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The Nature of Matter The Atom • Extremely small – 100 million = 1 centimeter • Subatomic particles – Proton - positive – Electron - negative – Neutron - neutral Elements • Pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom Isotopes • Atoms of same element that differ in the number of neutrons they contain • Radioactive: – Nuclei are unstable – Break down at a constant rate Used for fossil dating Chemical Compounds • Substance formed by 2 or more elements – Ex. Water H2O, NaCl Chemical Compounds • A force that joins atoms together is called a chemical bond • Every compound is represented by a chemical formula that identifies the elements in the compound and their proportions – H2O – H2O2 Electron configuration • Electrons are found in orbitals around the nucleus • Follows the octet rule – 1st orbital (or shell) max electrons = 2 – 2nd orbital – max electrons = 8 – 3rd orbital – max electrons = 8 Chemical Bonds • Valence electrons – those electrons available to form bonds (outer most electrons) • Ion – charged particle • Ionic bond – one or more electrons are gained or lost (ex: salt) – Lose electron – become + – Gain electron – become - Covalent Bonds • Atoms share electrons to fill outer shell • Molecule – atoms joined by covalent bonds – Smallest unit of most compounds Covalent Bonds • An element becomes stable when its outer electron level is full • Give two examples of molecules formed from covalent bonds: – carbon dioxide – water Other Bonds • Hydrogen bonds- a weak chemical attraction between polar molecules – Ex: water molecules Other Bonds • Van der Waals forces- slight attraction between oppositely charged regions of nearby molecules (ex-gecko feet) – Not as strong as ionic or covalent bonds Water • Water is a major component of cells • Nearly 80% of your body is made of water • What properties of water make it such an important substance for life? – Water stores heat efficiently – Water sticks to itself and other substances Water • Is a polar molecule – Due to its electrons being shared unequally – The oxygen has a much stronger pull on the electrons than the hydrogens do – We can show this with (+) and (-) Polar- Magnets Polar vs Nonpolar • Polar substances mix together (water) • Nonpolar substances mix together (oil) • Polar and nonpolar substances do not mix together (water and oil) Water- Hydrogen bonding • Due to slight negative and positive charges • Gives water many of its unique properties (cohesion) – Allows it to “stick” together – forms droplets and thin film – Surface tension – Bugs can walk on it Hydrogen Bonds Cohesion • Attraction between molecules of the same substance • When like substances stick together – Water to water Adhesion • Attraction between molecules of different substances • When different substance stick together • Ex- Glass and water- meniscus • Causes some things to get wet Capillary Action • Water moving up through a small tube • Adhesion- allows the water to stick to the sides of the tube • Cohesion- allows the water molecules to stick together while climbing – Ex: girls going to the bathroom as a group!! – Ex: water going up a plant from the roots Capillary Action Heat Capacity • Because of the multiple hydrogen bonds water requires a lot of energy to heat up • Regulates temperature in • Ocean and lakes • Cells • Boiling water • How long does it take? • When can you touch it? Mixtures • Material composed of two or more elements or compounds that are physically mixed together but not chemically combined • Two types that involve water – Solutions – Suspensions Solutions • Solute- what is being dissolved (Koolaid powder) • Solvent- what the solute is being dissolved in (water) • Solute + Solvent = Solution (Koolaid) Water as a Solvent • Water is the universal solvent • Because it is polar it can dissolve – Other polar substances – Ionic compounds – Salts – Sugars – Minerals – Gases – Even other solvents such as alcohol Water as a Solvent • Saturated Solution- the water can’t dissolve any more solute Suspension • A mixture of water and non-dissolved material • Some materials do not dissolve when placed in water, but separate into pieces so small that they do not settle out – Ex: blood pH Scale • pH stands for potential hydrogen, 0-14 pH Scale • Measure the concentration of H+ (hydrogen ions) • Above 7 is basic • 7 is neutral • Below 7 is acidic Neutral • Has equal numbers of H+ and OH• Ex: water Basic • A base is a compound that produces hydroxide (OH–) ions in solution. • Ex: baking soda • Has more OH- than H+ • The closer to 14 the stronger • The closer to 7 the weaker • Usually end in -OH Acids • An acid is any compound that forms H+ ions in solution. • • • • • Ex: orange juice, HCl (stomach acid) Has more H+ than OHThe closer to 0 the stronger The closer to 7 the weaker Usually begin with H- Buffers • Keep solutions from becoming two acidic or basic • Weak acids or bases • Essential in maintaining homeostasis • The pH of the fluids within most cells in the human body must generally be kept between 6.5 and 7.5 Buffers Carbon • Has 4 valence electrons • Forms covalent bonds • Makes up organic compounds • Can bond with • • • • • Hydrogen Oxygen Phosphorus Sulfur Nitrogen Carbon • Can bond to each other – Single – Double – Triple Macromolecules • Giant molecules • Made from monomers (single unit) • Polymer- many monomers Organic Macromolecules • • • • Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Carbohydrates • Organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a proportion of 1:2:1 • The building blocks of carbohydrates are called monosaccharides • Glucose is a major source of energy for cells • Give an example of a food that contains carbohydrates: pasta, bread, potatoes • Structural in plants- cellulose Carbohydrates • Sugars • End in –ose • Plants store energy – starches Carbohydrates • Monosaccharide- Single sugar – Glucose, galactose, fructose • Disaccharide- two sugars, table sugar • Polysaccharide- many sugars, glycogen Lipids • Important part of the structure and functioning of cell membranes • Examples of lipids: waxes, fats, steroids, oils • Lipids that store energy are called fat • Give an example of a food that is a lipid: butter • Natural waterproofing Saturated vs Unsaturated Saturated vs. Unsaturated • Saturated – – – – Normally animal based Solid at room temperature No double bonds between carbons Ex- butter • Unsaturated – – – – Normally plant based Liquid at room temperature At least one double bond between carbons Ex- corn oil Proteins • Made of nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen • Polymers made of monomers called amino acids • 20 amino acids • Peptide bonds link these monomers (type of covalent bond) • Give an example of a food high in protein: meat, fish, eggs, nuts Functions of Proteins • Enzymes - control the rate of reactions and regulating cell processes • Forming cellular structures • Transporting substances into or out of cells, • Helping to fight disease. • Where is it found? Skin, bones, ligaments, tendons • The most abundant protein in your body is collagen Levels of Protein Organization • Four levels – Primary- sequence of amino acids (polypeptide) – Secondary- folding or coiling of the polypeptide – Tertiary- 3-d arrangement of polypeptide – Quaternary- made up of more than one polypeptide Levels of Protein Organization Nucleic Acids • Made up of nucleotides (monomers) • Each nucleotide has three parts: – sugar – base – Phosphate group • Joined by covalent bonds Nucleic Acids • There are two nucleic acids :DNA and RNA • DNA consists of 2 strand(s) • Sugar- deoxyribose • RNA consists of 1 strand(s) • Sugar- ribose Nucleic Acids • Store and transmit genetic information • Made of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus ATP • Carries energy for cells • When food is broken down some of the energy in the molecules is stored temporarily in ATP Energy • Organisms need energy for life processes • Forms of energy – Light, heat, electrical, mechanical, chemical • Energy can be absorbed or released by chemical reactions – Reactions that release energy can occur spontaneously (burning) Chemical Reactions • Process that changes, or transforms, one set of chemicals into another by changing the chemical bonds that join atoms in compounds • Reactants- elements or compounds that enter into a chemical reaction • Products- elements or compounds produced by a chemical reaction Chemical reactions absorb or release energy • • • • • If bonds are formed energy is absorbed If bonds are broken energy is released When water freezes heat energy is released When ice melts heat energy is absorbed When food is digested chemical reactions convert chemical energy into a form cells can use Energy Sources • Animals- eat food • Plants- photosynthesis, sunlight Energy is needed to start a chemical reaction • The energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called activation energy • Activation energy is like a chemical “ push” • Is activation energy needed in a reaction that releases energy? Yes! Catalyst • Some chemical reactions are too slow or have activation energies that are too high to make them practical for living tissue • Substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction – Work by lowering a reaction’s activation energy Enzymes help reactions occur • Natural catalysts • Enzymes increase the speed of chemical reactions • Most enzymes are proteins • Enzymes are catalysts that reduce the activation energy required to start a chemical reaction • Enzymes help organisms maintain homeostasis • Named for the reaction it catalyzes • Ends in -ase Effect of Enzymes Enzymes affect specific substances • • • Enzymes act only on specific substrates This is because only that substrate fits into its active site List the three steps of enzyme action: 1) Enzymes attaches to substrate at active site 2) The enzyme changes the shape of the substrate reducing the activation energy needed to start the reaction 3) The enzymes detaches from the substrate Factors that affect enzyme activity • Any factor that changes an enzyme’s shape will affect its activity • List two of these factors: 1) pH 2) temperature • Enzymes in the human body works best around 37 degrees Celsius