
Encoding
Effortful
Automatic
Two-Track Processing:
Automatic vs. Effortful
• We automatically
process vast amounts of
everyday information
• We remember new and
important information
through effortful
processing
Automatic Processing
• We automatically process information about
– Space
• “The definition was at the top of the right page”
– Time
• “I went to the store before lunch”
– Frequency
• “This is the third time I’ve seen her today!”
Encoding
 Automatic Processing
 unconscious encoding of information
 Space, time, frequency
 well-learned information
 word meanings
 Automatic processing can be achieved over
time
Effortful Processing
• Requires close attention and effort
• Memory can be improved through rehearsal, the
conscious repetition of information
• Effortful processing can become automatic, such
as learning a new phone number or reading
backwards
• Rehearsal was the subject of one of many studies
of memory by Hermann Ebbinghaus
Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables:
TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
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What Do We Encode?
 Visual Encoding
 encoding of picture images
 Acoustic Encoding
 encoding of sound
 especially sound of words
 Semantic Encoding
 encoding of meaning
 including meaning of words
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A newspaper is better than a magazine.
A seashore is a better place than the street.
At first it is better to run than to walk.
It takes some skill but it is easy to learn.
Once successful, complications are minimal.
Birds seldom interrupt, but rain soaks in very fast.
Too many people doing the same thing can cause problems
If there are no complications, it can be very peaceful.
A rock will serve as an anchor.
If things break loose from it, you will not get a second chance.
Encoding
Encoding
 Spacing Effect
 distributed practice yields better
long-term retention than massed
practice
 Studying over a long period of time is
better than cramming!!!
Encoding
Time in
minutes
taken to
relearn
list on
day 2
20
15
10
5
0
8
16
24
32
42
53
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
64
Encoding: Serial Position Effect
Percent
age of
words
recalled
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4 5 6 7 8
Position of
word in list
9
10 11 12
Serial
Position
Effect-tendency to
recall best
the first and
last items in
a list
Primacy-Recency effect
• Primacy Effect
– Remembering the
beginning of a list of items
– More time to rehearse
• Recency Effect
– Remembering the end of
a list of items
– Recent exposure
Types of Rehearsal
 Imagery
–A mental image of what has been seen
previously
–An iconic mental representation
Types of Rehearsal
 Elaborative Rehearsal
–thinking about the meaning of the term to
be remembered
 Maintenance rehearsal
 Repeating information over and over to
keep it in working memory
Retrieval: Getting Information
Out
 Recall
 measure of memory in which the person
must retrieve information learned earlier
without a retrieval cue
 as on a fill-in-the blank test
 Recognition
 Measure of memory in which the person
has only to identify items previously learned
 as on a multiple-choice test
Encoding
 Mnemonics
 memory aids
 especially those techniques that
use vivid imagery and
organizational devices
Encoding
 Chunking
 organizing items into familiar, manageable units
 like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
 often occurs automatically
 use of acronyms
 HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
 ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s
Ice Cream
Encoding: Chunking
 Organized information is more easily recalled
Encoding
 Hierarchies
Meaning
(semantic
Encoding)
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Chunks
Organization
Hierarchies
Retrieval Cues
 Photographic Memory
 http://www.photographicmemorygame.com/
 Large amounts of controversy
 For – more present in children, believed there is different wiring
 Against – no proof, most people agree to being mneomonists
Retrieval Cues
 State Dependent Memory
 Tendency to recall when in the same state
of mind or location that one was in during
initial learning
 Mood-congruent Memory
 tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with one’s current mood
 memory, emotions, or moods serve as
retrieval cues
Retrieval
 Relearning effect
 memory measure of the amount of
time saved when learning material a
second time
Synaptic Changes
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
a long-lasting strengthening of synapses
between nerve cells. Long-term memories
are thought to be biologically based on LTP
because humans cannot retain memories
for the long term (the cells could not
communicate with each other) unless
connections between nerve cells are
sufficiently strong for an extended period
of time.
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Retrieval Cues
 After learning to move a
mobile by kicking, infants
had their learning
reactivated most
strongly when retested
in the same rather than a
different context (Butler
& Rovee-Collier, 1989).
Retrieval Cues
 Deja Vu (French)--already seen
 cues from the current situation may
subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience
 "I've experienced this before.”
Déja Vu
Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may
unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience.
© The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
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Forgetting
 Forgetting as encoding failure
 Information never enters the long-term
memory
Attention
External
events
Short- Encoding
Sensory
term
memory Encoding
memory
Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting
Longterm
memory
Why do we forget?
Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage. We
filter, alter, or lose
much information
during these
stages.
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Motivated Forgetting
Culver Pictures
Motivated Forgetting:
People unknowingly
revise their memories.
Repression: A defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and
memories from
consciousness.
Sigmund Freud
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Retrieval
 Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve
information from long-term memory
Attention
External
events
Sensory
memory
Encoding
Encoding
Short-term
Long-term
memory
Retrieval memory
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Forgetting
 Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage
 As we process
information, we
filter, alter, or
lose much of it
Forgetting over time
 Transience
 the general deterioration of a specific memory over time.
Much more can be remembered of recent events than those
further in one's past.
 Blocking
 Blocking is when the brain tries to retrieve or encode
information, but another memory interferes with it. Blocking
is a primary cause of Tip of the tongue phenomenon (a
temporary inaccessibility of stored information). There are
two types of blocking; proactive, and retroactive.
Forgetting as Interference
 Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other
information
 Proactive (forward acting) Interference
 Prior learning is disruptive on recall of new information
 Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
 New learning is disruptive on recall of old information
Forgetting as Interference
Forgetting- Interference
 Repression
defense mechanism that banishes
from consciousness anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and memories
Memory Construction
 We filter information and fill in missing pieces
 Misinformation Effect
 incorporating misleading information into one's memory of
an event
 Source Amnesia
 attributing to the wrong source an event that we
experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
(misattribution)
Memory Construction
Depiction of actual accident
 Eyewitnesses
reconstruct
memories when
questioned
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
Memory Construction
 Most people can agree on the following:
 Forgetting happens
 Recovered memories are commonplace
 Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are
especially unreliable
 Memories of things happening before age 3 are
unreliable
 Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Improve Your Memory
 Study repeatedly to boost recall
 Spend more time rehearsing or actively
thinking about the material
 Make material personally meaningful
 Use mnemonic devices
 associate with peg words--something
already stored
 make up story
 chunk--acronyms
Improve Your Memory
 Activate retrieval cues--mentally
recreate situation and mood
 Recall events while they are fresh-before you encounter misinformation
 Minimize interference
 Test your own knowledge
 rehearse
 determine what you do not yet know
Storage:
Long-Term Memory
 Amnesia--the loss of memory
 Can be before or after an incident
Types of amnesia
Anterograde amnesia. The inability to
remember new information. Recent
experiences and short-term memory
disappear, but victims can recall events prior
to the trauma with clarity.
Retrograde amnesia. Can recall events that
occurred after a trauma, but cannot
remember previously familiar information or
the events before the trauma.
Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the
operation but cannot make new memories. We call
this anterograde amnesia.
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
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Other Types of Amnesia
Transient global amnesia. A temporary loss of all memory, but includes
severe anterograde amnesia, with mild retrograde amnesia.
Traumatic amnesia. Traumatic amnesia is caused by brain damage from
a hard blow to the head, such as in a car accident. It is often
transient. Duration and recovery are related to the degree of injury .
Wernike-Korsakoff's Memory loss caused by extended alcohol abuse.
Usually accompanied by neurological problems (uncoordinated movements
& loss of sensation.)
Hysterical (fugue) amnesia. Usually triggered by a traumatic event that
the person's mind is unable to properly handle. Usually, the memory
slowly or suddenly returns a few days later, although memory of the
trauma itself may remain incomplete.
Infantile amnesia. Inability to recall events from early childhood. Could
be linked to language development or immaturity of the brain areas
linked to memory.
Posthypnotic amnesia is where events during hypnosis are forgotten, or
where past memories are unable to be recalled.
Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming.
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Clive Wearing’s Diary Entry
The Man with the 7 Second Memory
• Clive Wearing Video