Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Unit 4, Lesson 24 Civilization in Mesoamerica and Andean Regions Essential Questions Keywords • What were the political, religious, and cultural traditions of the Toltecs, Aztecs, and Inca? accla • What events took place during the rise and fall of the Inca Empire? ayllu pochteca quipo Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 2 Set the Stage The people in the New World faced different challenges than those people in the Old World; they had fewer beasts of burden to share in farming and cultivation, for example, and they retained their polytheistic belief systems long after Europeans had turned to monotheism. Yet the people of the New World had many similarities to their Old-World counterparts. Both groups believed firmly in their own religions; both engaged frequently in trade and commerce; and both became interested in expanding their empires. The Rise of Mesoamerican Tribes: The Toltec and Aztec Peoples In the years of the first millennium, many advanced civilizations developed in Mesoamerica. In addition to the Maya and the Olmecs, many other distinct societies emerged after 800 C.E., and many of these societies shared similar characteristics. One of the first was the Toltec civilization, which dominated what is now Mexico for almost 400 years at the end of the first millennium, from 900 to 1175 C.E. The Toltecs, originally people who moved about from place to place, came to the area after the Maya departed; they may have developed from the cultures that had previously developed at Teotihuacan, or they may have adapted concepts from those previous residents. The similarities between the two societies—the Toltec and the Teotihuacan—imply a very likely connection. Yet the Toltec people had unique characteristics. For example, more so than some other cultures in Mesoamerica, the Toltecs depended heavily on armed forces to take over a wide swath of territory throughout much of the narrow strip between the North and South American continents following 700 C.E. The armed forces remained active throughout the Toltecs’ time in power, protecting the land their people already held and strengthening its borders. What, precisely, did these armies defend? The Toltecs made their base at the city of Tula, or Tollan (near Mexico City), centrally located by the Tula River. The city’s location made it possible for its residents—over 50,000—to sustain themselves and their families, who lived in comfortable homes of These stone columns, built by the Toltecs to adorn a religious building in Tula, depict great soldiers with massive heads and strong bodies. The use of soldiers to decorate a religious temple shows the extent to which religion and military strength were combined in Toltec culture. Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 3 their own, which had been constructed from a variety of materials. Tula became a commercial destination, a cosmopolitan area that looked rather like Chichén Itzá, an urban center that belonged to the Maya. In fact, beginning in 1000 C.E., Chichén Itzá would become strongly influenced by the Toltecs. Despite its powerful army, the reign of the Toltecs was short-lived: the Toltec people began vanishing at the end of the 1000s C.E. The reason for this ignominious end to the Toltec culture remains unresolved, although a great fire that raged in Tula in the late 1100s may have sealed the Toltecs’ fate. Some Europeans who visited Toltec society during the 1500s and thereafter believed that the Toltecs had a particular form of government that involved split authority between two leaders (somewhat like monarchs) who oversaw the Toltec realm as a team. In the 1500s, the Europeans thought two Toltec leaders had disagreed in the 1150s C.E., and their disagreement had led to the dissolution of Toltec society. Other historians believe that the Toltec government could not maintain hold of an increasingly diverse population after 1125 C.E., especially because new people unfamiliar with the Toltec ways and customs kept moving to the area. Although the Toltec civilization fell, its people left behind many ideas and objects, both of which traveled in a variety of directions, reaching as far as the United States and spreading throughout Mexico. The reason for this dissemination of ideas has not been determined either. Some Toltecs could have moved to the Yucatán and intermarried with the Maya, or the Toltecs could have traveled up to North America and met or influenced members of Native American tribes. However, these ideas remain possibilities only. The Toltecs’ claim to a connection with another group of Mesoamericans, the Aztecs, is far more assured. Much of what historians know of the Toltecs comes through the lens of the Aztec people, a later civilization that greatly respected Toltec society, customs, and ideas. Yet the Aztecs gave the Toltecs credit for concepts that came from Mesoamerica and were not exclusive to Toltec culture; thus, the Toltecs’ exact impact on Mesoamerica is challenging to determine. The Rise of the Aztecs The Aztecs developed from another group of Mesoamerican individuals known as the Mexica (sometimes, both “Mexica” and “Aztec” are used to refer to this group of people) who became increasingly influential during the 150 years after Toltec society fell. The Aztecs shared much of the Toltec genetic and geographical background, but they had a more difficult time establishing themselves as a serious force in Mesoamerica, since other groups saw them as a troublesome minority up through the 1200s C.E. Even so, the Aztecs eventually achieved full power in 1325 C.E. After their initial success, the Aztecs would thrive for a relatively short time—only until 1521 C.E.—but they left a profound impact on Mesoamerica. Though the Aztecs had lived in the region for a considerable period, 1325 C.E. marks their beginning point for their empire because in that approximate year, the Aztecs built two important cities near Lake Texcoco: Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlan, what is now Mexico City. According to Aztec legend, the cities were founded at this time because people received divine direction to build them. The cities became beautifully organized, efficient, and well-maintained. The nearby lake made commerce easier and provided necessary water. The Aztecs often referred to their main headquarters Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 4 as simply Tenochtitlan, and at the Aztec Empire’s height, nearly half a million people lived there. Technically, the Aztec Empire actually included many small territories, each with its own leader, but the leader of Tenochtitlan held authority over all. Prior to 1325, the Aztecs were led by regional governmental leaders, known as tlatoanis. After 1325, the Aztecs abandoned their former governmental system of tlatoani leadership and formed a kind of electoral monarchy. The most elite folk could choose the next king (typically a man), and the king would have responsibility for his people and land, not just politically but also spiritually. To defend their two new cities, the Aztec kings maintained skilled groups of armed forces. Unlike European armies, the Aztec soldiers did not serve full-time in the military, but only went out on operations when necessary. Despite their non-permanent nature, the Aztec armies were very effective. Gradually, the Aztecs pushed these armed forces further and further out around neighboring regions. Two of the first and most important Aztec leaders, Itzcóatl (r. 1428–1440) and Montezuma (r. 1440–1469), helped enlarge the borders of the Aztec lands to encompass Oaxaca and the Gulf Coast. Later, the Aztec Empire also came to include two other important areas, Tlacopan and Texcoco, and at its height measured 125,000 square miles. At that point, the leaders of the fine cities of Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan, and Texcoco governed more than 12 million people throughout the Mesoamerican region. The Aztecs would hold this region until Spanish explorers entered and took the land from them during the sixteenth century C.E. (At approximately the same time, another important Mesoamerican society, the Inca, would also fall peril to European exploration.) Aztec Belief Systems Throughout the epoch of their empire, the Aztecs shared similar spiritual beliefs. In fact, the Aztec beliefs had many similarities to other religions practiced in Mesoamerica. Their polytheistic faith included over 128 deities. These Aztec gods resembled men, women, animals, and directions (for example, north or south) This religious building from Tula, Mexico, is typical of the pyramid-like structure used for religious observance by Mesoamerican civilizations. Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 5 simultaneously. The Aztecs shared some of these gods with other cultures: for example, some other Mesoamericans also believed in gods like Quetzalcóatl and Tezcatlipoca, who were in charge of farming and death respectively. In order to Self-check worship their gods, the Aztecs met in houses of worship shaped like pyramids. What was a tlatoani? Two of the most influential deities in the Aztec faith, Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli, reigned over a particularly important religious building in the capital of Tenochtitlan. Both gods represented a multitude of ideas, including war, nature, and the cosmos. Tlaloc could also represent new life and birth. Huitzilopochtli, often represented by a hummingbird figure, became the Aztecs’ equivalent of a sun god. Huitzilopochtli played a big part in the Aztec understanding of creationism: the Aztecs believed that each evening, Huitzilopochtli worked on behalf of the sun to bring light back into the world. The Aztecs believed fervently in human sacrifice, as did many other Mesoamericans, and saw it as one of the most powerful ways of placating their gods. In particular, human sacrifice played an important role in the worship of Huitzilopochtli. To please Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecs sacrificed many people at a time. Huitzilopochtli required the hearts of living victims. These living victims had to be presented to the gods in a certain state, purifying their bodies by going on restricted diets and practicing celibacy. These standards ensured that the gods received the purest possible sacrifices. In order to continue making sacrifices to Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecs had to increase their empire and acquire more citizens, so that those citizens could be offered up to the god. The Aztecs practiced many other types of ritual sacrifices. First, the Aztec also honored their gods by giving up their blood in smaller amounts: sometimes worshipers would give themselves small cuts as part of religious ceremonies. In this way, blood would be spilt and the god appeased, but no one would die. Second, Aztecs viewed men’s deaths in battle or women’s deaths while giving birth to children as tremendous and worthy sacrifices. In fact, most of the men who fought on behalf of Aztec armies were willing and eager to perish in conflict: doing so would grant them the most This image of the Mesoamerican god Huitzilopochtli, taken from an religious honor. Warriors who emerged ancient text called the Codex Borbonicus, reveals a powerful figure from conflicts unscathed would someworshiped by both the Toltecs and the Aztecs, among others. times give themselves up as offerings Huitzilopochtli demanded human sacrifice to be appeased. 1 Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 during peacetime, too. Third, on other occasions, religious worshipers would consume the bodies of the sacrificed. All these types of sacrifices—the fatal sacrifices alone may have come to 250,000 per annum—show that the Aztecs went to great lengths to placate their gods. This number is equivalent to one person out of every 100 being sacrificed. The Aztecs believed their world to be in danger of imminent ruin after already having been ruined in the past. 6 2 Self-check What is the name of the Aztec sun god? Aztecs and the Importance of Class Aztec society organized people in groups called altepetls. The altepetls also included an important segment of the population known as the calpolli; the people of the calpolli acted like bureaucrats or administrators and were set up in familial units. Originally, the Aztecs were made up of seven calpollis, and many of these folk would later end up in the higher classes of Aztec society. The people in the altepetl, who originally numbered about 10,000, lived and thought as a general group, and they practiced the same religious faith. Originally, upon their arrival in the region, the people of the altepetls lived in harmony with the region’s locals for a time while fostering their own ambition. A shared language derived from the Toltecs, Nahuatl, fostered this harmony. The people of the calpolli created a new kind of farming plan called chinampa. Chinampa farming relied on soil from Lake Texcoco, which had been formed into specific petite fields, each one dedicated to a small, different type of crop. The petite fields, called chinampas, lent their name to the farming plan itself. The Aztecs grew skilled at developing food upon the chinampas and enjoyed plentiful harvests, which allowed their society to flourish. In later years, the calpollis separated into more marked class distinctions. In every class level, men held superior positions to women because the Aztec valued strength and prowess in battle, and women did not participate in Aztec warfare. The connection of men to leadership emphasized the firm gender boundaries, which began to be enforced in childhood. While women enjoyed many of the same rights as men, both genders were assigned to different spheres and held to those spheres strictly. Men who held high positions in the Aztec armed forces rose to the top of Aztec society along with their families; doing well in the army gave men the only opportunity for social mobility within Aztec society. Successful soldiers would be married to high-ranking women top advance in class standing. Some of the highest-ranking women had influence over the future rulers of the Aztec lands (for example, the mothers of monarchs could sometimes influence their sons). The more territory taken over by the Aztec Empire, the wealthier and more successful the highest-ranked warriors became—and their families also rose to the top of Aztec society. Within these families, women’s responsibilities kept them soundly within the domestic space. These domestic tasks were not seen as lesser than those of the soldiers; instead, women were intellectually and spiritually responsible for the other folk in their communities. Any woman with a son who achieved great feats as part of the Aztec army received accolades too. Along with the wealthiest families, the highest-class level of Aztec society expanded to include religious leaders, who came to wield enormous power and Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 influence. Sometimes, the religious leaders could also become Aztec monarchs. Eventually, the few at the top of Aztec society held claim to the most wealth, land, and property, including slaves. At the other end of the spectrum were the slaves, and slightly above them the poorer free folk and laborers: for the most part, laborers and slaves shared the dirty work in homes and farms. The majority of the slaves came from Aztec backgrounds and arrived in their positions due to unfortunate circumstances. In the middle were artists and craftsmen, and slightly above them were the traders, or pochteca. The class divisions in Aztec society became quite extreme. The wealthy at the top had much better living situations and much healthier food to eat than the poor at the bottom; the wealthy also had the most influence in both government and society. This disparity became emphasized by even the types of clothing people could put on: nobles wore cotton, and lower-class individuals wore henequen. Class disparity also gained reinforcement because people of the lower classes and conquered regions (as many as 500 regions) were forced to pay tributes (bartered objects like precious gems, animal materials, and produce) to Aztec soldiers and nobility. These tribute objects would often be used by the pochteca for profit on behalf of the nobility, exchanged down the line through another barter system. While the pochteca achieved financial success through business, they did not have the status of the aristocrats. Occasionally, the pochteca did garner political importance by spying on behalf of the Aztec army. 7 pochteca traders who lived in Aztec society Life and Faith in the Andes Regions While the Aztec society prospered to the north in Mesoamerica, another great society developed to the south, in the Andes Mountains: the Inca. Prior to the development of the Incan civilization, several other groups flourished in this Mesoamerican region, such as the Chavin, who lived there from 850 to 250 B.C.E.; the Moche, who lived there from 200 to 700 C.E.; and the Tiwanaku, who lived there from 375 to 1000 C.E. The people who lived in and around the Andes Mountains and coasts had to overcome different agricultural problems: the mountain-dwellers had to deal with periods of extreme cold and the coastdwellers with periods of insufficient water. To overcome these problems, people in both regions became disciplined and organized about what they could plant and when. People like the Moche had skills in developing irrigation and could live relatively far from bodies of water: they could branch out and control a great deal of land in the north, where they built cities like Cerro Blanco. In the 500 years following 200 C.E., the Moche army took over several neighboring peoples and put those individuals to work to support the burgeoning Moche nation. As in several other Mesoamerican cultures, the Moche connected their religion and their government, putting spiritual faith in their political leader; also like other Mesoamerican groups, class distinctions between the rich and poor were easily apparent and always observed. The clothing worn by members of the upper classes emphasized these class distinctions. Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 In 700 C.E., a combination of environmental problems and conflict with another group, the Wari, led to the Moche civilization’s fall. The Wari, who made their home in what is now Peru, had close connections with another society, the Tiwanaku, who were based close to what is now considered Bolivia and who would soon supersede the Wari. Historians believe the two groups shared many cultural and agricultural characteristics. The Tiwanaku had strong similarities to the Moche in three ways: first, both groups had a strongly delineated class structure that separated the rich and the poor. Second, both groups employed many fine artisans: the Moche worked on metal and adornments, while the Tiwanaku worked on stone. Third, both groups used irrigation technology to take full advantage of the land surrounding the nearby Lake Titicaca. Later another group developed in the mountains close to Lake Titicaca on its western side: the Chucuito. The Chucuito did not attempt irrigation as the Moche and Tiwanaku had, and they lived in an area rather difficult to farm and maintain because their land stood at such a height above sea level—more than 13,000 feet. To nourish themselves, they terraced their lands, as other Mesoamerican societies did, and grew primarily root vegetables. Terraces, part of an agricultural method that takes advantage of difficult terrain, resemble a series of small plateaus or steps that can be built into mountainsides; the plateaus lead up the mountain and create arable land. The Chucuito, unlike other Mesoamericans in the region (until the 1500s C.E.), depended on two types of domestic animals, llamas and alpacas, for food, labor, and commerce. Finally, another important group, the Chimu, lived along the plains of what is now Peru for 100 years, beginning in the mid-1300s. The Chimu people remained divided into specific levels of classes, just as people did in other Mesoamerican societies. In their region, the Chimu had plenty of water and arable land. While the Moche had Cerro Blanco, the Chimu built their own great urban center, Chanchan, where anywhere between 50,000 to 100,000 people may have lived. Generally, all these peoples, including the Moche and Tiwanaku, lived in familial groups called ayllus. The people of each ayllu worked together as teams to nourish and protect their familial groups; usually several families comprised a single ayllu, and all would answer to a single leader, who took up his position according to family background. Generally, this single leader was male, and overall men did more of the hunting, administrative, and governmental work among the ayllu. Instead of writing, the ayllu developed a counting method that used a series of knots to keep track of commerce and exchange: quipo. The Inca would also come to rely on quipo in later years. After the 1000s B.C.E., the ayllu grouped themselves together in larger forces called mit’a. Within each mit’a, men and women had different obligations. Unlike the Aztec peoples, women had many fewer rights than men; like the Aztec women, however, most women in the ayllu had to do their work within or around the domestic space. However, both men and women worked together to ensure the mit’a ran smoothly. The mit’a groups were responsible for serving and providing for wealthier elites and nobles. Depending on its location, each mit’a would be charged with producing a specific crop that grew especially well in that area. 8 ayllu a cluster of people related to one another who lived and worked together in the Andes regions quipo method of tying knots used by Andes residents, including the Inca, to document commerce; used instead of writing Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 9 Life Among the Inca The groups that flourished in the Andes at the end of the first millennium, like the Chimu and Chucuito, had separate, viable realms in South America and did not enter into conflict. For the first 400 years of the second millennium C.E., these groups remained conflict-free, even getting along with their new neighbors, the Inca, who arrived peaceably during the 1200s C.E. The disparate groups exchanged goods and refrained from conflict until nearly the middle of the fifteenth century C.E. This peacefulness changed in 1438 C.E. because of the efforts of one man, Pachacuti. Pachacuti came to power in 1438 and for the next 33 years he pursued power and empire. Under Pachacuti’s leadership, the Inca’s military became a formidable force, and Pachacuti himself was called “the Earthshaker.” During the Inca’s relatively short but powerful era, only three men would rule: Pachacuti, who reigned until 1471; his son, Topac Yupanqui; and the final ruler, Huayna Capac, who died in 1525. After Capac died, two of his descendants squabbled for the throne. The two could not agree and no single, powerful new monarch emerged. Without a single strong leader, the Incan Empire wobbled. The timing was poor: European explorers at this time became interested in the region. The Many Legacies of the First Incan Monarch Much of the Incan Empire took shape because of the efforts of Pachacuti, the Earthshaker. Pachacuti first added to the Incans’ territory by accosting his peaceful neighbors, the Chucuito; when the Chucuito succumbed, Pachacuti successfully targeted the Chimu. Under Pachacuti’s direction, the Inca came to believe that the monarch technically held ownership of all the land and goods in their empire, and let them use or hold on to it through his kindness. However, the monarch also had military responsibility and a duty to continue expanding the borders of the Incan Empire. This responsibility meant that Pachacuti’s descendants had to enlarge the empire in order to preserve their positions as monarchs. Later, Yupanqui successfully targeted, and Capac moved in on Argentina. Both Yupanqui and Capac pushed Incan soldiers into Chile. At its height, the Incan Empire (sometimes also referred to as Twantinsuyu) covered a tremendous portion of the continent, ranging from Argentina through Peru to Bolivia, reaching 3,000 miles and overseeing more than 11 million citizens. Led by Pachacuti, the Incan government employed several different methods to maintain control over this increasingly large territory. First, the Incans kidnapped important people from conquered areas and used them as collateral. People from the conquered areas would not retaliate against the Inca because they wanted to protect their relatives. Second, the Incans took advantage of cultural patterns already in place in the Andes, such as the dependence on the ayllu and mit’a. The people of the ayllu and mit’a continued to work to support the members of the upper classes in Incan lands. The Incans kept the lower levels of the class system the same and entered the system at its highest level. Third, to maintain peace in the farther reaches of the empire, the Incans left regional leaders in charge of affairs, a measure of their trust in the people they had colonized. This move fostered mutual trust and also helped the Inca from taking on too much of a bureaucratic burden. Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 The Incans also followed a bureaucratic set of practices developed by Pachacuti: Pachacuti had divided administration and army work into two parts and assigned them to different leaders. Later, at its height, the Incan Empire would separate into four small parts with their own bureaucratic overseers, each of whom answered to the monarch. In these different areas, the Incan language of Quechua was spoken and all people were responsible for supporting the main government and monarch; the lower classes supported the upper through physical work. Like the Romans, Pachacuti developed transportation systems and taxation regulations. The roads Pachacuti created, for example, stretched as far as 25,000 miles, or the equivalent of the entire coastline on the Pacific side, and crisscrossed the entire Incan Empire in at least two directions. At many points, different roads came together to intersect, which made traveling greater lengths across the Incan Empire even easier. The creation of such roads is quite a feat, considering the difficult environment—both mountainous and waterbound—that faced the Incan laborers, most of whom came from ordinary or lower-class backgrounds. The Incans ended up building two types of roads: the mountainous roads had barriers made of stone around them and better quality pavement than the roads by the water. Each area had one major thoroughfare as well as lesser thoroughfares. The quality of the roads matched Roman roads, being broad, well-constructed, and easily traversed. The Incans took good care of each road, no matter how difficult it became to do so, since some of the roads came through areas that were dangerous or prone to inclement weather. Some Incan roads remain viable even in the twenty-first century, a testament to the good care the Incans took. Travel along the roads became pleasant and enjoyable. The Incans constructed many stops, known as tambos, for the travelers walking along the roads (during the Incans’ time, the roads were for walking only). As the people moved along the roads, they became better able to share both goods and ideas, traveling as much as 150 miles in a 24-hour period. Many of these roads led to the Incans’ great city, Cuzco. The first Incan monarch, Pachacuti, had founded Cuzco, where the most important governmental occurrences were held. The city became an exquisite destination: it had grand buildings decorated in gold and was surrounded by imported sand. Almost half a hundred thousand people lived in the city, while more than four times that amount lived in the suburbs. For the most part, the majority of the population in the city proper consisted of the higher classes, and people of the lower classes had to live outside the city. Incan society revolved around the armed forces, who along with the government had the most power and prestige of any citizens—after, of course, the monarch and his close relatives. Throughout the empire, men received privileges over women. Women remained confined to domestic spaces, like Aztec women, although they could also serve as religious devotees. Other higher-class individuals included the nobility, religious leaders, and some members of the government. The majority of people throughout the Incan Empire had poor standing and belonged to the lowest class; everyone in the lowest class worked to support the members of the upper classes. The lowest class included a division called yanas, which specifically 10 3 Self-check What monarch led the initial expansion of the Incan Empire? Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 referenced people who served the upper class. Others labored on behalf of the Incan Empire, producing food for the different classes. Despite this disparity in situation, the government did take some measures to provide for the poor and elderly. Unlike many other Mesoamerican societies, which favored artisans, in the Incan Empire few engaged in commerce or craftsmanship. One exception to this rule was clothing; making beautiful fabrics became a specialty of the Inca. This clothing also helped to create a class barrier, since the higher classes wore special clothing that distinguished them immediately from the lower classes. Class and gender also influenced the ways the legal system worked in Incan society. Legal cases were determined by the monarch or a select group of judges, who were all male. These legal situations did not occur frequently, but in cases where serious problems such as state betrayal had taken place, a criminal could face execution or forced labor. Incan Religious Beliefs Incan civilization combined social class and religious importance. Like many other imperial leaders, the monarch had both political and spiritual authority. This tradition of investing spiritual authority in the monarch began with Pachacuti and extended to his descendants. Over time, the Inca came to believe that their monarch had a divine heritage and that monarchs held their divine power even after they departed this life. When a monarch died, the next ruler would take on all the governmental elements that had belonged to the monarch, while the monarch’s personal wealth would pass to his relatives. To honor the rulers’ divine power, the Incans mummified the dead monarchs and incorporated their remains into important ceremonies. While they believed in several gods, including Viracocha (a creator god), Incans believed their monarch had a relationship to their most important deity, the sun god, also known as Inti. Later, the sun god took over Viracocha’s position as the founder of the universe, and the Incans came to believe that the sun god was the monarch’s father. Correspondingly, the monarch’s spouse had connections to the goddess of the moon; other important female goddesses connected to the land and to water, while other natural elements took on aspects of male gods. Since the monarch had both governmental and spiritual responsibility in the Incan Empire, Cuzco, which was the most important governmental area, also became the place where Incans enacted their important religious occurrences. In Cuzco, people observed their religion in the Temple of the Sun, which primarily honored Inti and employed about 4,000 people in jobs related to religious worship. Sometimes, the Inca would honor Inti at the Temple of the Sun by performing animal sacrifices; this decision to sacrifice animals rather than people is one area in which the Inca differed substantially from the Aztecs. Under extreme circumstances, a young woman might be offered up for sacrifice, but that was the exception, not the rule. The Temple of the Sun, constructed of stones cut so finely that no mortar was needed to glue them together, had hundreds and hundreds of young virgins working there, known as acclas. The temple itself had a beautiful aspect, decorated with gold throughout the interior, and its exterior shape referenced the gods’ animal nature since it resembled a puma. 11 4 Self-check What title did the Inca give their sun god? accla one of many chaste and youthful girls employed at the Incan Temple of the Sun Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 12 Outside of Cuzco, people worshiped at another temple in the city of Machu Picchu. At these temples, people received direction or divulged their sins to religious leaders who had committed to vows of chastity and humility. These leaders had much influence and also received better educations than most in Incan society. To help their followers address religious quandaries, these religious leaders relied on health and plant products. The Inca permitted worship in other ways, too: citizens could worship their gods at places in the natural world called huacas and did not have to go directly to the temples. In everyday life, the Inca honored their gods by behaving virtuously, adhering to their class standing, and hoping to achieve blessings in the afterlife. Most people in Incan society were expected to follow Incan religious practices, although other religions were also permitted. Summary In Mesoamerica and the Andes, several powerful civilizations appeared in the first fifteen hundred years of the Common Era. In Mesoamerica, the Toltecs and Aztecs flourished. The Toltecs were in power from 900 to 1175 C.E. and their central base was in Tula. The Aztecs, who ruled in central Mexico from 1325 to 1521 C.E., would adopt many Toltec characteristics and customs. The Aztecs expanded from their base at Tenochtitlan throughout the region, which they held with a skilled group of armed forces. The Aztecs developed a monarchical system in which a single ruler had primary authority. Their society gave women more rights than most. The Aztecs developed a complex polytheistic religion which depended on human and blood sacrifice to appease their sun god. Other societies, like the Inca, developed in the Andes after the 1000s C.E. The Inca, who ruled from 1438 to 1525, gave women fewer rights, and while their polytheistic faith venerated the sun god, they did not participate in human sacrifice. Looking Ahead The people of the Americas had watched as their own empires rose, prospered, and fell. They shared many cultural characteristics and had developed their own complex religious faiths and societal systems. The arrival of European explorers from Spain, Portugal, and other countries would throw these American societies into turmoil. The Europeans would lay claim to lands that had belonged to North and South American natives for centuries—and each side would see the other as a group of dangerous barbarians, out to reclaim what was rightfully their own. Self-Check Answers 1. A tlatoani was the government leader who led 3. Pachacuti led the initial expansion of the the Mexica societal formations known as altepetl. Incan Empire. 2. Huitzilopochtli is the name of the Aztec sun god. 4. Inti is the title the Inca gave their sun god. Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 4, Lesson 24 All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1,2 Toltec totem poles, ancient Mexico. Photos.com/Thinkstock 4 Pyramid temple, Tula, Mexico. © Afagundes/ Dreamstime.com 5 Aztec god Huitzilopochtli. The Granger Collection, New York Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.