Download Unit 4, Lesson 24 Civilization in Mesoamerica and Andean

Unit 4, Lesson 24
Civilization in Mesoamerica
and Andean Regions
Essential Questions
Keywords
•
What were the political, religious, and cultural traditions of the Toltecs,
Aztecs, and Inca?
accla
•
What events took place during the rise and fall of the Inca Empire?
ayllu
pochteca
quipo
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
2
Set the Stage
The people in the New World faced different challenges than those people in the Old
World; they had fewer beasts of burden to share in farming and cultivation, for example,
and they retained their polytheistic belief systems long after Europeans had turned to
monotheism. Yet the people of the New World had many similarities to their Old-World
counterparts. Both groups believed firmly in their own religions; both engaged frequently
in trade and commerce; and both became interested in expanding their empires.
The Rise of Mesoamerican Tribes:
The Toltec and Aztec Peoples
In the years of the first millennium, many advanced
civilizations developed in Mesoamerica. In addition
to the Maya and the Olmecs, many other distinct
societies emerged after 800 C.E., and many of these
societies shared similar characteristics. One of the first
was the Toltec civilization, which dominated what is
now Mexico for almost 400 years at the end of the
first millennium, from 900 to 1175 C.E.
The Toltecs, originally people who moved about
from place to place, came to the area after the Maya
departed; they may have developed from the cultures
that had previously developed at Teotihuacan, or they
may have adapted concepts from those previous residents. The similarities between the two societies—the
Toltec and the Teotihuacan—imply a very likely connection. Yet the Toltec people had unique characteristics. For example, more so than some other cultures in
Mesoamerica, the Toltecs depended heavily on armed
forces to take over a wide swath of territory throughout much of the narrow strip between the North
and South American continents following 700 C.E.
The armed forces remained active throughout the
Toltecs’ time in power, protecting the land their
people already held and strengthening its borders.
What, precisely, did these armies defend? The
Toltecs made their base at the city of Tula, or Tollan
(near Mexico City), centrally located by the Tula
River. The city’s location made it possible for its
residents—over 50,000—to sustain themselves and
their families, who lived in comfortable homes of
These stone columns, built by the Toltecs to adorn a religious
building in Tula, depict great soldiers with massive heads and
strong bodies. The use of soldiers to decorate a religious temple
shows the extent to which religion and military strength were
combined in Toltec culture.
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
3
their own, which had been constructed from a variety of materials. Tula became
a commercial destination, a cosmopolitan area that looked rather like Chichén
Itzá, an urban center that belonged to the Maya. In fact, beginning in 1000 C.E.,
Chichén Itzá would become strongly influenced by the Toltecs.
Despite its powerful army, the reign of the Toltecs was short-lived: the Toltec
people began vanishing at the end of the 1000s C.E. The reason for this ignominious end to the Toltec culture remains unresolved, although a great fire that raged
in Tula in the late 1100s may have sealed the Toltecs’ fate. Some Europeans who
visited Toltec society during the 1500s and thereafter believed that the Toltecs had
a particular form of government that involved split authority between two leaders
(somewhat like monarchs) who oversaw the Toltec realm as a team. In the 1500s,
the Europeans thought two Toltec leaders had disagreed in the 1150s C.E., and
their disagreement had led to the dissolution of Toltec society. Other historians
believe that the Toltec government could not maintain hold of an increasingly
diverse population after 1125 C.E., especially because new people unfamiliar with
the Toltec ways and customs kept moving to the area.
Although the Toltec civilization fell, its people left behind many ideas and objects,
both of which traveled in a variety of directions, reaching as far as the United States
and spreading throughout Mexico. The reason for this dissemination of ideas has
not been determined either. Some Toltecs could have moved to the Yucatán and
intermarried with the Maya, or the Toltecs could have traveled up to North America
and met or influenced members of Native American tribes. However, these ideas
remain possibilities only. The Toltecs’ claim to a connection with another group
of Mesoamericans, the Aztecs, is far more assured. Much of what historians know
of the Toltecs comes through the lens of the Aztec people, a later civilization that
greatly respected Toltec society, customs, and ideas. Yet the Aztecs gave the Toltecs
credit for concepts that came from Mesoamerica and were not exclusive to Toltec
culture; thus, the Toltecs’ exact impact on Mesoamerica is challenging to determine.
The Rise of the Aztecs
The Aztecs developed from another group of Mesoamerican individuals known
as the Mexica (sometimes, both “Mexica” and “Aztec” are used to refer to this
group of people) who became increasingly influential during the 150 years after
Toltec society fell. The Aztecs shared much of the Toltec genetic and geographical
background, but they had a more difficult time establishing themselves as a serious force in Mesoamerica, since other groups saw them as a troublesome minority
up through the 1200s C.E. Even so, the Aztecs eventually achieved full power in
1325 C.E. After their initial success, the Aztecs would thrive for a relatively short
time—only until 1521 C.E.—but they left a profound impact on Mesoamerica.
Though the Aztecs had lived in the region for a considerable period, 1325 C.E.
marks their beginning point for their empire because in that approximate year, the
Aztecs built two important cities near Lake Texcoco: Tlatelolco and Tenochtitlan, what
is now Mexico City. According to Aztec legend, the cities were founded at this time
because people received divine direction to build them. The cities became beautifully
organized, efficient, and well-maintained. The nearby lake made commerce easier
and provided necessary water. The Aztecs often referred to their main headquarters
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
4
as simply Tenochtitlan, and at the Aztec Empire’s height, nearly half a million people
lived there. Technically, the Aztec Empire actually included many small territories,
each with its own leader, but the leader of Tenochtitlan held authority over all.
Prior to 1325, the Aztecs were led by regional governmental leaders, known as
tlatoanis. After 1325, the Aztecs abandoned their former governmental system of
tlatoani leadership and formed a kind of electoral monarchy. The most elite folk
could choose the next king (typically a man), and the king would have responsibility for his people and land, not just politically but also spiritually. To defend their
two new cities, the Aztec kings maintained skilled groups of armed forces. Unlike
European armies, the Aztec soldiers did not serve full-time in the military, but only
went out on operations when necessary. Despite their non-permanent nature, the
Aztec armies were very effective. Gradually, the Aztecs pushed these armed forces
further and further out around neighboring regions.
Two of the first and most important Aztec leaders, Itzcóatl (r. 1428–1440)
and Montezuma (r. 1440–1469), helped enlarge the borders of the Aztec lands
to encompass Oaxaca and the Gulf Coast. Later, the Aztec Empire also came
to include two other important areas, Tlacopan and Texcoco, and at its height
measured 125,000 square miles. At that point, the leaders of the fine cities of
Tlatelolco, Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan, and Texcoco governed more than 12 million
people throughout the Mesoamerican region. The Aztecs would hold this region
until Spanish explorers entered and took the land from them during the sixteenth
century C.E. (At approximately the same time, another important Mesoamerican
society, the Inca, would also fall peril to European exploration.)
Aztec Belief Systems
Throughout the epoch of their empire, the Aztecs shared similar spiritual beliefs.
In fact, the Aztec beliefs had many similarities to other religions practiced in
Mesoamerica. Their polytheistic faith included over 128 deities. These Aztec gods
resembled men, women, animals, and directions (for example, north or south)
This religious building from Tula, Mexico, is typical of the pyramid-like structure used for
religious observance by Mesoamerican civilizations.
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
5
simultaneously. The Aztecs shared some of these gods with other cultures: for
example, some other Mesoamericans also believed in gods like Quetzalcóatl and
Tezcatlipoca, who were in charge of farming and death respectively. In order to
Self-check
worship their gods, the Aztecs met in houses of worship shaped like pyramids.
What was a tlatoani?
Two of the most influential deities in the Aztec faith, Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli, reigned over a particularly important religious building in the capital of
Tenochtitlan. Both gods represented a multitude of ideas, including war, nature,
and the cosmos. Tlaloc could also represent new life and birth. Huitzilopochtli,
often represented by a hummingbird figure, became the Aztecs’ equivalent of a
sun god. Huitzilopochtli played a big part in the Aztec understanding of creationism: the Aztecs believed that each evening, Huitzilopochtli worked on behalf of
the sun to bring light back into the world.
The Aztecs believed fervently in human sacrifice, as did many other Mesoamericans, and saw it as one of the most powerful ways of placating their gods.
In particular, human sacrifice played an important role
in the worship of Huitzilopochtli. To please Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecs sacrificed many people at a time.
Huitzilopochtli required the hearts of living victims. These living victims had to be presented
to the gods in a certain state, purifying their
bodies by going on restricted diets and practicing celibacy. These standards ensured that the
gods received the purest possible sacrifices.
In order to continue making sacrifices to
Huitzilopochtli, the Aztecs had to increase
their empire and acquire more citizens, so
that those citizens could be offered up to
the god.
The Aztecs practiced many other
types of ritual sacrifices. First, the Aztec
also honored their gods by giving up their
blood in smaller amounts: sometimes worshipers would give themselves small cuts as
part of religious ceremonies. In this way, blood
would be spilt and the god appeased, but no
one would die. Second, Aztecs viewed men’s
deaths in battle or women’s deaths while
giving birth to children as tremendous and
worthy sacrifices. In fact, most of the men
who fought on behalf of Aztec armies
were willing and eager to perish in conflict: doing so would grant them the most
This image of the Mesoamerican god Huitzilopochtli, taken from an
religious honor. Warriors who emerged
ancient text called the Codex Borbonicus, reveals a powerful figure
from conflicts unscathed would someworshiped by both the Toltecs and the Aztecs, among others.
times give themselves up as offerings
Huitzilopochtli demanded human sacrifice to be appeased.
1
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
during peacetime, too. Third, on other occasions, religious worshipers would
consume the bodies of the sacrificed.
All these types of sacrifices—the fatal sacrifices alone may have come to
250,000 per annum—show that the Aztecs went to great lengths to placate their
gods. This number is equivalent to one person out of every 100 being sacrificed.
The Aztecs believed their world to be in danger of imminent ruin after already
having been ruined in the past.
6
2
Self-check
What is the name of
the Aztec sun god?
Aztecs and the Importance of Class
Aztec society organized people in groups called altepetls. The altepetls also included
an important segment of the population known as the calpolli; the people of the
calpolli acted like bureaucrats or administrators and were set up in familial units.
Originally, the Aztecs were made up of seven calpollis, and many of these folk
would later end up in the higher classes of Aztec society. The people in the altepetl,
who originally numbered about 10,000, lived and thought as a general group, and
they practiced the same religious faith. Originally, upon their arrival in the region,
the people of the altepetls lived in harmony with the region’s locals for a time
while fostering their own ambition. A shared language derived from the Toltecs,
Nahuatl, fostered this harmony.
The people of the calpolli created a new kind of farming plan called chinampa.
Chinampa farming relied on soil from Lake Texcoco, which had been formed into
specific petite fields, each one dedicated to a small, different type of crop. The petite
fields, called chinampas, lent their name to the farming plan itself. The Aztecs grew
skilled at developing food upon the chinampas and enjoyed plentiful harvests,
which allowed their society to flourish.
In later years, the calpollis separated into more marked class distinctions. In
every class level, men held superior positions to women because the Aztec valued
strength and prowess in battle, and women did not participate in Aztec warfare.
The connection of men to leadership emphasized the firm gender boundaries,
which began to be enforced in childhood. While women enjoyed many of the same
rights as men, both genders were assigned to different spheres and held to those
spheres strictly. Men who held high positions in the Aztec armed forces rose to the
top of Aztec society along with their families; doing well in the army gave men
the only opportunity for social mobility within Aztec society. Successful soldiers
would be married to high-ranking women top advance in class standing. Some of
the highest-ranking women had influence over the future rulers of the Aztec lands
(for example, the mothers of monarchs could sometimes influence their sons).
The more territory taken over by the Aztec Empire, the wealthier and more successful the highest-ranked warriors became—and their families also rose to the top
of Aztec society. Within these families, women’s responsibilities kept them soundly
within the domestic space. These domestic tasks were not seen as lesser than those
of the soldiers; instead, women were intellectually and spiritually responsible for
the other folk in their communities. Any woman with a son who achieved great
feats as part of the Aztec army received accolades too.
Along with the wealthiest families, the highest-class level of Aztec society
expanded to include religious leaders, who came to wield enormous power and
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
influence. Sometimes, the religious leaders could also become Aztec monarchs.
Eventually, the few at the top of Aztec society held claim to the most wealth, land,
and property, including slaves. At the other end of the spectrum were the slaves,
and slightly above them the poorer free folk and laborers: for the most part, laborers
and slaves shared the dirty work in homes and farms. The majority of the slaves
came from Aztec backgrounds and arrived in their positions due to unfortunate
circumstances. In the middle were artists and craftsmen, and slightly above them
were the traders, or pochteca.
The class divisions in Aztec society became quite extreme. The wealthy
at the top had much better living situations and much healthier food to eat
than the poor at the bottom; the wealthy also had the most influence in both
government and society. This disparity became emphasized by even the types
of clothing people could put on: nobles wore cotton, and lower-class individuals wore henequen. Class disparity also gained reinforcement because people
of the lower classes and conquered regions (as many as 500 regions) were
forced to pay tributes (bartered objects like precious gems, animal materials,
and produce) to Aztec soldiers and nobility. These tribute objects would often
be used by the pochteca for profit on behalf of the nobility, exchanged down
the line through another barter system. While the pochteca achieved financial success through business, they did not have the status of the aristocrats.
Occasionally, the pochteca did garner political importance by spying on behalf
of the Aztec army.
7
pochteca traders who
lived in Aztec society
Life and Faith in the Andes Regions
While the Aztec society prospered to the north in Mesoamerica, another great
society developed to the south, in the Andes Mountains: the Inca. Prior to
the development of the Incan civilization, several other groups flourished in
this Mesoamerican region, such as the Chavin, who lived there from 850 to
250 B.C.E.; the Moche, who lived there from 200 to 700 C.E.; and the Tiwanaku,
who lived there from 375 to 1000 C.E. The people who lived in and around the
Andes Mountains and coasts had to overcome different agricultural problems:
the mountain-dwellers had to deal with periods of extreme cold and the coastdwellers with periods of insufficient water. To overcome these problems, people
in both regions became disciplined and organized about what they could plant
and when.
People like the Moche had skills in developing irrigation and could live relatively far from bodies of water: they could branch out and control a great deal of
land in the north, where they built cities like Cerro Blanco. In the 500 years following 200 C.E., the Moche army took over several neighboring peoples and put
those individuals to work to support the burgeoning Moche nation. As in several
other Mesoamerican cultures, the Moche connected their religion and their government, putting spiritual faith in their political leader; also like other Mesoamerican
groups, class distinctions between the rich and poor were easily apparent and
always observed. The clothing worn by members of the upper classes emphasized
these class distinctions.
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
In 700 C.E., a combination of environmental problems and conflict with
another group, the Wari, led to the Moche civilization’s fall. The Wari, who made
their home in what is now Peru, had close connections with another society, the
Tiwanaku, who were based close to what is now considered Bolivia and who would
soon supersede the Wari. Historians believe the two groups shared many cultural
and agricultural characteristics. The Tiwanaku had strong similarities to the Moche
in three ways: first, both groups had a strongly delineated class structure that separated the rich and the poor. Second, both groups employed many fine artisans: the
Moche worked on metal and adornments, while the Tiwanaku worked on stone.
Third, both groups used irrigation technology to take full advantage of the land
surrounding the nearby Lake Titicaca.
Later another group developed in the mountains close to Lake Titicaca on its
western side: the Chucuito. The Chucuito did not attempt irrigation as the Moche
and Tiwanaku had, and they lived in an area rather difficult to farm and maintain
because their land stood at such a height above sea level—more than 13,000 feet.
To nourish themselves, they terraced their lands, as other Mesoamerican societies
did, and grew primarily root vegetables. Terraces, part of an agricultural method
that takes advantage of difficult terrain, resemble a series of small plateaus or steps
that can be built into mountainsides; the plateaus lead up the mountain and create
arable land. The Chucuito, unlike other Mesoamericans in the region (until the
1500s C.E.), depended on two types of domestic animals, llamas and alpacas, for
food, labor, and commerce.
Finally, another important group, the Chimu, lived along the plains of what is
now Peru for 100 years, beginning in the mid-1300s. The Chimu people remained
divided into specific levels of classes, just as people did in other Mesoamerican
societies. In their region, the Chimu had plenty of water and arable land. While the
Moche had Cerro Blanco, the Chimu built their own great urban center, Chanchan,
where anywhere between 50,000 to 100,000 people may have lived.
Generally, all these peoples, including the Moche and Tiwanaku, lived in
familial groups called ayllus. The people of each ayllu worked together as teams
to nourish and protect their familial groups; usually several families comprised
a single ayllu, and all would answer to a single leader, who took up his position
according to family background. Generally, this single leader was male, and overall
men did more of the hunting, administrative, and governmental work among the
ayllu. Instead of writing, the ayllu developed a counting method that used a series
of knots to keep track of commerce and exchange: quipo. The Inca would also
come to rely on quipo in later years.
After the 1000s B.C.E., the ayllu grouped themselves together in larger forces
called mit’a. Within each mit’a, men and women had different obligations. Unlike
the Aztec peoples, women had many fewer rights than men; like the Aztec women,
however, most women in the ayllu had to do their work within or around the
domestic space. However, both men and women worked together to ensure the
mit’a ran smoothly. The mit’a groups were responsible for serving and providing
for wealthier elites and nobles. Depending on its location, each mit’a would be
charged with producing a specific crop that grew especially well in that area.
8
ayllu a cluster of
people related to one
another who lived and
worked together in the
Andes regions
quipo method of
tying knots used by
Andes residents,
including the Inca, to
document commerce;
used instead of writing
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
9
Life Among the Inca
The groups that flourished in the Andes at the end of the first millennium, like
the Chimu and Chucuito, had separate, viable realms in South America and did
not enter into conflict. For the first 400 years of the second millennium C.E., these
groups remained conflict-free, even getting along with their new neighbors, the Inca,
who arrived peaceably during the 1200s C.E. The disparate groups exchanged goods
and refrained from conflict until nearly the middle of the fifteenth century C.E.
This peacefulness changed in 1438 C.E. because of the efforts of one man,
Pachacuti. Pachacuti came to power in 1438 and for the next 33 years he pursued
power and empire. Under Pachacuti’s leadership, the Inca’s military became a
formidable force, and Pachacuti himself was called “the Earthshaker.” During the
Inca’s relatively short but powerful era, only three men would rule: Pachacuti, who
reigned until 1471; his son, Topac Yupanqui; and the final ruler, Huayna Capac,
who died in 1525. After Capac died, two of his descendants squabbled for the
throne. The two could not agree and no single, powerful new monarch emerged.
Without a single strong leader, the Incan Empire wobbled. The timing was poor:
European explorers at this time became interested in the region.
The Many Legacies of the First Incan Monarch
Much of the Incan Empire took shape because of the efforts of Pachacuti, the
Earthshaker. Pachacuti first added to the Incans’ territory by accosting his peaceful
neighbors, the Chucuito; when the Chucuito succumbed, Pachacuti successfully
targeted the Chimu. Under Pachacuti’s direction, the Inca came to believe that
the monarch technically held ownership of all the land and goods in their empire,
and let them use or hold on to it through his kindness. However, the monarch
also had military responsibility and a duty to continue expanding the borders of
the Incan Empire. This responsibility meant that Pachacuti’s descendants had to
enlarge the empire in order to preserve their positions as monarchs. Later, Yupanqui
successfully targeted, and Capac moved in on Argentina. Both Yupanqui and Capac
pushed Incan soldiers into Chile. At its height, the Incan Empire (sometimes also
referred to as Twantinsuyu) covered a tremendous portion of the continent, ranging from Argentina through Peru to Bolivia, reaching 3,000 miles and overseeing
more than 11 million citizens.
Led by Pachacuti, the Incan government employed several different methods to
maintain control over this increasingly large territory. First, the Incans kidnapped
important people from conquered areas and used them as collateral. People from
the conquered areas would not retaliate against the Inca because they wanted
to protect their relatives. Second, the Incans took advantage of cultural patterns
already in place in the Andes, such as the dependence on the ayllu and mit’a. The
people of the ayllu and mit’a continued to work to support the members of the
upper classes in Incan lands. The Incans kept the lower levels of the class system
the same and entered the system at its highest level. Third, to maintain peace in the
farther reaches of the empire, the Incans left regional leaders in charge of affairs, a
measure of their trust in the people they had colonized. This move fostered mutual
trust and also helped the Inca from taking on too much of a bureaucratic burden.
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
The Incans also followed a bureaucratic set of practices developed by Pachacuti:
Pachacuti had divided administration and army work into two parts and assigned
them to different leaders. Later, at its height, the Incan Empire would separate into
four small parts with their own bureaucratic overseers, each of whom answered to
the monarch. In these different areas, the Incan language of Quechua was spoken
and all people were responsible for supporting the main government and monarch;
the lower classes supported the upper through physical work.
Like the Romans, Pachacuti developed transportation systems and taxation regulations. The roads Pachacuti created, for example, stretched as far as 25,000 miles,
or the equivalent of the entire coastline on the Pacific side, and crisscrossed the
entire Incan Empire in at least two directions. At many points, different roads came
together to intersect, which made traveling greater lengths across the Incan Empire
even easier. The creation of such roads is quite a feat, considering the difficult
environment—both mountainous and waterbound—that faced the Incan laborers,
most of whom came from ordinary or lower-class backgrounds. The Incans ended
up building two types of roads: the mountainous roads had barriers made of stone
around them and better quality pavement than the roads by the water. Each area
had one major thoroughfare as well as lesser thoroughfares.
The quality of the roads matched Roman roads, being broad, well-constructed,
and easily traversed. The Incans took good care of each road, no matter how difficult it became to do so, since some of the roads came through areas that were
dangerous or prone to inclement weather. Some Incan roads remain viable even
in the twenty-first century, a testament to the good care the Incans took. Travel
along the roads became pleasant and enjoyable. The Incans constructed many
stops, known as tambos, for the travelers walking along the roads (during the
Incans’ time, the roads were for walking only). As the people moved along the
roads, they became better able to share both goods and ideas, traveling as much
as 150 miles in a 24-hour period.
Many of these roads led to the Incans’ great city, Cuzco. The first Incan monarch, Pachacuti, had founded Cuzco, where the most important governmental
occurrences were held. The city became an exquisite destination: it had grand
buildings decorated in gold and was surrounded by imported sand. Almost half
a hundred thousand people lived in the city, while more than four times that
amount lived in the suburbs. For the most part, the majority of the population in
the city proper consisted of the higher classes, and people of the lower classes had
to live outside the city.
Incan society revolved around the armed forces, who along with the government had the most power and prestige of any citizens—after, of course, the monarch
and his close relatives. Throughout the empire, men received privileges over women.
Women remained confined to domestic spaces, like Aztec women, although they
could also serve as religious devotees. Other higher-class individuals included the
nobility, religious leaders, and some members of the government. The majority
of people throughout the Incan Empire had poor standing and belonged to the
lowest class; everyone in the lowest class worked to support the members of the
upper classes. The lowest class included a division called yanas, which specifically
10
3
Self-check
What monarch led
the initial expansion of
the Incan Empire?
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Unit 4, Lesson 24
referenced people who served the upper class. Others labored on behalf of the Incan
Empire, producing food for the different classes. Despite this disparity in situation,
the government did take some measures to provide for the poor and elderly.
Unlike many other Mesoamerican societies, which favored artisans, in the
Incan Empire few engaged in commerce or craftsmanship. One exception to this
rule was clothing; making beautiful fabrics became a specialty of the Inca. This
clothing also helped to create a class barrier, since the higher classes wore special
clothing that distinguished them immediately from the lower classes.
Class and gender also influenced the ways the legal system worked in Incan
society. Legal cases were determined by the monarch or a select group of judges,
who were all male. These legal situations did not occur frequently, but in cases
where serious problems such as state betrayal had taken place, a criminal could
face execution or forced labor.
Incan Religious Beliefs
Incan civilization combined social class and religious importance. Like many other
imperial leaders, the monarch had both political and spiritual authority. This
tradition of investing spiritual authority in the monarch began with Pachacuti
and extended to his descendants. Over time, the Inca came to believe that their
monarch had a divine heritage and that monarchs held their divine power even
after they departed this life. When a monarch died, the next ruler would take
on all the governmental elements that had belonged to the monarch, while the
monarch’s personal wealth would pass to his relatives. To honor the rulers’ divine
power, the Incans mummified the dead monarchs and incorporated their remains
into important ceremonies.
While they believed in several gods, including Viracocha (a creator god), Incans
believed their monarch had a relationship to their most important deity, the sun
god, also known as Inti. Later, the sun god took over Viracocha’s position as the
founder of the universe, and the Incans came to believe that the sun god was the
monarch’s father. Correspondingly, the monarch’s spouse had connections to the
goddess of the moon; other important female goddesses connected to the land
and to water, while other natural elements took on aspects of male gods. Since the
monarch had both governmental and spiritual responsibility in the Incan Empire,
Cuzco, which was the most important governmental area, also became the place
where Incans enacted their important religious occurrences. In Cuzco, people
observed their religion in the Temple of the Sun, which primarily honored Inti
and employed about 4,000 people in jobs related to religious worship.
Sometimes, the Inca would honor Inti at the Temple of the Sun by performing
animal sacrifices; this decision to sacrifice animals rather than people is one area in
which the Inca differed substantially from the Aztecs. Under extreme circumstances,
a young woman might be offered up for sacrifice, but that was the exception,
not the rule. The Temple of the Sun, constructed of stones cut so finely that no
mortar was needed to glue them together, had hundreds and hundreds of young
virgins working there, known as acclas. The temple itself had a beautiful aspect,
decorated with gold throughout the interior, and its exterior shape referenced the
gods’ animal nature since it resembled a puma.
11
4
Self-check
What title did the Inca
give their sun god?
accla one of many
chaste and youthful
girls employed at
the Incan Temple
of the Sun
Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.
Unit 4, Lesson 24
12
Outside of Cuzco, people worshiped at another temple in the city of Machu
Picchu. At these temples, people received direction or divulged their sins to religious
leaders who had committed to vows of chastity and humility. These leaders had
much influence and also received better educations than most in Incan society. To
help their followers address religious quandaries, these religious leaders relied on
health and plant products. The Inca permitted worship in other ways, too: citizens
could worship their gods at places in the natural world called huacas and did not
have to go directly to the temples. In everyday life, the Inca honored their gods by
behaving virtuously, adhering to their class standing, and hoping to achieve blessings in the afterlife. Most people in Incan society were expected to follow Incan
religious practices, although other religions were also permitted.
Summary
In Mesoamerica and the Andes, several powerful civilizations appeared in the first
fifteen hundred years of the Common Era. In Mesoamerica, the Toltecs and Aztecs
flourished. The Toltecs were in power from 900 to 1175 C.E. and their central base
was in Tula. The Aztecs, who ruled in central Mexico from 1325 to 1521 C.E., would
adopt many Toltec characteristics and customs. The Aztecs expanded from their
base at Tenochtitlan throughout the region, which they held with a skilled group
of armed forces. The Aztecs developed a monarchical system in which a single ruler
had primary authority. Their society gave women more rights than most. The Aztecs
developed a complex polytheistic religion which depended on human and blood
sacrifice to appease their sun god. Other societies, like the Inca, developed in the
Andes after the 1000s C.E. The Inca, who ruled from 1438 to 1525, gave women
fewer rights, and while their polytheistic faith venerated the sun god, they did not
participate in human sacrifice.
Looking Ahead
The people of the Americas had watched as their own empires rose, prospered,
and fell. They shared many cultural characteristics and had developed their own
complex religious faiths and societal systems. The arrival of European explorers
from Spain, Portugal, and other countries would throw these American societies
into turmoil. The Europeans would lay claim to lands that had belonged to North
and South American natives for centuries—and each side would see the other as
a group of dangerous barbarians, out to reclaim what was rightfully their own.
Self-Check Answers
1. A tlatoani was the government leader who led
3. Pachacuti led the initial expansion of the
the Mexica societal formations known as altepetl.
Incan Empire.
2. Huitzilopochtli is the name of the Aztec sun god.
4. Inti is the title the Inca gave their sun god.
Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.
Unit 4, Lesson 24
All images © K12 Inc. unless otherwise noted. 1,2 Toltec totem poles, ancient
Mexico. Photos.com/Thinkstock 4 Pyramid temple, Tula, Mexico. © Afagundes/
Dreamstime.com 5 Aztec god Huitzilopochtli. The Granger Collection, New York
Copyright © 2011, K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.