Download Kai Aichholz 1 Chapter 12 Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the

Kai Aichholz 1
Chapter 12
Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
Chapter Outline:
Section 1: Meaning and Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance
The Italian Renaissance was a period of antiquity rebirth that occurred between 1350 and 1550.
The Renaissance was described by Jacob Burckhardt in his book The Civilization of the
Renaissance. Burckhardt describes the Renaissance in Italy’s distinguishing features to be the
revival of antiquity, the “perfecting of the individual,” and secularism. Although others such as
Burckhardt argued that the Renaissance was an abrupt break from the Middle Ages, the
Renaissance had many of the same political, economic, and social life aspects. Renaissance Italy
was an urban society that was divided into many independent city-states. These city-states where
cultural centers of politics, economics, and social life. The Renaissance was also seen as a
recovery from the fourteenth century and its destructive events such as the Black Death.
Throughout this period of recovery gave rise to increasing wealth which led to new luxuries and
new ideas in art, politics, philosophy, and religion. A new outlook on human beings that focused
on the fact the humans are capable of many achievements and trades also became vastly popular.
However, it was the Italian nobility that truly had the largest impact during the Renaissance and
achieved many things we still admire today. However, the common people were also moderately
impacted by the accomplishments of the nobility.
Section 2: The Making of Renaissance
A new era of manufacturing and trade began after the economic depressions and social upheavals
of the fourteenth century.
Section 2-1: Economic Recovery
During the fourteenth century, Italian merchants began to expand their trade routes and
commerce along the Atlantic seaboard. The Venetian Flanders Fleet also upheld a sea route from
Venice to England and the Netherlands. The Italians also ran into the Hanseatic League of
merchants who continued to grow and flourish while the Italians lost their commercial
superiority over the Hanseatic League.
Section 2-2: Expansion of Trade
During the thirteenth century, many North German coastal towns banded together and formed
the Hanseatic League, a commercial and military association that flourished during the
Renaissance. Over eighty cities joined the league by 1500 and set up many commercial bases and
trade hubs in cities in England and Northern Europe. The Hanseatic League monopolized many
trade industries for almost two hundred years. One of the Hansa League’s southern ports,
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Brouges, became a waypoint between the Hansa League and the Venetian Flanders Fleet and
also served as an economic crossroads for Europe.
Section 2-3: Industries Old and New
After the economic depression of the fourteenth century, Italian cities began to develop new
luxury industries including silk, glassware, metal working, printing, mining, and metallurgy.
These industries eventually began to rival the textile industry in the fifteenth century. The mining
industry also began to thrive and gain importance in the economy due to valuable metals. Iron
production also gave rise to new weaponry.
Section 2-4: Banking and the Medici
In the fifteenth century, the Medici family, centered in Florence, owned the greatest bank in
Europe. which had branches in many regions. The Medici family also held power in other
industries including wool, silk, and alum mining. After the Medici family’s success throughout
the fifteenth century, they had an abrupt decline and where expelled in 1494 by the French who
also confiscated their land and property. The Medici edifice collapsed soon after.
Section 3: Social Changes in the Renaissance
Renaissance society chiefly received its social structure from the Middle Ages. The Renaissance
social structure was divided into three main ranks: the First Estate, the clergy; the Second Estate,
the nobility; and the Third Estate, the peasants and townspeople. However, many new ideas and
changes were implemented into the Renaissance social rankings.
Section 3-1: The Nobility
Throughout Europe during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the nobility’s incomes began to
decline as maintain the social status of a noble became expensive. Because of this, new members
joined the ranks of the nobility along with the older portion and a restoration of the aristocracy
began by 1500. The nobility continued to control society by continuing to hold important places
of power such as chief military officers and advising the king. New ideals became a standard in
the nobility including becoming “the perfect courtier.” This new “goal” sought after by all nobles
was to become a high-achieving, multitalented, educated, well-rounded individual who was
expected to be a “jack-of-all trades.” A new code of conduct was also implemented in the
nobility involving perfect etiquette while being modest when reveal your personal achievements.
The nobility continued to follow their new Renaissance inspired ways while still dominating
social life as well as politics.
Section 3-2: Peasants and Townspeople
The peasants and townspeople made up the Third Estate of society which was around 85% of the
European population. Due to new Renaissance ideals, the manorial and serfdom systems began
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to slowly fade from regularity and lords offered peasants their freedom in exchange for rents.
The townspeople, merchants, and artisans who made up the other remainder of the Third Estate
provided a basis for the economy to have a steady growth. Shopkeepers and merchants provided
goods and services that townspeople paid money for. The patricians were at the top of urban
society and controlled enterprises in trade, banking, and industry which allowed to acquire vast
amounts of wealth and dominated urban society. Under these townspeople in social ranking
where the poor workers and the unemployed who were steadily rising in number due to an
increasing economic gap. Urban poverty steadily increased throughout the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries.
Section 3-3: Slavery in the Renaissance
Agricultural slavery during the renaissance began to first reappear in Spain and was revived
largely in Italy when the Florentine government announced unlimited importation of slaves.
Slaves where used by many people to help with work, keep children company and watch them,
and just as regular housemaids. Slavery dramatically declined during the fifteenth century.
Section 4: Family in Renaissance Italy
Family during the Renaissance was very important and especially in Italy. Family included all
immediate family members as well as slaves and servants. Family bonds where very secure and
were regarded as one group of people.
Section 4-1: Marriage
Marriage was carefully watched as to strengthen family bonds in business as well as allow
people to move up or down in social status. Dowries were also valued and could involved vast
amounts of money and property. The father/husband in an Italian family was responsible for all
legal issues, finances, and decisions regarding his family members. The father was the absolute
authority in a family and children were only freed from his authority until emancipated.
Section 4-2: Children
The mother/wife in the family took care of the household and was responsible for watching over
the children or finding a maid to do so. They mother main priority was to bear children and as
many as possible, preferably a son so as to expand the family lineage. Many upper-class wives
bore children continuously and gave their infants to wet nurses to be fed so they could continue
to bear children.
Section 4-3: Sexual Norms
Husbands and wives during the Italian Renaissance generally had an age difference of around
thirteen years and it was normal for husband to have sexual outlets outside of marriage. Women
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found courting other men where often executed. Prostitution was also a growing necessary vice
that was regulated, such as in Florence where city fathers set up communal brothels.
Section 5: The Italian States in the Renaissance
By the fifteenth century, five major political powers dominated Italian politics: Milan, Venice,
Florence, the Papal States, and Naples.
Section 5-1: The Five Major States
Northern Italy during the fifteenth century was divided by Milan and the republic of Venice.
After the death of the previous Visconti ruler of Milan, Francesco Sforza conquered Milan and
was named its new duke. He worked to create a centralized territorial state and devised a system
of taxation that output vast amounts of revenue for the government. The republic of Venice
remained stable by being governed by a small oligarchy of aristocrats. It was a commercial
empire and generated lots of wealth which allowed it to gain international power. Towards the
end of the fourteenth century, the Venetians tried to conquer a state in northern Italy so as to
overland trade routes and expand while securing its food supply. Milan and Florence felt
threatened and worked to curb the Venetian expansion.
Section 5-2: Republic of Florence
The Florentine republic dominated Tuscany and was also ruled by a small elite oligarchy of
merchants during the fifteenth century. In 1434, Cosimo d’ Medici seized control of the
oligarchy and successfully dominated Florence when it was the center of the cultural
Renaissance.
Section 5-3: Papal States
The Papal States were located in central Italy and were politically controlled by popes. However,
after the Great Schism individual cities such as Urbino, Bologna, and Ferrara became
independent from the papal government. The popes of the Renaissance directed their attention
throughout the fifteenth century at regaining control of the Papal States.
Section 5-4: Kingdom of Naples
The Kingdom of Naples dominated most of southern Italy and the island of Sicily, which as
fought over by the French and Aragonese but the Naples eventually secured control in the
fifteenth century. The Naples monarchy maintained control over a poverty stricken population
ruled by tyrannical nobles. The Kingdom of Naples experienced little of the cultural
Renaissance.
Section 5-5: Independent City-States
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Other than the five major states, many independent city-states ruled by powerful, wealthy
families served as wonderful centers of the cultural Renaissance during the fifteenth century.
Some of these were Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino.
Section 5-6: Urbino
Urbino was ruled by Federigo da Montefeltro from 1444 to 1482. He was a humanist who had a
classical education as well as training in combat to generate income as a condotierre. He was an
honest and reliable ruler as well as one of the greatest patrons of Renaissance culture.
Throughout his rule, Urbino became a thriving intellectual center.
Section 5-7: The Role of Women
In the independent city-states such as Urbino, wives ruled their husbands estates and enterprises
in their absences such as Battista Sforza, wife of Federigo da Montefeltro. A famous woman
ruler during the Renaissance was Isabella d’Este, who was known for her brightness and political
wisdom, amassed one of the finest libraries in Italy which attracted many intellectuals and artists
to Mantua. After her husband’s death, the marquis of Mantua, she ruled Mantua and was known
as a clever negotiator.
Section 5-8: Warfare in Italy
Due to the many territorial states of Italy, new political practices came into play to compete with
other states so as to achieve a balance of power. After the Peace of Lodi was signed by the Italian
States, half a century of war came to halt and began a peaceful 40 year long era in Italy.
However, a lasting peace was not achieved among the ruling powers of Italy. Due to the growth
of monarchial states, Italy became a war zone between the Spaniards and French. After many
years of warfare after a breakdown of power in Italy, the Spaniards successfully conquered Italy.
However, Italians remained fiercely loyal to their states and did not unify until 1870.
Section 5-9 The Birth of Modern Diplomacy
Modern diplomacy was a result of the Italian Renaissance. Ambassadors were beginning to be
implemented into host states to conduct business while maintaining security between smaller
city-states. This practice eventually spread throughout Europe. The use of ambassadors to
conduct political interests with other states began the start of modern politics during the
Renaissance.
Section 5-10: Machiavelli and the New Statecraft
Niccolo Machiavelli joined the service of the Florentine republic in 1498 as a secretary in the
Florentine Council of Ten. After the Spanish victory over Italy which led to the reestablishment
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of Medici power in Florence, republicans such as Machiavelli where sentenced to exile.
Machiavelli then began to reflect on political power during the Renaissance.
Section 5-11: The Prince
Machiavelli’s ideas for his work in politics came from his outlook on Italy’s political problems
and his extensive knowledge of ancient Rome. His focuses in The Prince were how to obtain
political power as well as restoring and maintain order during the Renaissance. Machiavelli’s
outlook on how a prince should govern his estate was to base their rule on human nature.
Machiavelli was looked upon as being on of the first to leave behind morality in order to gain
political power.
Section 6: The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy
Two characteristics of the Italian Renaissance were individualism and secularism, which were
noticed in the artistic and intellectual realms. Italy became the cultural leader during the
Renaissance in Europe. Another important literary movement was humanism.
Section 6-1: Italian Renaissance Humanism
Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement involving the extensive study of
humanities and classical literature of Greece and Rome. The humanists became professors and
teachers of secondary schools while other were secretaries in the chancelleries of Italian citystates.
Section 6-2: The Emergence of Humanism
Petrarch, the father of Italian humanism, rejected his father’s desired future for him and decided
to take up the study of classical literary works of Greece and Rome. During the Renaissance,
Petrarch dedicated his life to the development of humanism. He was also noted for being the first
to denoted the Middle Ages as an age of darkness.
Section 6-3: Humanism in the Fifteenth-Century Italy
In Florence, humanism began to tie closely together with civic spirit and pride created a new sect
of civic humanism. As civic humanism gained popularity, many more humanists began to enter
the world of great intellectuals and scholars who discussed human life and what humans are
capable of. Civic Humanism also caused humanists to begin to demand that humanities should
be a service of the state. Towards the end of the fifteenth century a new body of humanists had
emerged.
Section 6-4: Humanism and Philosophy
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Towards the second half of the fifteenth century, the works of Plato became a chief interest in
Florence and Cosimo d’Medici was a prominent patron of the translation of Plato’s works. This
new study of Platonic philosophy was known as Neoplatonism. This involved the belief that
there was a link between the material world and spiritual realm. These ideas also stated that all
people are bound together by love.
Section 6-5: Renaissance Hermeticism
Hermeticism was another intellectual idea that arose in Florence that focus on many occult
sciences such as astrology, alchemy, and magic. This revival of hermetic ideas was seen as a new
view on humankind which stated that humans were born with a certain divinity that could be
nourished so as to reach an intellectual mindset of a true magi or sage of the Renaissance. The
most prominent magi of the fifteenth century were Ficino and his pupil Giovanni.
Section 6-6: Education in the Renaissance
The humanist movement had a profound impact on education that caused an upsurge in the
studies of philosophy, humanities, grammar, history, math, astronomy, and music. A few groups
of lower class children also began to receive free educations while other schools worked towards
a pristine education for the elite. Females, however, were hardly educated with few exceptions.
The humanist outlook on education was to create a complete citizen who was educated in the
ways of life. Humanist schools along with Christianity and classics became the outline for basic
education in Europe until the twentieth century.
Section 6-7: Guicciardini
The peak of Renaissance historiography was observed in the works of Francesco Guicciardini.
He is known as one of the greatest historians between Tacitus and Volataire and Gibbon. His
works represented “modern analytical historiography,” and his outlook on the writing of history
to be a means of teaching lessons. Due to his background in diplomacy, he stressed political and
military history in his writing.
Section 6-8: The Impact of Printing
During the Renaissance, printing was a very important technological invention that
revolutionized intellectual life and thought. The new innovation in printing was that there was
now new movable metal type largely developed by Johannes Gutenburg, who also printed the
“first true book” made by movable type, Gutenburg’s Bible. This new technology soon spread
across Europe and gave rise to a printing center in Venice that involved one hundred printers. By
1500 close to forty thousand books had been printed, many of which were religious books. The
printing industry gained rising importance in Europe and impacted everyday life, especially
reading and the spread of news.
Section 7: The Artistic Renaissance
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Artists during the Renaissance began to develop new styles of art attempted to capture realism
and naturalism in order to gain the attention of viewers with the realism of their paintings.
Another main idea of Renaissance art was that humans should be the center of attention.
Section 7-1: Art in the Early Renaissance
Many recognized artists of the Renaissance concluded the Giotto began the “imitation of nature”
in the fourteenth century. His work was then improved upon by Masaccio who was regarded for
his use of monumental figures to show a more realistic view in his paintings. This new style of
art during the Renaissance was very popular during the fifteenth century and branched off into
two different styles of painting that involved a mathematical side and a side that involved the
laws of perspective and light. One notable painter who used the laws of perspective was Paolo
Uccello. Other Florentine artists began to delve into Greek and Roman mythology which they
portrayed in their works. Thought the Florentine painters had reached great achievements in the
fifteenth century, the Florentine sculptors and architects. Famous architects and sculptors
included Donao di Donatello, famous for his statue of David, and Filippo Brunelleschi, famous
for the Cathedral of Florence. A new stressed importance on portraiture also gave rise to new
styles of Renaissance art.
Section 7-2: The Artistic High Renaissance
Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Italian painters, architects, and sculptors made a new
era of art. The last stage of Renaissance art thrived between 1480 and 1520, which was noted by
a stressed importance of Rome as a cultural center of the Italian Renaissance. The three
dominating artists of the High Renaissance were Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo.
Leonardo focused on pushing forward past realism and onto “the idealization of nature,” the
generalization of realistic portrayal to a more ideal sort. Leonardo’s Last Supper was his attempt
to put emotional depth into a painting and reveal a person’s “inner life.” Raphael was a painter at
a young age and was known in Italy for his numerous madonnas. Michelangelo, a painter,
sculptor, and architect who worked a large projects. He is best known for his ceiling paintings of
the Sistine Chapel in Rome and his sculpting masterpiece of marble, David.
Section 7-3: The Artist and Social Status
Artists of the early Renaissance started out as apprentices and worked their way up to become
masters of their own workshops and guilds. Since artists still fell under the social ranking of
artisans, wealthy patrons determined whether or not certain projects could be commissioned.
However, artistic greats such as Michelangelo were regarded as belonging to a much higher
social status and was looked up to by many. Because of this shift, artists where able to profit
more from their work and slowly rose in social rank to blend with high intellectuals and political
elites.
Section 7-4: The Northern Artistic Renaissance
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The artists of the north and Italy began to make human form the ideal mode to show humans in a
realistic setting in their art. New ideas in paintings also began to take place such as oil painting
which was started by Jan Van Eyck which allowed painters to use many colors as well as a fine
attention to detail, such as in Jan Van Eyck’s Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride. The artists of the
north focused more on visual perfection than on the mastery of the laws of perspective. Another
notable artist of the time was Albrecht Durer who also stressed the importance of minute details.
Section 7-5: Music in the Renaissance
During the fifteenth century, the dukes of Burgundy in northern Europe drew in many great
artists and musicians of the time. One of the most notable being Guillaume Dufay, a composer
who was most famous for his change in the composition of the Mass. The Renaissance madrigal
was poem set to music from the fourteenth century with themes of love. By the sixteenth century,
madrigals started to be written for larger audiences with five to six voices. These madrigals
eventually spread to England and were expanded upon there.
Section 8: The European State in the Renaissance
During the fifteenth century European states kept on breaking apart. The second half of the
century was dedicated to reuniting a the states and creating a centralized power that was labeled
as the “new monarchies.”
Section 8-1: The Growth of the French Monarchy
The Hundred Years’ War which had left France depleted of its wealth and resources led to ruined
economy that made it difficult for French monarchies to sustain their authority. However, the
French monarchies used war as a common goal to reunite and assert their authority over their
domains and constructed an army while disregarding parliament. This led to the development of
a French territorial state which was expanded upon by King Louis XI who obtained an income
and later obtained a portion of land known as the duchy of Burgundy to later strengthen the
development of a French monarchy.
Section 8-2: England: Civil War and a New Monarchy
The Hundred Years’ War had also impacted England due to the expenses of the war and the loss
of forces halted the English economy. More problems arose after the War of Roses began in
1450. This civil war was a fight between the house of Lancaster and the house of York. After
many high families of England where drawn into the war, Henry Tudor conquered the last
Yorkist King and initiated the beginning of the Tudor dynasty. Henry VII maintained control by
assemble small armies for certain campaigns and abolish private armies of nobles. He also
created a court dedicated to the unruly activities of nobles in order to sustain order. By avoiding
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costly decisions and obtaining an income by taxation, Henry VII won the favor of the gentry and
gave England a solid, thriving government and monarchy.
Section 8-3: Unification of Spain
Throughout the fifteenth century, Spain was divided and slowly worked towards unification of
its kingdoms. One important step towards unification was the marriage of Isabella of Castile to
Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469. This created a unified monarchy between two kingdoms. With
their authority, Isabella and Ferdinand reconstructed the Spanish military forces and seized the
right to chose church officials for the Catholic Church in Spain from the pope, making the clergy
under their command. Ferdinand and Isabella then attempted to convert all Jews and Muslims to
Christianity but failed, and instead expelled them all from Spain. This was called the Spanish
Inquisition and created a religious uniformity of Catholicism in Spain.
Section 8-5: The Holy Roman Empire: The Success of the Habsburg
The Holy Roman Empire was unable to create a powerful monarchial authority that France,
England, and Spain had achieved. Because of this, the Habsburgs dynasty controlled the position
of Holy Roman Emperor and became one of the wealthiest land lords in the empire and had a
significant role in the business of Europeans. The success of the Habsburgs was largely due to
wise political decisions that involved dynastic marriages. Through these marriages, the
Habsburgs acquired many regions and were recognized s and international power.
Section 8-6: The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern Europe
Throughout eastern Europe, many rulers attempted to control and centralize territorial states but
failed due to religious differences between peoples and other ethnic groups. Polish kings also
tried to set up a powerful monarchial authority but failed. The Hussite War caused an outburst of
civil war and further weakened monarchies. Hungary soon became and area of religious
reformation that led to a conversion to Catholicism by German missionaries. Hungary then
enjoyed a period of cultural Renaissance and being a ruling power in eastern Europe. Russia
began making deals with the Mongol Khan and soon fell under their control. Soon the great
russian great prince Ivan III separated Russia from the Mongol’s dominance.
Section 8-7: The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine Empire
Eastern Europe started to become progressively intimidated by the Ottoman Turks who where
slowly moving forward. When the Byzantine Empire was weakened by the sack of
Constantinople in 1204, the Ottoman Turks advanced quickly and conquered the Byzantine
Empire and the lands of the Seljuk Turks. As Ottoman forces advanced into Bulgaria and the
Serbian lands, King Lazar opposed their forces. Eventually in 1389, after the battle of Kosovo,
the Ottomans conquered the Serbs and went on to seize the lands of Serbia, Albania, and Bosnia
in 1480. After their swift advancements, the Ottoman Empire was feared many nearby regions
and became an chief enemy of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V.
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Section 9: The Church in the Renaissance
The Council of Constance worked to end the Great Schism in 1417 and was successful, but
failed in the refinement and problems of heresy.
Section 9-1: The Problems of Heresy and Reform
New problems for the church arose during the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries known as
the Lollardy and Hussitism movements.
Section 9-2: Wyclif and Lollardy
John Wyclif was an Oxford theologian who created English Lollardy as an opposing force to
papal authority and Chrisitan beliefs. Wyclif spread his ideas that the pope had no authority and
should be stripped of the land that is not rightfully his. His ideas also stated that the Bible should
be the sole authority for Christians practices and beliefs. A number people where drawn in by his
ideas and form the Lollards.
Section 9-3: Hus and the Hussites
The royal families of Bohemian and England bonded through marriage and allowed Lollard
ideas to extend throughout Bohemia. John Hus attempted to refine the church’s ways, he called
for the elimination of worldliness, the corruption of the clergy, and the dominating power of the
papacy of the Catholic Church. When offered a chance to speak in front of the Council of
Constance, John Hus was arrested and burned at the stake as a heretic. This led to a Bohemian
uprising and began the Hussite wars which did not end until a truce in 1436.
Section 9-4: Reform of the Church
The reformation of the church was unsuccessful when the Council of Constance mad two reform
decrees that stated that the sole authority of the Church was God, and that the Church reform
would continue. However, after thirty years, popes fought back the council and regained their
dominance over the Catholic Church. However, the papacy steadily began to lose its power
throughout the fifteenth century.
Section 9-5: The Renaissance Papacy
The Renaissance papacy was the lineage of popes after the Great Schism until the sixteenth
century. The papacy attempted to maintain spiritual control over the Catholic Church. Many
popes used war as a main means of politics and conquering their enemies such as Julius II. Even
though the papacy could not have a monarchy over the Papal States, many popes appointed their
kin as high ranking church officials to maintain dominance. Others, such as Alexander VI
scandalized the church by having family members set aside land of the Papal States for
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themselves. The popes of the Renaissance promoted Renaissance culture but was filled with
deceit, however, Rome became one of the main artistic and cultural centers of the Renaissance.
Chapter 12
Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
Questions:
1) The Italian Renaissance was characterized a rebirth of antiquity, an outburst of humanism,
independent cities, philosophy, theology, and new styles of art. The rebirth of classical
antiquity was the driving force behind all the changes in politics, religion, philosophy, and the
newly adopted styles of art. A new emphasis on human dignity, value, and ability to succeed
gave rise people becoming people of many abilities and trades. This belief of a person
becoming more “well-rounded” and able to achieve in many areas of life became a chief
characteristic in the Italian Renaissance and led to the many artistic, philosophical,
theological, and architectural achievements that are noted today. The Italian renaissance also
brought about a large urban society that spread across northern Italy in the mid-fourteenth
century which gave rise to many independent cities. These city-states where cultural centers of
politics, economics, and new social life. A new secular spirit arose in these city-states as
increasing wealth which allowed people enjoy new luxuries. The Renaissance of the Twelfth
Century, however, focused on a renewal of education and learning about classical studies and
preserving Latin culture. These two rebirths had two different focuses: the Italian Renaissance
focused on a rebirth of antiquity and societal renewal, while the 12th Century Renaissance
focused on a revival of education.
2) The major social changes of the Renaissance era were that being part of the nobility became
increasingly expensive and many new members infused with the older ranks. The nobility’s
members also began to develop new ideals to become “the perfect courtier” who was skilled
and educated in many fields of education while having perfect etiquette and class. During the
Renaissance serfdom and the manorial system began to steadily fade from regularity and
many peasants earned their freedom by paying rents to lords. Artisans and merchants during
the Renaissance were simply provided goods and services while patricians dominated urban
society with their wealth from capitalistic enterprises in trade, industry, and banking.
Throughout the Renaissance urban poverty also increased greatly. These changes were not a
rejection of medieval trends because many medieval trends such as lords granting freedom to
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peasants where retained but new Renaissance inspired trends such as the “perfect courtier” in
the nobility were new ideas.
3) During the Renaissance, Italy was dominated by five major political powers: Milan, Venice,
Florence, the Papal States, and Naples. Milan and Venice divided Northern Italy while the
republic of Florence ruled the region of Tuscany. The Papal States where located in Central
Italy and the Kingdom of Naples dominated southern Italy. Outside of the five major ruling
powers, independent city-states controlled by powerful, wealthy families became hubs of
Renaissance culture. Some prominent city-states where Mantua, Ferrara, and Urbino. Later,
after a failed attempted at a balance of power between the five major ruling powers, Italy
became a war zone from a lasting power struggle between the French and Spaniards. Around
1527, the Spaniards finally conquered Italy. The Italians contributed the political practice of
modern diplomatics and having ambassadors in host country to conduct diplomatic business to
Europe. These political practices where reflected in Machiavelli’s The Prince, which
discussed political power and maintaining order during the Renaissance.
4) Italian Renaissance humanism was an intellectual movement based on literary works of
Greece and Rome. Humanism gave rise to a new movement of education in humanities, which
consisted of grammar, rhetoric, poetry, ethics, and history. Humanism the belief that humans
are capable of achieving their greatest potentials and ruling their own lives and futures rather
than a god or supernatural entity. The humanists were a group of believers who were often
teachers or professors in secondary schools who taught humanities or secretaries in the
chancelleries of Italian city-states. The humanists’ goals were to increase the awareness of
classical Roman and Greek literature as well as the other studies of humanities and introduce
them into education and into the lives of the common people. This goal was achieved as a
conscious being of humanists emerged in the fifteenth century.
5) The distinctive characteristics of the Renaissance artists were the new style of realistic art that
was an attempt at an “imitation of nature” in their paintings, the portrayal of the human in the
nude, an outburst of portraiture, and attempts to reflect a human-centered reality. Their art
reflected the political and social events at the time by depicting human nature and a realistic
perspective in their art which reflected political deceit and the social lives of people such as
Jan van Eyck’s Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride, which reflected the impact of marriage on a
couple.
Chapter 12
Recovery and Rebirth: The Age of the Renaissance
Vocabulary:
1) Renaissance- A period of time in the 14th-16th centuries in which art and literature bloomed.
It was said to have begun in Florence.
2) House of Medici- One of the largest banks in europe that branches into many prominent cities.
Kai Aichholz 14
3) Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier- A book that explained how to become the ideal
renaissance courtier.
4) Francesco Sforza- A condottieri who conquered Milan and became its new duke after the
death of the previous Visconti ruler.
5) Cosimo d’Medici- The leader of the ruling oligarchy in Florence around 1434, when Florence
was the center of the cultural Renaissance .
6) the Papal States- An area in central Italy that was ruled by the popes until it broke up into
individual territories and cities after the Great Schism.
7) Isabella d’Este- A famous ruler during the Renaissance was known for her intelligence and
political wisdom. She was the daughter of the duke of Ferrara and married to Francesco
Gonzaga, the marquis of Mantua. She was also known for producing one of the finest libraries
in Italy. After her husband’s death, she became the ruler of Mantua.
8) Machiavelli’s The Prince- One of the most famous treatises on political power in the Western
world.
9) civic humanism- an scholarly movement of the Italian Renaissance that saw Cicero, who was
both an scholar and a statesman, as the model and held that humanists should be involved in
government and use their linguistic training in the service of the state.
10)
Petrarch- A man known the father of Italian Renaissance humanism.
11)
Renaissance hermeticism- an intellectual movement beginning in the 15h century that
taught that divinity is the embodied in all aspects of nature; it included works on alchemy and
magic as well as theology and philosophy. The tradition continued into the 17th century and
influenced many of the leading figures of the Scientific Revolution.
12)
Johannes Gutenberg- the first man in the West to print using movable type. By 1455 he
had completed the Gutenberg Bible, the first true book produced by movable type.
13)
High Renaissance- A period of time between 1480 and 1520 that was the final stage of
Renaissance art which was marked by the increasing importance of Rome as a new cultural
center.
14)
Leonardo da Vinci- An Italian painter, scientist, and engineer noted for his paintings
which included The Virgin of the Rocks, The Last Supper, and the Mona Lisa.
15)
Raphael- An Italian painter and architect regarded as one of the greatest artists of the
Renaissance, noted for his altarpiece, the Sistine Madonna. As an architect, he was put in
charge of work on St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome in 1514.
16)
Michelangelo- A renowned painter, sculptor, and architect who was noted for his
sculptures the Pieta and David. He is also known for decorating the ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel in Rome and painted the fresco The Last Judgment.
Kai Aichholz 15
17)
Sistine Chapel’s David- a colossal marble statue commissioned in 1501 and completed
in 1504 by Michelangelo. The sculpture is said to claim the beauty of the human body and the
glory of human beings.
18)
Northern Renaissance- the spreading influence of the Renaissance to areas outside of
Italy. Northern Renaissance art focused on portraying humans in a realistic manner and
setting.
19)
Jan van Eyck- A painter among the first to use oil paint and was noted for her precise
attention to detail.
20)
Albrecht Durer- A famous northern artist who wrote detailed treatises on the laws of
perspective and Renaissance theories of proportion. He is noted for his detailed painting,
Adoration of the Magi.
21)
“new monarchies”- the new governments of France, England, and Spain at the end of the
15th century, whose rulers succeeded in reestablishing or extending centralized royal
authority, suppressing the nobility, controlling the church, and insisting on the loyalty of all
peoples living in their territories.
22)
Louis XI the Spider and Henry VIII- King Louis XI the Spider was known for his willy
and devious ways. He was also known for helping advance the development of a French
territorial state. He also secured a solid income by retaining a permanent tax imposed by royal
authority. Henry VIII was the first Tudor king who worked to reduce internal dissension and
establish a strong monarchical government. Henry also ended private wars of the nobility by
abolishing “livery and maintenance.”
23)
Ferdinand and Isabella- Together they enforced a strict religious uniformity. They also
noticed the importance of the Catholic church, and how vital it was to control it.
24)
Spanish Inquisition- The expelling of all the jews and muslims from spain. 150,000 to
200,000 jews fled the country. The inquisition was sparked by growing complaints about the
sincerity of Jewish converts. Isabella and Ferdinand asked the church to investigate, giving
them the authority to guarantee their orthodoxy, and with that power they did so with cruel
efficiency.
25)
The Habsburgs- A dynasty that ruled the position of Holy Roman Emperor. They were
one of the wealthiest landlords in the empire and by the mid 15th century they played an
important role in European affairs.
Kai Aichholz 16
Chapter 13
Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
Chapter Outline:
Section 1: Prelude to Reformation
Martin Luther’s reformation was but one of other previous reformations such as the the northern
Renaissance humanism movement in the second half of the fifteenth century.
Section 1-1: Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism
The northern humanists also extensively studied the classics like the Italian humanists but also
stressed the early scriptures of Christianity. However, the northern humanists also had a
reformation program that was based on the idea that if they bettered themselves through
education then they could create an inward religious feeling that would cause a church and
societal reform. These humanists were also supporters of schools and the power of education.
Section 1-2: Erasmus
Claimed to be the most influential humanist of his time, Erasmus helped develop the reformation
program of Christian humanism. Erasmus believed that Christianity should be guiding
philosophy for everyday life rather then regimented practice. Erasmus saw the reformation as
spreading the true teachings of Jesus to instill a more true faith. Erasmus paved the way for
Martin Luther to complete to church reformation.
Section 1-3: Thomas More
Kai Aichholz 17
Thomas More was a highly educated scholar who took interest in classical learning and sought to
make learning a service of state and through his journey he became the lord chancellor of
England. More was also famous for his book Utopia, which was about the ideal life in a
community of Utopia. It showed More’s outlook on the economic, social, and political problems
of his time. He gave up his life when he objected the divorce of King Henry VII.
Section 1-4: Church and Religion on the Eve of the Reformation
The corruption of the Catholic Church pushed people towards a reform because the papacy was
constantly occupied with financial issues. The clergy also slowly became filled with nobles and
wealthy members of the bourgeoisie. This led to church officials becoming too occupied to
watch the actions of their subordinates which resulted in chaos within the church. This went on
as people sought after spiritual leadership that was absent.
Section 2: Martin Luther and the Reformation in Germany
The Protestant reformation began with Martin Luther, who split from the church, causing a
divide in religious unity of the western Christendom, and started getting others to think about the
church and its corrupt ways. However, the church was still tangled with social, economic, and
political forces.
Section 2-1: The Early Luther
Martin Luther, at first on the track to becoming a lawyer, was well educated but turned to the
monastic order of the Augustinian Hermits when he vowed to become a monk if he left a
thunderstorm unscathed. Here, Luther began to question how to achieve salvation and the
church’s traditional practices. He eventually came to the conclusion that salvation is only
achievable by having faith in God, this became the leading doctrine in the Protestant
Reformation.
Section 2-2: The Indulgence Controversy
Luther did not consider himself a heretic or radical but when the indulgence controversy came
along, Luther’s involvement brought him to a confrontation with church officials and they mad
him see the implications of justification by faith. The sale of indulgences angered Luther and
caused him to send out his Ninety-Five Theses to his ecclesiastical superior. However, his issue
was disregarded and the pope did not halt the sale of indulgences.
Section 2-3: The Quickening Rebellion
During the Leipzig Debate in 1519, Luther challenged that Catholic theologian Johann Eck,
which ended in Luther revoking the jurisdiction of the popes and councils. Luther had to face the
consequences of his “blasphemy,” but continued to work towards a reformation and a break with
the Catholic Church. He went before the Holy Roman Emperor and continued to express his
Kai Aichholz 18
ideals. He was then excommunicated in 1521 and then sentenced an outlaw in the Holy Roman
Empire and wanted by the emperor.
Section 2-4: The Rise of Lutheranism
After remaining unseen after a bounty was placed on him in the Holy Roman Empire, Luther
started organizing a reformed church. Luther’s ideals dubbed Lutheranism gained popularity
quickly and was favored through Germany. Luther’s new movement brought about a stateenforced reform of the church as pamphlets were distributed to inform the people.
Section 2-5: The Spread of Luther’s Ideas
Lutheranism spread across Germany and cities such as Nuremberg began conversions to
Lutheranism in 1525. Although Lutheranism was widely accepted, many northern humanists
began to see a split in the Christendom unity and left Luther’s reformation. However, younger
humanists stayed with Lutheranism along with others.
Section 2-6: The Peasants’ War
In the 1520s, peasants in Germany became dissatisfied with the facts that the economic growth
had not impacted them, along with social discontent, and abusive local lords. This led to the
Peasants’ War, when religious upheaval began to rise and revolts began to break out in 1524 in
southwestern Germany and then slowly throughout the other regions. Luther supported the state
rulers, princes, and magistrates who put down the rebellions in 1525. Luther realized that he
needed the support of the German nobility for the development of his new reformed church.
Section 2-7: Church and State
Luther’s new reformed Church needed a redefined set of doctrines. These doctrines included
“justification by faith alone,” baptism, and the Lord’s Supper. Luther’s new changes to his
church included having an organize church as opposed to an invisible entity. However, Luther
became increasingly reliant on the princes and state authorities of Germany to guide his new
reformed church. Luther’s new church became increasingly regulated and ran by the state
authorities. Luther also married Katherina von Bora in 1525 to provide an example of married
life for the new Protestant minister.
Section 2-8: Germany and the Reformation: Religion and Politics
Luther’s movement relied heavily on political affairs and assets. In 1519, Charles I became the
Holy Roman Emperor, ruling the immense empire. However, due to problems with the French,
the Turks, and Germany’s internal affairs. These setbacks allowed Luther’s reformation to
reorganized and spread so as to prepare for Catholic forces.
Section 2-9: French, the Papacy, and the Turks
Kai Aichholz 19
Charles V’s conflict with the Valois king of France, Francis I, became his most important
political affair. Due to disputed lands, Charles V and Francis I began a series of skirmishes
known as the Habsburg-Valois Wars which lasted for 24 years. When Charles V did not receive
aid from the papacy, he was angered and Pope Clement VII feared his wrath and sided with the
French. However, after Charles V conquered Rome, the pope realigned with Spain and Charles
V secured his reign over most of Italy. The Ottoman Turks in the east, however, conquered
Hungary and advance to Vienna where they withdrew.
Section 2-10: Politics in Germany
Towards the end of 1529, Charles V began to assess the Lutheran movement and other internal
problems of Germany. Germany consisted of many independent city-states that owed their
loyalty to the emperor, but had not done so and had no intention of doing so either. Charles V
tried to find a solution to the growing Lutheran issue by demanding the Lutherans become part of
the Catholic church. However, many German Lutheran imperial cities created an opposing force
known as the Schmalkaldic League. Charles V was then occupied with battles with the Turks,
Arabs, Barbary, and Valois Wars. Charles V eventually came to peace with both the Turks and
French fifteen years later. It was then the Charles V launched an assault on the Schmalkaldic
League who later aligned themselves with Henry VIII which caused Charles V to truce. The
Peace of Augsburg in 1555 marked the end of religious warfare and Germany and finalized the
separation of Lutheranism and Catholicism.
Section 3: The Spread of the Protestant Reformation
After Luther’s reformation others began to question which interpretation of the Bible that was
correct and began to split into different sects of Christianity. The groups then continued on to
wage war so as to defend their beliefs and unwilling to accept those of others.
Section 3-1: Lutheranism in Scandinavia
The Union of Kalmar in 1397 finalized the unified rule over Denmark, Norway, and Sweden
under the king of Denmark. However, this unification brought about little unity between the
three states and eventually faded and Christian II of Denmark’s throne was taken by Gustavus
Vasa who appointed himself king of a new independent Sweden and began a Lutheran
Reformation with led to the Swedish Lutheran National Church in 1530. A Lutheran Reform
soon followed in Denmark and Norway which was instituted by Frederick I, king of Denmark,
and his successor, Christian III. Frederick set up a Lutheran church that had the king as the
religious authority. Scandinavia had become powerful Lutheran region with state-run churches.
Section 3-2: The Zwinglian Reformation
During the sixteenth century, the Swiss Confederation, a group of thirteen independent states,
became independent from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. Ulrich Zwingli, who resided in the
Swiss Confederation, was a Christian humanist who became a priest in 1506 and later went on to
the Great Minster of Zurich in 1518. He then began the Reformation in Switzerland by beginning
to preach Gospel which raised a debate that was won by the Zwingli party.
Kai Aichholz 20
Section 3-3: Reforms in Zurich
Zwingli’s Reform began with a Zwingli controlled city council that allowed the state to run
church affairs. Zwingli’s reform included changes such as having a magistrate; destroying all
relics, images, and idols; a new Mass that was replaced by reading, prayer, and sermons; no more
music during service; and the abolishment of monasticism. Zwingli’s reform spread across
Switzerland throughout 1528 until 1530.
Section 3-4: A Futile Search for Unity
During 1528, the Zwingli reformation was halted by Swiss forest cantons that opposed the
reform and remained Catholic. Due to growing fears that Charles V would attempt to make use
of the divided reformation, Zwingli, Martin Luther, and Martin Bucer met at the Marburg
colloquy to create an evangelical reformation alliance between the Swiss and the Germans. The
meeting ended in no agreement or alignment due to a disputed interpretation of the Lord’s
Supper. In 1531, civil war broke out between the Zwingli reformers and the Swiss Catholic
cantons. During the battle, Zwingli was killed and burned.
Section 3-5: Radical Reformation: The Anabaptists
While state authorities became increasingly involved in church affairs, others denied the sort of
magisterial reformation and sought after a more radical movement. This group was known as the
Anabaptists who were largely different but shared some common ideals and goals. Anabaptism
was also quite appealing to peasant, weavers, and other lower-class men.
Section 3-6: The Ideas of the Anabaptists
The Anabaptists, though largely varied, had many key, common ideals which included the
beliefs of only adult baptism an seeing the church as an association of baptized believers who
had experienced a spiritual rebirth. The Anabaptists also followed early practices of Christianity
and saw all members of the church as equals. They also believed in the affairs of church and
state to be separated entirely. The Anabaptists were looked upon and a growing threat of radicals
that needed to be halted by both the Protest and Catholic officials.
Section 3-7: Varieties of Anabaptists
The Swiss Brethren, a group of Anabaptists, began in Zurich and were expelled from
Switzerland for their practice of adult baptism. However, they continued to extend their teaching
throughout Germany, Austrian Habsburg lands, and Switzerland, where they suffered
persecution and were eventually wiped out of Germany. Anabaptists then moved to Poland, the
Netherlands, and Moravia. In 1530, Munster became an Anabaptist haven which slowly became
ruled by those who followed millenarianism. The millenarian Anabaptists soon seize control of
Kai Aichholz 21
the city and expelled all those who did not follow their faith. They sought to create a New
Jerusalem to be the kingdom of God during the Second Coming of Jesus. How, the Catholic
prince-bishop of Munster soon amassed a force to regain control of the city and execute all
radical Anabaptists. Soon, pacifist Anabaptists emerged and were known as Mennonites because
of their spiritual Menno. The Mennonites slowly extended into northwestern Germany, Poland,
Lithuania, and the New World.
Section 3-8: The Reformation in England
The Reformation in England was started when Henry VIII insisted on divorcing his wife,
Catherine of Aragon, who was unable to bear him a son. Henry VIII attempted to get an
annulment of his marriage from the pope but could not because the pope was now under the
dominance of Charles V. Henry VIII grew impatient and obtain new advisors who told him to
get a divorce in England’s own courts. Henry VII then went onto sever all papal authority from
the English courts by getting Parliament to pass this act. In 1533, Henry VIII annulment to
Catherine of Aragon was null and void and he now had a legitimate heir in the pregnant Anne
Boleyn, who was now crowned queen. In 1534, Parliament finalized the severance of ties
between the Church of England with Rome by passing the Act of Supremacy, which made Henry
VIII “the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England.” Denying this was punishable
by death.
Section 3-9: The New Order
Henry VIII went onto close down hundreds of monasteries and took their land and belongings
which he sold to merchants and nobility to increase his treasury. Although the Church of
England was severed from the papacy, Church doctrines and worship remained the same
although others pushed for a reformation. Henry VIII became obsessed with having a heir and
grew tired of Anne Boleyn and her inability to bear him a son, so he beheaded her. Henry VII
then married Jane Seymour who bore him a sickly male heir, Edward VI who succeeded Henry
VIII. However, because the child was a mere nine years old, a council regency controlled the
kingdom. During this time, church officials began a small reformation towards protestantism and
allowed clergy members to marry and well as instituted a new prayer book, the Book of
Common Prayer. Later, Mary, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, rose to the throne.
Section 3-10: Reaction under Mary
Mary was devoted to Catholicism and intended to reconnect England to the Holy Roman Empire.
Mary grew vastly unpopular as she reconnected with the Holy Roman Empire, married Philip II,
son of Charles V, created a foreign alliance with Spain, lost Calais, and burned over 300 bodies
of Protestant heretics which earned her the title “bloody Mary.” Mary’s intentions of restoring
Catholicism had backfired and failed by her death in 1558.
Section 3-11: John Calvin and Calvinism
Kai Aichholz 22
John Calvin was a Protestant reformer who was native to France and influenced by humanism as
well as Lutheranism. In 1533, John Calvin had a spiritual awakening that convinced him of an
inner guidance within himself that was God. After his awakening, he left Paris and went to Basel
where he wrote his first volume of Institute of the Christian Religion, a novel about
Protestantism and became one of the forerunners of Protestantism.
Section 3-12: Calvin’s Ideas
Many of Calvin’s doctrines where extremely similar to those of Lutheranism, but put more stress
on the fact that God was the omnipotent ruler. One of Calvin’s own ideas was that of
predestination, which stated that certain people where already chosen to damned or to be saved.
His ideas gained vast popularity and created a body of an active faith of those who believed they
were to be saved and had done God’s work. Calvinism became the militant international form of
Protestantism. Calvin saw church as a means of teaching God’s sacraments and scriptures.
Section 3-13: Calvin’s Geneva
In 1536, Calvin began a ministry in Geneva that began the Ecclesiastical Ordinances. This act
made both the clergy and laymen responsible for service in the Church creating a bond between
government and the church. A Consistory also began which was a moral court that punished
unruly acts and blasphemy with punishments that included excommunication, banishment, and
public whippings. The level of success Calvin received in Geneva allowed the city to thrive and
become a flourishing center of Protestantism. Missionaries from Geneva soon went out to extend
Calvinism across Europe. By the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism had replaced Lutheranism.
Section 4: The Social Impact of Protestant Reformation
Due to the fact that Christianity became a key part of European life, it also impacted education,
family, and other religious practices.
Section 4-1: The Family
Catholicism always placed importance in family and marriage. Both Luther and Calvin agreed
that men should abstain until married, and must marry if unable to abstain. The Reformation also
brought about new changes that allowed the clergy to marry in Protestant churches which made
family the center of human life. However, wives were expected to remain obedient and please
the husband. Wives were also expected to bear and nurse children, and due to the abolishment of
monasticism, this was their sole duty. However, Protestantism encouraged women to learn
religion and morality during church and even girls schools were created. However, women
remained in a subordinate position of society and did not receive intellectual educations.
Section 4-2: Education in the Reformation
The Reformation strongly impacted the education system of Europe. Protestant began to provide
schools that stressed humanities as well as becoming literate to that worshippers could read the
Kai Aichholz 23
Bible for themselves. With this in mind, many christian humanists began to develop second
schools the new concept of a private secondary school that taught antiquity, “gymnasium.”
Section 4-3: Religious Practices and Popular Culture
The Protestant Reformation led to the abolishment of many Catholic practices such as relics,
sainthood, indulgences, pilgrimages, a celibate clergy, and monasticism. Many of these practices
were replaced by individual and family prayer as well as collective worship. Other Protestant
reformers such as the Puritans and Dutch Calvinists tried to eliminate holidays such as
Christmas, drinking in taverns, and other forms of entertainment such as dancing. However, none
of these attempts at reforming society were successful.
Section 5: The Catholic Reformation
During the mid-sixteenth century , Lutheranism was instituted in Germany and Scandinavia
while Calvinism dominated France, the Netherlands, regions in eastern Europe, and Switzerland.
Catholicism was losing its dominance over Christianity. However, a reformation within to
Catholic Church began along with a revived papacy aimed at stopping the growing Protestant
Reformation.
Section 5-1: Revival of the Old
Many old and new ideas were implemented in the Catholic Reformation. Many orders and
religious brotherhood began to form again and many supported the reformation such as the
Oratory of Love, which taught about self-betterment and philosophies supported by humanists
such as Eramus, which was appealing to many humanists. Other religious practices such as
mysticism were also revived during the Catholic Reformation. The unity of these religious orders
and brotherhood was the first step to a revival of Catholicism.
Section 5-2: The Society of Jesus
The Jesuits, the members of the Society of Jesus, was a religious order assembled by Ignatius
Loyola, a soldier who had been rendered unable to fight during battle, that pledged absolute
obedience to the papacy. The Jesuits believed in exercising human will to become a soldier of
God through absolute dedication. The Society of Jesus followed a strict hierarchy with a general
as the supreme authority, under the pope, of course. Due to their absolute devotion to the papacy,
the Jesuits became a crucial instrument to exercise papal policy and other affairs.
Section 5-3: Activities of the Jesuits
The Society of Jesus began to fight Protestantism by first establishing an extensive education
system that borrowed from humanist ideas and became highly regarded. The Jesuits also began
Kai Aichholz 24
to spread Catholicism by converting many foreigners, including the Japanese, many Indians, and
the Chinese. A forerunner of this activity was Francis Xavier, who drew many similarities
between Catholicism and Confucianism to gain the favor of the Chinese. The efforts of Jesuits
proved to successful as Catholicism was revived in sections of Germany, Poland, and regions in
eastern Europe.
Section 5-4: A Revived Papacy
The papacy during Renaissance continued their involvement in the political, military related, and
economical affairs of Italy, which led a to source of corruption within the Church. The Catholic
Reformation sought to change these issues, and was done so by Pope Paul III. Paul III formed a
commission to analyze the church’s issues in order to formulate a reform, which informed him of
the church’s corrupt officials. A meeting to settle to religious differences between Catholicism
and Protestantism was held, but was utterly unsuccessful. A new pope, Paul VI, came to power
after Paul III’s death and began the Index of Forbidden books, which listed many books that
involved Protestant theologies, that were to be left alone. Compromising with the Protestants
soon became impossible.
Section 5-5: The Council of Trent
The Council of Trent was a committee organized by Pope Paul III to settle to differences
between the Catholic and Protestant Churches to unify Christianity. However, due to many
events, such as war between France and Spain, plague, and the changing of popes halted
meetings. However, these meetings only reestablished old Catholic doctrines, except for the
hawking of indulgences, and led to a strong opposition against Protestantism. This led to
religious warfare between the Catholic and Protestant Churches.
Section 6: Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth Century
During the mid-sixteenth century, Calvinism and Catholicism took offensive positions in
spreading their religions. This strong conflict of religions, in addition to other political,
economic, and social parties, led to religious, civil warfare in France.
Section 6-1: The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)
Philip II, son and heir of Charles V, was a powerful militant Catholicism supporter. During his
reign throughout the mid-sixteenth century, Philip II tried to organize the region he had received
from his father, which included Spain, the Netherlands, regions in Italy, and regions in the New
World. Philip II exercised the Spanish Inquisition to keep his kingdom devoted to Catholicism.
Philip II also tried to centralize his government around himself, and failed to divide his
government in order to maintain control of all of his land. Due to the costs of war, the Spanish
economy which included many imports from the New World, was on a steady decline. Philip II’s
attempt at making Spain a European superpower was a failure, his reign only led Spain into debt.
Section 6-2: Revolt of the Netherlands
Kai Aichholz 25
The Spanish Netherlands were one of Philip II’s most prosperous regions and were a strong asset
to Philip II’s kingdom. However, although Philip II technically controlled the Netherlands, he
held no power there and needed to strengthen his command there. However, Philip II tried to
convert the largely Protestant Netherlands to Catholicism, revolts broke out. Philip II sent troops
led by the duke of Alva to silence the growing revolt. However, a counter-force formed by
merchants, artisans, and Calvinists struggled to resist Philip II’s troops. After time, Philip II
pulled his troops to end the revolt which proved to be expensive. After this, the Netherlands split
into two Unions; the Union of Arras, Catholic and under Spanish rule; and the Union of Utrecht,
Protestant and under the command of William of Orange.
Section 6-3: The England of Elizabeth
When Elizabeth’s half-sister Mary died, Elizabeth was the next to ascend to the throne and led
England to become powerful Protestant nation and also a site of cultural renaissance.
Section 6-4: Religious Policy
The religious policy of England during Elizabeth’s reign was instituted by Parliament; a new Act
of Supremacy that designated Elizabeth as supreme ruler politically and spiritually. Elizabeth
also brought back the Book of Common Prayer but with modifications for Catholics. During
Elizabeth’s reign she kept both the Catholics and Puritans, who opposed her policy, at bay and
kept religious peace.
Section 6-5: Foreign Policy
Elizabeth’s position regarding foreign lands was being utterly neutral. While invisible to public
eyes, Elizabeth supported piracy and raiding of Spanish fleets as well and French and Dutch
Protestants in the Netherlands who opposed Spanish rule. However, Elizabeth’s involvement in
Netherlands’ affairs soon became no secret and Philip II sent a Spanish fleet of warships to
invade England.
Section 6-6: The Spanish Armada
The fleet of warships sent by Philip II were doomed from the start and were torn to pieces by
English fleets and artillery. During their retreat, the Spanish fleets were battered by storms and
were further weakened. The defeat the Spaniards suffered was a significant victory for England
that allowed it to remain a Protestant nation.
Kai Aichholz 26
Chapter 13
Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
Questions:
1) Christian humanism was very similar to Italian Renaissance humanism which focused on the
study of classical antiquity and the classic literary work of Greece and Rome. However, the
Christian humanists were also very religious, unlike the humanists of the Italian Renaissance.
The Christian humanists believed that through self-improvement through education, a
reformation could be achieved. This belief helped prepare for the Protestant Reformation
because many Christian humanists sought after a reformation of the Catholic Church. Eramus’
works helped pave the way for Luther’s break with Rome and Catholicism by beginning to
organize and formulate a reformation program for the Catholic. Eramus’ also help spread
knowledge of the growing thoughts of reformation and the Catholic Church’s corrupted
hierarchy through his book The Praise of Folly. In his novel, Eramus discusses the corrupted
clergy of the Catholic Church in a humorous manner while effectively criticizing the Catholic
Church. Eramus’ idea of the ideal reformation involved teaching Christianity as a guiding
philosophy to everyday life rather than a regimented religious practice and worship. Eramus
believed that Christianity was becoming blurred by all the sacraments and pilgrimages going
on and that Christianity needed to focus on the original message of its Scriptures, the Bible.
Kai Aichholz 27
Eramus saw the reformation as a reformation within the church. His ideas paved the way for
Luther’s break with Rome and the start of the Protestant Reformation.
2) Luther’s fundamental religious problem was that the Catholic Church’s idea of salvation was,
in the eyes of Luther, false. This issue of faith became more and more evident to Luther as he
continued to go to confession and confess his sins to priests. Luther began to question how a
sinner could be forgiven by God, who was omnipotent and had pure justice. Luther began to
study theology and came to the conclusion after years of studying and analyzing the Bible that
humans can only be saved through having ultimate faith in God. Luther’s ideas differed from
those of Catholicism in many ways. Following the beliefs of Catholicism, salvation is
achieved by faith in God and doing good during one’s life while repenting one’s sins.
Following the doctrines of Lutheranism, salvation is achieved by having total faith God.
Luther argued that a man does not do good things to be a good man, but conversely, a good
man does good deeds. Lutheranism’s doctrine of salvation also known as the doctrine of
justification by faith, became the chief doctrine during the Protestant Reformation. Luther also
preached that the Bible, as the primary scripture of Christianity, was to be the only guide to
achieving religious salvation and truth.
3) Politics played a crucial role in the establishment of Lutheranism as Luther’s reformation
became increasingly reliant on the favor and support of political rulers, princes, state
authorities, and officials. In Germany, political disputes and the corruption of the Catholic
Church aided Luther’s reformation movement by allowing his reformation to spread
smoothly, and quickly without interference from the Holy Roman Emperor. In addition to
these assets, many German political leaders, princes, and state authorities favored
Lutheranism and the idea of a reformation within the Catholic Church. Due to the favor of
many political leaders, state authorities, and princes who favored Lutheranism and the idea of
a reformation within the Catholic Church, Lutheranism received a lot of support from German
politics. With this asset on his side, Luther was able to get state authorities to issue a statedemanded church reform that was an effective conversion to Lutheranism. These new
churches were also state run, so Luther did not have to worry about financing his new
churches or other political matters that came with the reformation. In Scandinavia, a political
chain of events occurred which resulted an overthrow of the monarchy of a new unification of
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. This new leader, Gustavus Vasa, was a proud Lutheran
reformer who led Sweden to independence, and then instituted a Lutheran reformation within
the churches of newly independent Sweden. This Lutheran reform was made possible only by
the political situation in Scandinavia. Soon after Sweden converted to Lutheranism, Norway
and Denmark quickly followed with Lutheran reforms of their own. The king of the unified
Norway and Denmark supported Lutheran preachers who spread Lutheran liturgy throughout
Kai Aichholz 28
the regions. With these powerful political leaders who supported Lutheranism, Luther’s
reformation had transformed Scandinavia into a religiously unified Lutheran stronghold.
4) The chief ideas of Zwinglianism, Anabaptism, and Lutheranism, had certain key elements
that connected them in a similar way. Zwinglianism, first established in Switzerland, focused
on Scripture reading,, prayer, and sermons, as well as the removal of relics, decorations and
paintings in church, music during worship, monasticism, pilgrimages, celibacy of the clergy,
and the authority of the pope over Christianity, Lutheranism claimed the BIble to be the
supreme authority over Christianity as the word of god. Lutheranism also preached that the
pope was not the supreme authority, and that justification by faith was the way to salvation.
Anabaptism focused on the idea that church was to be an association of Christian believers
rather than a priesthood hierarchy. Anabaptists also believed in adult baptism as a show of
faith to god after one was baptized as an infant. Zwinglianism, Lutheranism, and Anabaptism
all focus on the Bible and other religious scriptures as being the supreme code of Christianity
instead of the supreme authority of the pope. However, Zwinglianism also abolished all
“religious distractions” such as monasticism while Lutheranism did not. Both Zwinglianism
and Lutheranism also strongly opposed adult baptism while the Anabaptists had this as one of
their key ideas. Lutheranism and Zwinglianism also differed on the interpretation of Bible
such as the Lord’s Supper. Though all three of these sects of Christianity opposed
Catholicism, they all had their own ideas and differences.
5) The English Reformation differed from the reformation in other countries in several ways that
distinguished it, although it still ultimately caused a break with the Catholic Church. First of
all, the reformation in England was initiated by a powerful monarch, Henry Tudor VIII, while
the reformation in other countries was initiated by Protestant ideologists who gained support
and eventually started churches of their own and broke away from the Catholic Church.
However, in England, the reformation was initiated because Henry VIII wanted to divorce his
first wife since she had not given him a male heir to the throne. Henry VIII then attempt to get
an annulment from his marriage from the pope at the time. However, due to political ties and
issues, the pope delayed the King’s request. Henry VIII grew restless and hired two new
advisors to solve his issue. His advisors came to the conclusion that the fastest way to divorce
his wife was to recieve and annulment in the courts of England instead of from those in Rome.
Parliament that publicized the new legislation that had been put into place that severed all ties
with Rome and papal authority in England’s churches. With this legislation in place, Henry
VIII received his annulment promptly. Furthermore, Parliament also issued a new legislation
dubbed the Act of Supremacy which stated that Henry VIII was the supreme authority in all
churches of England and denying so was punishable by death. Although changes in religious
practices did not take place in the churches of England, Henry VIII severed all ties with the
Catholic Church and freed the churches of England from papal authority.
Kai Aichholz 29
6) The chief ideas of Calvinism and the chief ideas of Lutheranism showed many similarities.
The chief ideas of Calvinism were justification by faith, the omnipotent authority of God,
predestination, and baptism. Many of these ideas were closely related to the doctrines of
Lutheranism, such as justification by faith and the belief in salvation. However, Lutheranism
put a much greater emphasis on the Bible as the guide to live life, while Calvinism also put
great importance in the Bible, but put more emphasis on the “absolute sovereignty of God.”
Calvinism’s stress of the law of predestination was also a new idea that did not stem from
Lutheranism. Both Calvinism and Lutheranism interpreted the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper
as the same idea. This idea was that the Lord’s Supper was to be taken in a spiritual sense, not
a literal sense regarding Jesus’ flesh and blood. Although Lutheranism was a widely popular
sect of Protestantism and had many ideas in common with Calvinism, Calvinism became the
international form of Protestantism and was most widely accepted. This change occurred due
to Calvinism’s doctrine of predestination which did not guarantee one’s salvation by simply
being a Christian. Calvinism was a “dynamic and activist faith.” This is what gave Calvinism
the edge it needed to overtake Lutheranism. The appeal of activism in religion was one of
Calvinism’s greatest ideas that pushed it to become the international form of Protestantism.
7) The papacy, Council of Trent, and Society of Jesus all contributed to the revival of
Catholicism. The papacy played a crucial role in the revival of Catholicism. By instituting a
new reformation within the Catholic Church, the papacy began to establish old and new
religious brotherhoods and orders to gain support and power throughout Catholic regions. The
Jesuits, members of the Society of Jesus, made huge contributions to the spread of
Catholicism and its revival. The Jesuits traveled to farther foreign regions such as India,
Japan, and China to convert foreigners to Christianity. This gave Catholicism a whole new
base of supporters and devotees. Along with their help in conversions, the Jesuits were
absolutely faithful to the Catholic Church and were instrumental in enforcing papal policy and
authority. The Council of Trent brought about meetings between Catholic and Protestant
officials to help quell the religious tension between them. The Council of Trent was also
crucial in organizing and initiating the Catholic Reformation and revising its old and new
doctrines.
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Chapter 13
Reformation and Religious Warfare in the Sixteenth Century
Vocabulary:
1) Desiderius Erasmus’s The Praise of Folly – Written to humorously censure the flaws in the
Catholic Church, permitting the public to relinquish their adoption of the crimes, and register
that through sensibleness and discernment that the mistreatments of the Catholic Church were
completely clear.
2) Thomas More’s Utopia – Thomas More utilized this novel to communicate his point of view
on the defects of economy, society, and other affairs concerning human etiquette. Utopia told
of an island with a new social system of fairness with labor hours and recreational hours
3) Pluralism and Absenteeism – Pluralism was when church officials were overseeing multiple
church offices to raise income. Absenteeism, an effect of pluralism, was when church officials
were overseeing one office while other offices failed to accomplish their tasks.
4) The Sacraments – The Sacraments were practices that a Christian must honor to achieve
salvation. Throughout the thirteenth century, these included penance, holy orders,
confirmation of children, Eucharist or Lord’s Supper, marriage, baptism, and extreme unction.
5) Martin Luther – Martin Luther was a Protestant reformer who later became the father of
Lutheranism and the initiator of the Protestant reformation. Martin Luther taught a new
interpretation of the Bible and how to truly achieve salvation.
6) Salvation by Faith – A doctrine of Lutheranism that stated that salvation was not achieved by
doing good deeds in God’s name, but by having faith in God and honoring the Bible and the
sacraments of Protestantism.
7)
Priesthood of All Believers – A Christian doctrine that was derived from passages in the New
Testament.
8) Johann Tetzel and Indulgences – A powerful church official who advocated and sold
indulgences, a purchase collected by that church that would repent the individual’s sins and
guarantee their salvation.
9) Ninety-Five Theses – A flyer written by Martin Luther that is characterized as the beginning
of the Protestant Reformation. The flyer mentioned 95 obvious corruptions within the
Catholic Church and asked people to break form these corruptions.
10)
The Edict of Worms – The legislation by the Reichstag which deemed Luther an outlaw
within the Roman Catholic Empire.
Kai Aichholz 31
11)
The Peasants War, 1524 – The rebellion of peasants within Germany that extended
throughout Europe. Peasants challenged their masters one their mistreatment and requested an
alteration in laws, taxes, and other aspects of government involving poverty and slaves.
12)
Transubstantiation 353 – A doctrine issued by the Roman Catholic Church that stated
during the Eucharist bread and wine was turned into the body and blood of Christ.
13)
Charles V – The Holy Roman Emperor who attempted to achieve religious unity within
the Holy Roman Empire by means of religious authority and political dominance.
14)
Pope Clement VII – Forced to aid Francis I during the second Habsburg-Valois War, he
was quickly discovered as a traitor and Charles V’s army raided the Catholic Church in Rome.
This raid was known as “The Sack of Rome.”
15)
Peace of Augsburg- The end on religious warfare in 1555 in Germany. It also marked an
important turning point in the history of the Reformation.
16) Ulrich Zwingli- The son of a prosperous peasant who went on to get a master of arts degree
and was strongly influenced by Christian humanism. In 1506 he became a priest and began
the Reformation in Switzerland.
17)
Marburg Colloquy- A conference between the protestant political leaders and the Swiss
and German reformed churches in 1529 to resolve their differences. The conference produced
no agreement and no evangelical alliance.
18)
Anabaptists, Munster- A collection of radicals around 1530 who rejected allowing the
state to play an important role in church affairs. They believed that the true Christian church
was a voluntary association of believers who had been baptized and undergone spiritual
rebirth.
19)
millenarianism- the opinion that armageddon is at hand and the kingdom of God is about
to be created on earth.
20)
Henry VIII’s wives- Catherine of Aragon, Henry VIII’s first wife, was unable to bear
him a son so Henry VII attempted to divorce her. However, when he attempted to divorce her
the pope delayed his annulment. Henry VII then went on to obtain an annulment in England’s
own ecclesiastical courts.
21)
Act of Supremacy- A law issued by Parliament in 1534 that completed the break of the
Church of England with Rome by declaring that the king was “taken, accepted, and reputed
the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England.” The English monarch now
controlled the church.
22)
Book of Common Prayer- A revised Protestant liturgy, prayer book, and liturgical guide
created by the clergy who had been given the right to marry and the elimination of images by
Parliament.
23)
Edward VI and “Bloody Mary”- Edward VI, son of Henry VIII’s third wife, was the
successor of Henry VIII. He was underage and sickly when born. “Bloody Mary” was the
daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon and a catholic who intended to restore
Kai Aichholz 32
England to the Roman Catholic fold. When she came to the throne she married Philip II,
future king of Spain, which caused widespread antipathy. Furthermore, when over three
hundred protestant heretics were burned she was dubbed “bloody Mary.”
24)
John Calvin- A determined Protestant reformer who was the father of Calvinism, which
develops Luther’s doctrine of justification by faith alone and emphasizes the grace of God and
the doctrine of predestination.
25)
predestination- the belief, associated with Calvinism, the God, as a consequence of his
foreknowledge of all events, has predetermined those who will be saved (the elect) and those
who will be damned.
26)
Geneva- The area where John Calvin took up a ministry and further spread Calvinism.
He successful converted the Genevans and caused Geneva to become a vibrant center of
Protestantism.
27)
Protestant education- This new form of education caused by the Reformation gave a
much wider audience of people an education. Protestant education sought to use humanist
methods of teaching and create a semiliterate body of believers who could read the Bible.
New secondary schools arose and taught Latin and Greek grammar as well as philosophy,
Hebrew, and theology.
28)
Puritans- A group of English Protestants inspired by Calvinist theology who wished to
remove all traces of Catholicism from the Church of England.
29)
Catholic Reformation- It was the rebirth of Roman Catholicism. It was intended to limit
the spread of Protestantism.
30)
Ignatius Loyola- He was the maker of The Society of Jesus. Because he could not be a
real fighter, he promised to be a warrior of god.
31)
Jesuits- A compact group of people that gave total compliance to the pope. They also
brought the concepts of Catholic christianity to many non christians.
32)
Pope Paul III- He continued renaissance papal policy. He was a crucial member in the
reform and incorporated himself in politics and art.
33)
Council of Trent- They were put together in 1545 to correct the religious quarrel caused
by the Protestant uprising. Because of war in France and outburst of the plague they could not
have consistent gatherings.
34)
Huguenots and Saint Bartholomew’s Day- Huguenots or French Calvinists came from
each level of society. On August 24,1572, the kings sentries killed Huguenot leaders and
started a increase of fighting in which three thousand Calvinists were murdered over the
duration of 3 days.
35)
Henry IV and the Edict of Nantes- Henry IV claimed the throne after Henry III was
murdered and turned to Catholicism when he registered that France wouldn’t take him. The
Edict of Nantes proclaimed Catholicism as the official religion of France but gave the
Calvinists the liberty to worship how they wished.
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36)
Philip II- He guided Spain to a new age of eminence politically and culturally. His
objective was to establish Spain as an authority in Europe and to protect lands he obtained
from his father.
37)
The Battle of Lepanto- Happened in 1571 and was a remarkable triumph over a Turkish
naval force.
38)
the New World-The New World referred to the recently located Americas.
39)
the Netherlands-They included 17 territories. They began thriving due to increased trade
and a flourishing textile industry.
40)
Union of Utrecht- A protestant association of the northern Dutch-speaking states that
planned to object Spanish law. They were an opposing force to the Catholic Union of Arras.
41)
Elizabeth-The half sister of Mary, Elizabeth seized the throne in 1558 and established
the basis for a world power and guided Britain to become the most influential Protestant
nation of Europe.
42)
Spanish Armada-The Armada was a lack of success and was conquered by the English
because they had quicker ships and superior cannons. The armada’s single chance at beating
the English was a miracle.