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FOR 3364: Survey of Forest Ecology & Management
S. M. Zedaker
Forest Ecology Terminology
(Compiled by the Forest Ecology Working Group of the Society of American Foresters)
ABUNDANCE: The number of organisms in a population, combining density within inhabited areas and number and size of
inhabited areas.
ACCLIMATIZATION: Adaptation to a different climate.
ADAPTATION: The process(es) whereby individuals (or parts of individuals), populations, or species change in structure,
form or function in such a way as to better survive under given environmental conditions; evolutionary process by which
an organism becomes fitted to its environment; a structure or habit fitted for some special environment or activity.
AEROBIC: Life or processes occurring only in the presence of free oxygen.
AEROPLANKTON: The small living organisms, ranging from minute arthropods and seeds to microscopic fungus spores
and bacteria, that are suspended in the atmosphere. Cf. EDAPHON
AGGRADATION: The geologic process in which inorganic materials carried downstream are deposited in stream beds,
flood plains and other water bodies resulting in a rise in elevation.
ALLELOPATHY: The negative influence of plants, other than micro-organisms, upon each other, arising from the products
of their metabolism or chemical inhibitors (HH and G from Walker)
ALLIANCE: The unit of next higher rank than association in the Braun-Blanquet classification of plant communities.
ALLOCHTHONOUS: Exogenous. Food organisms, organic matter and nutrients orginating outside or transported inot an
aquatic system. Usually refers to organic material of terrestrial origin, but could include windblown deposition, that
carried by animals, etc. Said of organic matter entering a stream, lake, or ocean, but derived from an adjacent terrestrial
system. Also used for accumulation of drifted vegetation.
ALLOGENIC: Originating external to a system (G).
ALLUVIUM: A general term for all deposits resulting directly or indirectly from the sediment transport of streams deposited
in riverbeds, flood plains, lakes, fans and estuaries.
ALPHA DIVERSITY: The variety of organisms occurring in a particular place or habitat; often called local diversity.
ALTERNE: One of two or more plant communities that alternate with each otehr in space.
AMENSALISM: An interaction in which one organism or population adversely affects a second organism or population, but
the second has no effect on the first (Begon et al.).
ANAEROBIC: Life processes that occur in the absence of molecular oxygen.
ANGIOSPERMAE, ANGIOSPERMS: The botanical name for the group of vascular flowering plants that produce seeds
enclosed in an ovary, includes hardwoods, Bamboos, and Palms but not softwoods. NOTE: Divided into the
Dicotyledons and the Monocotyledons. Cf. GYMNOSPERMAE.
ANNUAL: A species with a life cycle of 12 months or less (Begon et al.).
ANOXIC: Lack of oxygen (also ANAEROBIC).
APHYTAL: Lacking plants. The plantless zone of a lake bottom; the profundal.
ANTHROPOGENIC: Of human origin (G)1.
ARTESIAN: Water that arises under pressure from a permeable stratum overlain by an impermeable stratum.
ASPECT: The direction towards which a slope faces; the seasonal appearance of a community, e.g. the spring aspect.
ASSEMBLY: 1) The smallest of plant or animal community units, e.g., aphis colonies on particular plants. 2) a group of
materials or parts, including any adhesive or connectors, which have been placed together either for bonding or
mechanical fastening (e.g. a truss), or have been so bonded or fastened. NOTE: In plywood or laminated wood it
comprises the plies or laminations laid up for bonding and pressing.
ASSOCIATION: A plant community of some particular kind or grade, usage varying greatly from one ecological school to
another, but two prevalent concepts regarding it as (1) [most non-British schools] the "fundamental unit" of plant
ecology (the equivalent of species in taxonomy), admitting many local subassociations and facies (roughly equivalent to
subspecies and varieties respectively in taxonomy) and defined mainly by floristic composition, not by habitat, (2)
[mainly N. Am. and British ecologists, following Clements] a major subdivision of formation, restricted to (the
presumed) climax communities. NOTE: In both (1) and (2), an association may have several dominants, either mixed
together or occurring in different places. Cf. CONSOCIATION, SOCIETY.
ASSOCIES: Clements' term for seral equivalent of an association. Cf. CONSOCIES - SOCIES.
1
(G) means that George F. Smith developed the definition from a number of sources.
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ATTENUATION: Reduction in light intensity in water because of absorption by water molecules, suspended particles and
dissolved substances.
AUTECOLOGY: The ecology of an individual organism or taxonomic group, in contrast to synecology which is the ecology
of a community.
AUTOCHTHONOUS: (1) (general) Indigneous; native to or formed in the place found; said of organic matter produced with
an ecosystem (2) Of rocks, mantle rock, peat, soils, or their constituents, formed at the site. Cf. ALLOCHTHONOUS RESIDUAL SOIL.
AUTOGENIC: Originating from within a system (G).
BADLAND: [N. Am.] More or less barren, rough, broken land that is strongly dissected or gullied by streams. NOTE: (1)
Most common in semi-arid regions where streams have entrenched themselves in soft erodible materials, e.g. clays, soft
shales, limestones.
BAR: A submerged or exposed ridge-like accumulation of sand, gravel, or other alluvial material formed in a lake or in the
channel, along the banks, or at the mouth of a stream where a decrease in velocity induces deposition.
BASICOLE. > CALCICOLE: A plant that lives on soils of high base status. - BASIPHILE.
BASIFUGE: A plant that tends to avoid soils of high base status. Cf. BASIPHILE.
BASIN: An area in which the margins dip towards a common center or depression, and towards which surface and
subsurface channels drain. Cf. DRAINAGE AREA.
BASIPHILE. > CALCIPHILE: A plant that tends to be restricted to basic soils. Cf. BASIFUGE - BASICOLE.
BAY: A body of water forming an indentation of the shoreline, larger than a cove.
BETA-DIVERSITY: The diversity among more than one community (G).
BAYOU: A bay, inlet, backwater, river channel slough, oxbow lake, channel in coastal marshes and sluggish creeks, arm,
outlet, or tributary of a lake, river, etc.; any stagnant or sluggish creek, marshy lake, or the like.
BEACH: The zone of demarcation between land and water of lakes or other large bodies of water; covered by sand, gravel, or
larger rock fragements.
BED: The bottom of a lake, pond, or other body of water.
BENCH: Shelf-like areas with steeper slopes above and below. In the floodplain, a series of level areas remaining as a result
of perodic deposition and erosion.
BENTHIC ZONE: The bottom layer of a body of water.
BENTHOS: The plants and animals that inhabit the bottom substrate of a body of water.
BERM: A levee, shelf, ledge, groyne or bench along a stream bank that may extend laterally into the channel to partially
obstruct the flow, or parallel to the flow to contain the flow within its stream banks. May be natural or man-made.
BIENNIAL: A species with a life cycle of approximately 2 years with fruiting occurring in the second year.
BIOCHEMICAL (BIOLOGICAL) OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD): (1) The dissolved oxygen required to decompose organic
matter in water; a measure of oxygen consumption in a fixed period of time (2) The amount of molecular oxygen
required to stabilize decomposable matter by aerobic biochemical action, measured in mg/L.
BIO(O)ENOLOGY: The study of communities of living organisms, i.e. of biocoenoses. Cf. ECOLOGY.
BIO(O)ENOSE: A general term, used mainly by Central and Eastern European ecologists, for any community of plants (a
phytocoenose = phyocoenosis) and animals. NOTE: Sukachev's biogeoc(o)enose implies that locality factors are to be
included as an inseparable part of the community concept, the whole forming an ecosystem.
BIODIVERSITY: An index of species richness in a community and the relative abundance of these species; high biodiversity
is achieved by high species richness and equal relative abundance.
BIOGENIC: Resulting from activity of living organisms; necessary for continuation of life processes.
BIOLOGICAL INDICES: An index of ecosystem health or condition as indicated by biological or physical value, such as
diversity index or index of biotic integrity.
BIOLOGICAL SPECTRUM: A statement showing, for the flora of a community or region, the % of its species belonging to
each life form.
BIOMAGNIFICATION: The increasing concentration of a compound in the tissues of organisms as the compound moves
from lower to higher trophic levels (G).
BIOMASS: The total mass, at a given time, of living organisms of one or more species per unit area (species biomass) or of
all the species in the community (community biomass). Cf. YIELD. The living or dead weight of organic matter in
material units such as living or dead weight, wet or dry weight, ash-free weight, etc.
BIOSPHERE: That part of the Earth's envelope, comprising the lower atmosphere (-aeroplankton), the seas and the land
surface (-mantle rock) in which living organisms exist in their natural state.
BIOSYSTEMATICS: Taxonomic studies involving morphology, cytogenetics, ecology, and phytogeography. Syn.
Taxonomy.
BIOTIC: Of living organisms and their ecological rather than physiological relations.
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BIOTIC CLIMAX: A community maintained by biotic factors and therefore differing from any other climax community.
NOTE: One maintained by humans or livestock is termed disclimax=plagioclimax. Cf. CLIMAX.
BIOTIC FACTOR: Any environmental influence of living organisms, e.g. shading trees, trampling by heavy animals, firing
by man, in contrast to inanimate, i.e. abiotic, particularly climatic and edaphic influences. NOTE: The influence of man
alone is termed ANTHROPOGENIC. Cf. EDAPHIC FACTOR.
BOG: A peat-forming, poorly-drained land with surface vegetation of mosses and shrubs, that is usually highly acid and
nutrient-poor due to its main source of water solely as rain.
BRYOPHYTES: Non-vascular plants including mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.
BUSH: A general term outside the United Kingdom for all types of forests or woodlands, with particular reference to
untended, indigneous forest.
BUSH FALLOW: An area of secondary woody growth in (sub-) tropical forests, developed between periods of field
cropping.
BUFFER: Vegetation strip maintained along a stream, lake, road, or different vegetative zone to mitigate the impacts of
actions on adjacent lands. Also called a buffer strip.
BUTTE: A conspicuous, generally craggy and precipitous, isolated hill-mass. NOTE: If flat-topped, termed a mesa, i.e. a
miniature tableland.
CALCICOLE: A plant that lives in soils rich in calcium - CACLIFILE.
CALCIFUGE: A plant that tends to avoid calcareous soils.
CALCIPHILE: A plant that tends to be restricted to calcareous soils. Cf. CALCIFUGE - CALCICOLE.
CANAL: An artificially created waterway.
CANOPY: The overhead or dominant trees in a forest; the overhead branches and leaves of streamside vegetation.
CANOPY COVER: The percentage of ground or water covered by a vertical projection of the outermost perimeter of the
natural spread of foliage or plants. Small openings within the canopy are included. Total canopy coverage may exceed
100% due to layering of different vegetative strata. See also FOLIAR COVER and STREAM SURFACE SHADING.
CARNIVORY: The consumption by an organism of living animals or parts of living animals (Begon et al.).
CARR: Deciduous woodland or scrub on permanently wet, organic soils. NOTE: Developed from a bog, fen, or swamp.
CARRYING CAPACITY: The maximum number or biomass of organisms of a given species that can be sustained or
survive on a long term basis, within an ecosystem, during a specific time period.
CATCHMENT: Something for catching water, as a reservoir or basin; the water caught in such a basin.
CHANNEL: A natural or artificial waterway of perceptible extent that periodically or continously contains moving water,
having a definite bed and banks which serve to confine the water.
CHANNELIZATION: The mechanical alteration of a stream which may include straightening or dredging of an existing
channel, or creating a new channel to which the stream is diverted.
CHAMAEPHYTE: A land plant whose buds or shoot apices, destined to survive the unfavorable season, are at or near (<25
cm) the ground surface. NOTE: One of the (non-cryptophytic) life forms of Raunkiaer. Cf. CRYPOTOPHYTE Cf.
PHANEROPHYTE.
CHAOS: The erratic, non-repeating dynamics that are highly sensitive to initial conditions exhibited by a completely
deterministic system (G from Putman).
CHAPARRAL: A thicket of low evergreen oaks or dense tangled brushwood (Begon et al.).
CHOMOPHYTE: A plant that grows whether in a fissure or crevice of a rock (when a chasophyte) or on ledges where rock
debris has accumulated.
CHOROLOGY: (1) Originally, the study of migrations and of their areas of distributions, i.e. a combination of
phytogeography and zoo-geography (2) Later, the ecological study of regions or areas.
CLAN: A small but distinctive community of subordinate importance, composed of densely aggregated individuals of one or
few species in climax vegetation; frequently the result of vegetative propagation. NOTE: Colony and family are similar
communities of several and one species, respectively, in seral vegetation (after Clements).
CLIMAX: The culminating stage of plant succession for a given environment, the vegetation being conceived as having
reached a highly stable condition. NOTE: (1) Some ecologists restrict the term to vegetation of mature sites and soils,
which they presume to have a high degree of permanence. Others apply it to vegetation which they conceived to be
stable only as long as the environment remains unchanged or to vegetation which changes only in response to changes in
climate and/or soil substrate that are slow relative to the rate of plant succession (2) Clements claimed that, for a given
region, there was only one true climax-the stable vegetation of mesic sites, the nature of which determined by climate
and hence termed by him the climatic climax; deviations that are stable only through the influences of factors other than
climate received special names, e.g. pre-climax (local unfavorable conditions preventing full vegetational complexity),
postclimax (local favorable conditions permitting fuller complexity), biotic climax (maintained by biotic factors),
edaphic climax (maintained by soil factors). Cf. SUBCLIMAX-CLIMAX FOREST.
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CLIMAX FOREST: A community that represents the culminating stage of a natural forest succession for its locality, i.e. for
its environment.
CLONE: Plants derived vegetatively from one parent plant, so that each is genetically identical to each other and to the
parent. This may occur naturally or artificially.
CLOSED BASIN: A basin draining to some depression or pond within its area, from which water is lost only by evaporation
or percolation. A basin without a surface outlet for precipitation falling therein.
COARSE WOODY DEBRIS: Any large piece of woody material having a least diameter greater than 10 cm (4 inches) and a
length greater than one meter (39 inches).
COAST: Land next to the sea.
COAST LINE: The shape or pattern of the coast.
COASTAL PLAIN: The flatter area, or plain, extending along the coast.
CO-DOMINANT: (1) Species in a mixed crop that are about equally numerous and exert the greatest influence (2) One of
four main crown classes recognized on a basis of relative status and condition in the crop; the trees have their crowns in
the upper caonpy but are less free than the dominants.
COMMUNITY COEFFICIENT: A measure of the similarity of the floras or faunas of two areas or of two communities.
NOTE: Several mathematically different forms have been devised but all are based on the ratio between the number of
species common to the two populations and the total number of species in both populations.
COHORT: A group of individuals born during the same short period (often 1 year) of time (G from Begon et al.).
COMMENSALISM: A relationship between two kinds of living organisms whereby one (the commensal) benefits and the
other (the host) remains relatively or absolutely unaffected, and which is obligatory for the commensal. Cf.
SYMBIOSIS, PARISITISM.
COMMUNITY: An assemblage of interacting plants and animals living together and occupying a given area; the biotic
component of a given ecosystem. NOTE: With plants, a closed communtiy (ant. open community) is one whose
components are so completely utilizing the site as to exclude further entrants.
COMPETITION: An interaction between two organisms or populations where the growth rates of both are inhibited (G from
Odum).
COMPETITIVE EXCLUSION: The elimination from an area of habitat of one species by another through interspecific
competition (Begon et al.).
CONDUCTIVITY: A measure of the ability of a solution to carry an electrcial current dependent on the total concentration of
ionized substances dissolved in water.
CONIFERALES: Conifers. The most important order of the Gymnospermae, comprising a wide range of trees, mostly
evergreens, bearing cones (hence coniferous) and needle-shaped or scale-like leaes, and produce timber known
commercially as softwood.
CONSERVATION: The management of a renewable natural resource with the objective of sustaining its productivity in
perpetuity while providing for human use, compatible with sustainability of the resource (For a forest this may include
periodic cutting and removal of trees, followed by management for regrowth of some form of the forest).
CONSOCIATION: Clements' term for a climax plant community characterized by the dominance of a single species.
CONSOCIES: Clements' term for the seral equivalent of a consociation Cf. ASSOCIES--SOCIES.
CONSTANCY. (FREQUENCY): The relative consistency of occurrence (and therefore degree of dispersal) of a species
throughout a community or throughout different examples of a given community. NOTE: Often expressed as the
proportion of samples in which a species occurs. FREQUENCY--CONSTANT--FIDELITY.
CONSTANT: A species that is present in almost every sample generally accepted as in 80% of a community).
CONTINUUM: An area over which the vegetation and/or the animal population is continuously in composition, so that
homogenous communities cannot be distinguished in it.
CORTICOLOUS: An organism inhabiting or growing on bark.
COVE: A small indentation or recess in the shoreline of a sea, lake or river; a sheltered area.
COVER: Horizontal area occupied by vegetation or foliage; Anything that provides protection for aquatic or terrestrial
animals from predators or ameliorates adverse conditions and/or seasonal changes in metabolic costs.
CRADLE KNOLL. The pit and mound formed as a result of tree uprooting and its attendant displacement of soil; also the
microrelief resulting from this. NOTE: (1) Of general occurrence in forest areas subject to windthrows, with dimensions
and contrast varying according to tree size, depth to a root-restricting layer, slope, rapidity of creep or solifluxion. (2)
The absence of micro-relief on sites otherwise suitable for its development is presumptive evidence of former cultivation
or man-made disturbance.
CREEK: A small stream of water which serves as the natural drainage course for a drainage basin of nominal or small size.
CRYPTOPHYTE: A plant whose buds or shoot apices destined to survive the unfavorable season are below the ground
surface or in the soil under water. NOTE: (1) One of the major life-forms of Raunkiaer (2) Includes geophytes,
helophytes, and hydrophytes. Cf. PHANEROPHYTE--HEMICRYPTOPHYTE.
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CULTIVAR: A plant selected from a population of plants because it has desirable characteristics, and is cultivated and given
a specific name.
DECLINE: The decrease in tree or forest health caused by several biotic and abiotic factors (G).
DECOMPOSITION: A large number of interrelated processes by which organic matter is broken down to smaller particles
and to soluble forms available for plant uptake (Waring & Schlesinger).
DECREASER PLANT SPECIES: Any plant species of the original vegetation that decreases in relative amounts, more
particularly under continued over-use of a forage crop.
DEEPWATER HABITAT: Permanently floded lands lying below the deepwater boundary of wetlands. This boundary is at a
depth of 2 M (6.6 feet) below low water or at the edge of emergent macrophytes, whichever is deeper.
DELTA: Flat plane of alluvial deposits between the branches at the mouth of a river, stream, or creek.
DEME: Interbreeding subpopulation (G).
DEMOGRAPHY: The statistical science dealing with the birth and death processes of a population (G from Webster's
Dictionary).
DENSITY: Number of individuals per unit area; weight per unit of volume, with the weight per unit volume of water at 4oC
as the reference.
DENSITY DEPENDENCE: Decrease in population growth rate with increasing population density; theoretically results in a
sigmoid population growth curve (G).
DEPOSITION: The settlement or accumulation of material out of the water column and onto the stream bank or bed. Occurs
when the energy of flowing water is unable to support the load of suspended sediment.
DERIVED SAVANNA: Savanna vegetation existing on sites formerly supporting high forest, having developed from such
forest through cutting and burning (e.g. through shifting cultivation) and being maintained as savanna by annual or
frequent grass fires. NOTE: The tree species in derived savanna may differ from those of the original high forest.
DESERT: Biome where the average amount of precipitation is erratic and less than 25 cm per annum, and evaporation
exceeds precipitation. Such areas have sparse highly adapted vegetation, e.g. cacti, succulents, and spiny shrubs (H)2.
DESERTIFICATION: The change of arable land into a desert either from natural causes or human activity (Webster's
Dictionary).
DESSICATION: Dehydrating or drying up.
DETERMINISTIC: A system that can be characterized exactly with no element of chance or probability (G from Begon et
al.).
DETRITIVORY: The consumption of detritis, dead organic matter (G from Waring & Schlesinger).
DETRITUS: Small pieces of dead and decomposing plants and animals; detached and broken-down fragments of structure
(H); Pertains to small organic particles like leaves, twigs, etc.
DILUTION: Reduction in the concentration, or strength, of a substance in water.
DISCHARGE: Volume of water flowing in a given stream at a given place and within a given period of time, usually
expressed as cubic meters per second or cubic feet per second.
DISJUNCT: The distribution of a species with widely separated populations (G from Begon et al.).
DISPERSAL: The spread, on any time scale, of plants or animals from any point of origin (DRIFT) or from one place to
another (MIGRATION).
DISSOLVED ORGANIC MATTER (DOM) OR DISSOLVED ORGANIC CARBON (DOC): Organic material having a
least dimension smaller than 0.45 microns (passes through a 0.45 micron filter.).
DISSOLVED OXYGEN: The concentration of oxygen dissolved in water, expressed in mg/l or as percent saturation, where
saturation is the maximum amount of oxygen that can theoretically be dissolved in water at a given altitude and
temperature.
DISSOLVED SOLIDS: Total of disintegrated organic and inorganic material contained in water.
DISTURBANCE: Any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem, community, or population structure and
changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical environment (Pickett and White).
DIVERSITY: The variety of plant and animal taxa.
DIVERSITY INDEX: A numerical value derived from the number of individuals per taxon (abundance) and the number of
taxa present (richness); the relationship of the number of taxa (richness) to the number of individuals per taxon
(abundance) for a given community. SHANNON'S DIVERSITY INDEX.
DOMINANCE: (1) In general, the influence of a dominant species (2) More specifically, the influence that a species exerts
over a community, measured e.g. by its mass or its basal area per unit area of ground surface or by the proportion it
forms of the total cover, mass, or basal area of the community.
2
(H) means Henderson's Dictionary.
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DOMINANT: (1) That component of a community , typically a species, which exerts the greatest influence on its character
because of its life-form and/or great abundance--DOMINANCE (2) Generally, an individual or species of the upper layer
of the canopy Cf. SUBDOMINANT, CODOMINANT.
DRAWDOWN: The lowering of water levels stored behind a dam or other control structure. Change in reservoir elevation
during a specified time interval.
DRIFT: (a) Voluntary or accidental dislodgement of aquatic invertebrates from the stream bottom into the water column
where they move or float with the current. (b) Any detrital material transported in the water current. (c) Something
washed ashore; a mass of water deposited ashore by wind or water currents.
DYSTROPHIC: Habitats low in nutrients and toxic.
ECESIS: The whole process whereby a plant establishes itself in a new area, from germination to its equivalent (e.g. the
rooting of some detached portion) to reproduction, whether sexual or asexual--PIONEER.
ECOCLIMATE: Climate operating as an ecological factor, i.e. the climate of a particular habitat--whether this be larval
galleries or an open prairie--MICROCLIMATE.
ECOGRAPH: A graphic presentation of the requirements of a species for, and/or its adaptation to, two or more
environmental factors simultaneously.
ECOLOGY: The study of interrelationships between organisms (plants, animals, arthropods, microbes) and their
environment.
ECOSYSTEM: (1) Originally (after Tansley) any complex of living organisms within their environment, that "we isolate
mentally for purposes of study." Subsequently = biogeocoenose (--BIOCOENOSE) (2) A Community of different
organisms interdependent on each other together with their non-living environment, which is relatively self-contained in
terms of energy flow, and is distinct from neighboring communities.
ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT: The management of an area defined by the ecosystem, rather than jurisdictional
boundaries, in a manner that improves the structure and functioning of the ecosystem as a whole rather than increasing
the abundance of a few species (G).
ECOTONE: The transition zone between two adjoining communities.
ECOTYPE: (1) An element of Linnaean species, separable as being associated with particular habitat factors (20 A biotype
resulting from natural selection by the special conditions of a particular habitat. NOTE: Ecotypes are generally
subdivided into, e.g. edaphic, climatic --CLINE, geographic race, VARIETY.
ECTENDOMYCORRHIZA: A mycorrhiza combining the features of ectomycorrhiza and endomycorrhiza Cf.
ECTOMYCORRHIZA, ENDOMYCORRHIZA.
ECTOMYCORRHIZA: A mycorrhiza in which the fungal hypae form a closely woven envelope (sometime referred to as a
mantle) covering the root apex and penetrating to a limited extent (the Hartig net) between the cells of the cortex Cf.
ENDOMYCORRHIZA, ECTENDOMYCORRHIZA.
EDAPHIC FACTOR: Any characteristic or condition of the soil--generally physical or chemical--that influences organisms.
EDAPHON: The aggregate of organisms in a soil, except for the roots and underground stems of plants.
EDDY: A circular current of water, sometimes quite strong, diverging from and initally flowing contrary to the main current.
It is usually formed at a point at which the flow passes some obstruction or on the inside of river bends. Often forms
backwater pools, alcove pools, or pocket water in rapids and cascades.
EL NIÑO: A periodic (average 5-7 year interval), global, short-term climate change; first observed on the west coast of South
America, it is characterized there by a decrease in wind and ocean currents (G).
ELFIN FOREST: Forest of small, often fantastically-shaped trees, generally covered with lichens or mosses (Bryophytes);
characteristic of high elevations in mountains.
EMBANKMENT: A bank, mound, dike, or the like erected along or across a wetted area designed to hold back water, carry a
roadway, etc.
ENCLAVE: A small, often relic community of one kind of plant in an opening of a larger plant community, i.e. a specific
consociation within an association.
ENDEMIC: Of an organism confined, in its indigneous occurrence, to a particular region.
ENDOMYCORRHIZA: A mycorrhiza in which the fungal hyphae are entirely within the root cortex and largely
intracellular. Cf. ECTOMYCORRHIZA, ECTENDOMYCORRHIZA.
ENVIRONMENT: All the biotic and abiotic factors of a site (together termed locality factors = environmental factors, site
factors).
ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE: The combined action of all locality factors tending to limit the biomass (-POPULATION PRESSURE) in any habitat -- BIOTIC POTENTIAL, ecological amplitude.
ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY: The study of the movement of toxic compounds through ecosystems and their
impacts (G).
EPHEMERAL: Short-lived or transitory.
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EPILIMNION: The upper water layer in a stratified lake that is more or less uniformly warm in the summer (G from Wetzel).
EPIPHYLLOUS: Of an organism growing on living leaves Cf. CORTICULOUS.
EPIPHYTE: A plant growing on, but not nourished by, another plant NOTE: A plant that begins life as an epiphyte but later
sends roots into the soil, is termed a hemiphyte. Cf. PARASITE.
EPIZOOTIC: Living on animals from the outside or on their surface, i.e. ecotparasitic or commensal (2) Of a populations of
animals that builds up to abnormal levels -- EPIDEMIC.
EQUILIBRIUM: A state where all populations ina community remain a constant size (G).
EQUITABILITY: A measure of the distribution of the species component for a diversity index.
EREMOPHYTE: A plant of the desert (--PSAMMOPHYTE, XEROPHYTE) or the steppe.
ERODE: To eat out or away; form a channel by eating or wearing away.
ESCAPE: An exotic or cultivated plant or animal later found in the wild or has become established in the wild.
ESCARPMENT: A long, precipitous, cliff-like ridge (observed above- or below ground level) commonly formed by faulting
or fracturing.
ESTUARINE ZONE: An environmental system consisting of an estuary and those transitional areas which are consistently
influenced or affected by water from an estuary such as, but not limited to, salt marshes, coastal and intertidal areas,
bays, harbors, lagoons, inshore waters, and channels.
ESTUARY: The portion of a coastal stream influenced by the tide of the body of water into which it flows; a bay, at the
mouth of a river, where the tide meets the river current; an area where fresh and marine waters mix.
EUPHOTIC ZONE: The lighted region of a body of water that extends vertically from the surface to the depth at which light
is insufficient to maintain light-requiring biological processes.
EUTROPHIC: Habitats rich in nutrients and organic materials and are highly productive.
EUTROPHICATION: The natural process of maturing (aging) of a lake; the process of enrichment with nutrients, especially
nitrogen and phosphorus, leading to increased production of organic matter.
EVAPORATION PONDS: Ponds into which water is discharged and then allowed to evaporate in order to recover materials
suspended or dissolved in the water.
EVOLUTION: The process of gradual change--generally development but also degeneration--in the attributes of organisms
through successive generations. NOTE: Genetic theory seekds to explain the evolution in terms of changes in the gene
frequencies of populations brought about by variation in reproductive habits, mutation, recombination, cross breeding,
selection , migration, and genetic drift.
EXOTIC SPECIES: A species not native to the area; all species of plants and animals not naturally occuring, either presently
or historically, in any ecosystem of the United States.
EXTINCTION: The death of the last surviving individual of a species, group, or gene, globally or locally (Begon et al.).
EXTINCTION COEFFICIENT: The degree of light attenuation in water. The availability of light with increasing depth as a
negative exponential.
EXTERPATION: Local species extinction (G).
FACIATION: Clements' term for a subdivision of an association characterized by a particular group of dominant species and
determined by minor climatic differences.
FACIES: (1) Braun-Blanquet's term for a local modification of an association, generally of small extent, characterized by
great (but sometimes temporary) abundance of some one species (2) Clements' term for the seral equivalent of his
faciation.
FACULTATIVE: A species with the ability to live under different environmental conditions. Cf. OBLIGATE.
FECUNDITY: The number of eggs, or seeds, or generally offspring in the first stage of the life cycle, produced by an
individual (Begon et al.).
FEN: Low-lying peat land partly covered with water fed by relatively fast moving, nutrient-rich water. Water usually neutral
to basic and rich in calcium. The peat is mainly made by decaying sedges and rushes.
FIRE CLIMAX: A community maintained by regular fires and therefore differing from any other climax community PYROPHYTE.
FIRE DEPENDENT: Requiring one or more fires of varying frequency, timing, intensity, and size in order to achieve
optimal conditions for population survival and/or growth (G).
FISH HABITAT: The aquatic environment and the immediately surrounding terrestrial environment that, combined, afford
the necessary biological, chemical and physical support systems required by fish species during various life history
stages.
FJORD: A long, narrow arm of a water body bordered by steep cliffs, usually formed by glacial erosion.
FLATS: Areas that have shallow water or are periodically exposed, having very even elevation; a marsh or shoal.
FLOOD: Any flow that exceeds the bankfull capacity of a stream or channel and flows out onto the flood plain; greater than
bankfull discharge.
7
FLOOD PLAIN: Area adjoining a body of water tha may become inundated during periods of maximum water levels. That
land outside a stream channel described by the perimeter of the maximum probability flood. A strip of relateviely smooth
land bordering a stream, built of sediment carried by the stream and droped in the slack water beyond the influence of the
swiftest current. Also: Floodplain, Flood-plain.
FLOW: The movement of a stream of water and/or other mobile substances from place to place. The movement of water, and
the moving water itself. The volume of water passing a given point per unit of time. Syn.: DISCHARGE. NOTE: Base
Flow is the portion of stream discharge that is derived from natural storage; Subsurface Flow is that portion of
groundwater moving horizontally through and below the stream bed; Surface Flow is that part of water in a channel
flowing on the surface of the substrate.
FLUSH: A site around a streamlet or spring that is kept wet or moist ("flushed") by moving water.
FLUVIAL: Pertaining to streams or produced by stream action.
FOOD WEB: The interlocking pattern of feeding relationships in a community (G from Begon et al.).
FOREST: (1) Generally, an ecosystem characterized by a more or less dense and extensive tree cover. (2) More particularly,
a plant community predominately of trees and other woody vegetation, growing more or less closely together.
FOREST COVER: (1) All trees and other plants occupying the ground in a forest, i.e. including any ground cover. NOTE: Is
the silviculturist's crop viewed from the ecologist's angle. (2) All woody growth occupying the ground in a forest, as
distinct from the ground cover NOTE: Is the silviculturist's forest crop viewed from the ecologist's angle. (3) A category
of forest site, including all the interchangeable phases of vegetation that it supports, defined mainly by the general nature
of the ground cover. NOTE: As originally developed by Cajander for Finland.
FOREST FLOOR: A loose term for: (1) The surface layer of a soil supporting forest vegetation. (2) The organic-matter
system of the various forest soil types.
FOREST INFLUENCES: All the modifying effects of forest cover on the environment, particularly on water supplies, soil
and micro-climate.
FOREST OUTLIER: A area of forest separated from the main occurrence of its type, its presence being due generally to
some local variation in ecological conditions or to past migration of vegetation associated with major climatic changes.
NOTE: In tropical Africa, applied typically to an isolated area of high forest surrounded by savanna -almost always
associated with a stream and increased soil moisture- Postclimax.
FORM (A): (1) Officially, the category subordinate in rank to that of variety within the hierarchy of plants - TAXON. (2)
More generally, a sporadic variant distingujished by a single or very few correlated characters, without a distinct
distribution area, e.g. flower color, the variations from type being less, and considered of less imporatnce, than those
shown by varieties. NOTE: They may be phenotypes or genotypes.
FORMATION: (1) In the oldest and widest sense, a major unit of vegetation comprising all plant communities that resemble
each other in appearance and in major features of the environment, e.g. tropical rain forest, reed swamp ASSOCIATION. (2) Clements' term for the climatic climax of a "natural area." (3) Tansley's term for a group of climax
communities that resemble each other in appearance and in major features of their enivornment within a single floristic
region. NOTE: The term has also been used with other special ecological meanings.
FUME DAMAGE: Strictly, injury from gases or vapors, e.g. from smetler, but loosely used to include smoke also.
GAMETE: A male or female reproductive cell, typically the product of meiosis, capable of uniting in the process of
fertilization with one of the opposite sex.
GAP DYNAMICS: The change in space and time in the pattern, frequency, size, and successional processes of forest canopy
gaps caused by the fall of one or more canopy trees (G).
GAR(R)IGUE: Low, generally open, scrub, representing the remains fo Mediterranean schlerophyllous woodland or maquis
(but neither as tall or as dense as the latter), found particularly in the south of France.
GENE FLOW: The consequence of cross-fertilization between members of a species across boundaries between populations,
or within populations, which results in the spread of genes across and between populations (Begon et al.).
GENUS: A taxonomic rank of closely-related organisms that is below the FAMILY and is subdivided into one or more
SPECIES (G from Walker).
GEOPHYTE: A land plant whose buds destined to survive the unfavorable season, lie below the ground surface. NOTE: One
of the (cryptophytic) life-forms of Raunkiaer.
GRADATION: (1) The whole rise and fall of a population, e.g. of a biotype or an organism. (2) Build-up of an epidemicGRADE.
GRADIENT ANALYSIS: The analysis of species composition along a gradient of environmental conditions (Begon et al.).
GRAFTING: Placing a portion-the scion-of one plant in close cambial contact with the cambial layer of another plant or
another part of the same plant (generally rooted), with the object or securing vegetative union between the two, the scion
being detached from its parent plant either before or after the operation. NOTE: (1) Both the site of union and the
composite individual are termed grafts. (2) The genotype, but not necessarily the phenotype of the rootstock and the
8
scion, remains unchanged after grafting. (3) Vegetative union occurring naturally is termed a natural graft; commonest
between roots (root graft).
GROSS PRIMARY PRODUCTION: The total assimilation of inorganic nutrients in a plant community per unit of time Cf.
NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION.
GROUND COVER: Herbaceous plants (including grasses and ferns) and the lowest shrubs occupying an area. NOTE: This is
the botanist's field layer. Bryophytes and lower forms of vegetation may be distinguished as the ground layer. - ground
flora. Cf. FOREST COVER, VEGETATIVE COVER, RANGE PLANT COVER, COVER CROP.
GROUNDWATER: Water located in interstitial areas below the Earth's surface. Groundwater is recharged by infiltration,
and enters streams through seepage and springs.
GROUNDWATER BUDGET: The summation of the movement of water into and out of a groundwater reservoir during a
specified period of time.
GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE: Flow of water from the groundwater reservoir onto the surface.
GROUNDWATER RECHARGE: Flow of water from the surface into the groundwater reservoir.
GROWTH FORM: The characteristic general appearance--shape, posture, and mode of growth, rather than size or color--of
an organism. NOTE: With plants, preferably termed the (growth) habit, e.g. pyramidal and erect, bushy and procument LIFE-FORM.
GUILD: A group of species that exploit the same class of functional resources in a similar way (Begon et al.).
GULF: The portion of an ocean or sea partly enclosed by lant. A deep hollow or chasm.
GYMNOSPERMAE, GYMNOSPERMS: The botanical name for the group of vascular flowering plants that produce seeds
not enclosed in an overy, the most important order of which is the Coniferales. Cf. ANGIOSPERMAE.
HABITAT: (1) NATURAL RANGE- The unit area of environment. (2) SITE- The abode, natural or otherwise, of a plant or
animal, considered particularly in relation to all the environmental influences affecting it. The place where a plant and/or
animal population lives and its surroundings, both living and nonliving; includes the provision of life requirements such
as food and shelter. It is the environment where a plant or animal will naturally be found.
HABITAT QUALITY (SUITABILITY) INDICES: The overall rating of the quality or quantity of plant or animal habitat.
HABITAT TYPE: A land or aquatic unit, consisting of an aggregation of habitats having equivalent structure, function, and
responses to disturbance.
HALOPHYTE: A plant that is more or less restricted to saline soil or to sites that are influenced by salt water. Cf.
HELOPHYTE.
HARDWOOD: A conventional term for the timber of broad-leaved trees, and the trees themselves, belonging to the botanical
group Angiospermae. NOTE: (1) Hardwoods are almost invariably distinguished from softwoods by the presence of
vessels in their timbers, irrespective of physical hardness or softness in either case. (2) In countries where coniferous
species are of little commercial significance, the terms hardwood and softwood are commonly used in their literal
significance, i.e. hardwod, soft wood; the hardwoods have been differentiated into the naturally durable "primary"
hardwoods and "secondary" hardwoods, both of which are physically hard and strong enough for heavy constructional
purposes but the latter requiring preservative treatment if used in exposed positions. In India and elsewhere the lighter
hardwoods have often been termed "soft" or "light" hardwoods. The Malaysian Grading Rules (1960) recognize the
weight -categories "heavy," "medium" and "light," the latter requiring preservative treatment for exposed positions in the
tropics, while "heavy" hardwood are naturally durable.
HARDY-WEINBERG MODEL: A set of assumptions that predict constant allele frequencies over time in populations that
meet the assumptions (G from Hartl).
HEADWATERS: The upper tributaries of a drainage basin.
HELOPHYTE: A cryptophyte that exclusively, or at any rate mainly, grows in soil saturated with water or in the water itself,
and from which leaf-and flower-bearing shoots emerge. NOTE: Helophytes do not include all the plants ordinarily
known as marsh plants.
HEMICRYPTOPHYTE: A land plant whose shoots die back to ground level at the beginning of the unfavorable season,
leaving the perennating resting buds at the soil surface - Cryptophyte. NOTE: One of the major lifeforms of Raunkiaer.
HERBIVORY: The consumption of living plant material (Begon et al.).
HIBERNATION: Passing the winter or cold season in a dormant condition, reflecting greatly reduced metabolic activity; e.g.
certain mammalia, and deciduous plants. Cf. AESTIVATION.
HIGH MOOR: A type of bog in which both the vegetation and the peat have low nutrient status, the vegetation having
developed either on basin sites receiving run-off water poor in minerals and in N ( as from coarse or siliceos soils) or in
sites in a cool humid climate (as in higher latitudes) where heavy precipitation has leached most of the nutrients from the
soil and caused waterlogging for much of the year, creating a blanket bog of blanket peat. Cf. BOG. NOTE: (1)
Sphagnume spp. and Ericaceous shrubs are typical of high moor vegetation in the Northern Temperate Zone. (2) The
raised bog is a specieal form of high moor, in which the peat accumulation in the centre of the bog is greater than at its
9
edges, giving rise to a cross-section like an inverted saucer's. The central portion is thus raised above the natural
groundwater level, becomes soles dependent upon precipitation, and is therefore exceedingly low in plant nutrients.
HYBRID: Any cross-bred animal or plant.
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT: (1) The slope of the water. (2) The drop in pressure head per length in the direction of stream
flow.
HYDRAULIC HEAD: The height of the free surface of a body of water above a given point beneath the surface, or the
height of the water level at an upstream point compared to the height of the water surface at a given location
downstream.
HYDROLOGIC BUDGET: A compilation of the total water inputs and outputs to and from a lake.
HEATH: (1) An open, uncultivated tract with sandy or gravelly soil supporting low vegetation (typically coarse grasses and
Ericaceae) and occasionally scattered tree growth, particularly Pine; considerably drier than moor. (2) Vegetation
developing on poor, usually acid, sandy or gravelly soils in the lowlands and dominated by heathers (Calluna spp. and
Erica spp.).
HYDROPHIL(E): Of organisms inhabiting water or wet land.
HYDROPHYTE: A cryptophyte which survives the unfavorable season by means of buds that live at the bottom of the water;
the vegetative shoots remain submerged, only the flowers and inflorescences rising above the surface.
HYGRIC: Of sites or habitats characterizd by decidedly moist or wet conditions.
HYGROPHIL(E): Of organisms inhabiting moist sites.
HYGROPHYTE: A plant that is more or less restricted to moist sites.
HYPER-PARASITIZATION: Parasitization of a parasite, i.e. by a hyperparasite.
HYPOLIMNION: The bottom layer of a stratified lake that is isolated from the atmosphere and more or less ocld in the
summer (G from Wetzel).
HYPSITHERMAL PERIOD: A post-glacial interval, about 9000-25000 years before present, during which mean
temperatures were above existing at the present time (Lincoln and Boxshall).
IMPORTANCE VALUE: An index of the relative abundance of a species in a given community (G).
INDEX OF BIOTIC INTEGRITY (IBI): A measure of the degree to which water or forest resource quality on a site deviates
from that expected on relatively undisturbed sites.
INDICATOR PLANT: Any plant that, by its presence, its frequency or its vigor, indicates any particular property of the site-particularly but by no means exclusively, of the soil
INDIGENOUS: Native to a specified area or region, not introduced.
INFILTRATION: The process by which water moves from a surface body into the groundwater system.
INTRODUCED SPECIES: Established plants and animals not native to the ecosystem, region, or country.
ISLAND: A tract of land completely surrounded by water or by another distinctive vegetation cover, dissimilar from the
specific tract.
ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY: The study of theories relating to the rates of colonization and extinction on ecological
"islands" and how the rates vary with island size and distance from the source of colonists (G).
K-SELECTION: Selection of life-history traits that promote an ability to make a large proportionate contribution to a
population which stays close to its carrying capacity (Begon et al.).
KEYSTONE PREDATOR: A predator that increases the diversity of a system by selective predation or competitively
superior species (G).
KRUMMHOLZ: The shrubby, multi-stemmed form assumed by trees near treeline (G).
LACUSTRINE: Relating to lakes (G). Pertaining to standing bodies of water.
LAGOON: A small, pondlike body of water, especially communicating with a larger body; an area of shallow water
separated from the sea by a low bank; a settling pond for treatment of wastewater.
LAKE: A body of fresh or saline water of considerable size completely surrounded by land.
LANDSCAPE: A spatial mosaic of several ecosystems or patches in different stages of succession (G).
LANDSLIDE: Fall or slide of soil, debris or rock on or from a steep slope.
LEAF AREA INDEX: All of the upper surfaces of elaves projected downward to a unit area of ground beneath the canopy
(Waring and Schlesinger).
LENTIC: Still water (G). Organisms living in a swamp, pond, lake or any other standing water (H).
LIFE FORM: (1) A Raunkiaer term for one of his selectively morphological categories, which are based mainly on the
position and nature of the resting buds that survive any period(s) unfavorable to growth, e.g. a cold or a dry season. (2)
More generally, one of a series of classes based on the characteristic vegetative shape and appearance of a taxon.
LIFE TABLE: A summary of the age or life stage related to the survivorship of individuals in a population (Begon et al.).
10
LIMNETIC: The open water region of a body of water, specifically in areas too deep to support rooted aquatic vegetation.
LITTORAL: The onshore area of body of water, extending from the shore to the limits of rooted aquatic plants.
LOGISTIC EQUATION: A sigmoid population growth model without effects of a competitor:
dN
⎡ N⎤
= rN ⎢1 - ⎥
dt
⎣ K⎦
where: dN/dt = population growth rate; r = intrinsic rate of increase; n = population size; K = carrying capacity (G from
Odum and Begon et al.)
LOTIC: Flowing water (G). Living in a brook, stream, or river (H).
LOTKA-VOLTERRA EQUATIONS: A set of models of population growth based on the logistic equation and modified for
the effects of competition and predation (G).
LOW MOOR: A type of fen composed of peat or muck soil, formed in eutrophic or mesotrophic waters (generally the
drainaged from a surrounding catchment area into a basin site, commonly a former lake) and therefore relatively rich in
minerals - which is reflected in the type of vegetation. Cf. FEN. NOTE: Named in contrast to high moor.
MACRONUTRIENTS: Chemical elements (not including carbon, hydrogen, or oxygen) needed in relatively large amounts
by organisms: Ca, K, Mg, N, P, (G from Spurr & Barnes).
MANGROVE SWAMP: A swampy or tidal area dominated by tropical trees or shrubs of the genera Rhizophora and
Avicennia. Primarily an area with abundant development of interlacing adventitious roots above ground.
MAQUIS: Scrub vegetation, generally rather dense, composed of much branches, thorny, and often aromatic shrubs, found in
the Mediterranean region in areas where climax forest has been destroyed.
MARL: A calcareous material composed principally of carbonate derived from photosynthetic activity of algae and mollusk
shells, light grey in color.
MARSH: A water-saturated, poorly drained wetland area, periodically or permanently inundated to a depth of up to 2 m (6.6
feet) that supports an extensive cover of emergent, non-wood vegetation, essentially without peat-like accumulations. A
tract characterized by a predominantly inorganic soil, supporting low vegetation, characteristically Monocotyledons; less
acid and less continuously wet than a bog - often only intermittently inundated. NOTE: (2.1) In tidal area, is termed a salt
marsh, tidal marsh. [USA]. (2.2) [England] Where low-lying, with a high organic, generally alkaline soil, is termed a
FEN.
MESIC: Of sites or habitats characterized by intermediate moisture conditions, i.e. neither decidedly wet or decidedly dry.
MESOPHILE: Of organisms inhabiting sites that are neither decidedly wet nor decidedly dry.
MESOPHYTE: A plant whose normal habitat is neither very wet nor very dry, i.e. is mesophytic.
MESOTROPHIC: Habitats of moderate nutrient capacity. A water body or wetland with productivity intermediate between
oligotrophic and eutrophic.
METALIMNION: The water layer of a stratified lake between the epilimnion and the hypolimnion characterized by a steep
themral gradient (G from Wetzel).
METAPOPULATION: A subpopulation of a species linked to other subpopulations by more or less restricted migration (G).
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY: The ecology of microorganisms, especially their roles in nutrient cycling, decomposition (G), and
tree growth.
MICROCLIMATE: (1) Generally, the climate of small area, especially in so far as this differs significantly from the general
climate of the region. (2) More particularly, the climate under a plant or other cover, differing e.g. in extremes of
temperature and moisture from the climate outside that cover.
MICROHABITAT: That specific combination of habitat elements in the locations selected by organisms for specific
purposes and/or events. Expresses the more specific and functional aspects of habitat and cover. Separated from
adjoining microhabitats by distinctive physical characteristics.
MIOMBO: Deciduous or semi-deciduous open forest of Brachystegia and/or Isoberlinia species with a grassy root, widely
distributed in Africa south of the equator (GFA).
MIRE: Slimy soil or deep mud; also used for swampy ground, bogs or marshes.
MITIGATION: Action takent to alleviate potential adverse effects on wetlands and fish habitat undergoing modification.
Also commonly used to mean compensation for damage done. In this usage, in-kind mitigation is replacement of one
kind with another (lake for stream or one species for another).
MONOCARPIC: Fruiting only once in its life, e.g. annuals.
MONOCLIMAX THEORY: The hypothesis that in any one environment there can be only one climax community, in
contrast to the hypothesis that there can be several (polyclimax theory).
11
MOOR: An open, uncultivated tract with a more or less peaty soil supporting low vegetation, typically coarse grasses, sedges
and with Sphagnum and cotton "grasses" at higher and wetter elevations; less dry than heath and at its wettest, a bog.
MUSKEG: A bog, usually a Sphagnum bog, frequently with tussocks of deep accumulations of organic material, growing in
wet, poorly drained boreal areas, often areas of permafrost. A tract of partly-forested peatland supporting mosses
(particularly Sphagnum), shrubby plants (particularly Ericaceae) and scattered Picea and Larix trees. Also the peat itself
on such a tract.
MINIMAL AREA: The smallest area that displays the characteristic features of a plant community. NOTE: In European
ecology, often the smallest area on which the species of a plant community are adequately represented, i.e. much smaller
in extent than in the general definition above.
MUTUALISM: An interaction between the individuals of two or more species in which the growth, growth rate, an/or
population size of both are increased in a reciprocally beneficial association (Begon et al.).
MYCORRHIZAE: (1) The phenomenon of the probably symbiotic, or at least non-parastitic, association between the root or
rhizome of a green plant and a fungus. (2) Also the structure so produced, i.e. by the combination of the modified rootlet
with fungal tissue. Cf. ECTOMYCORRIHIZA, ENDOMYCORRYZA, ECTENDOMYCORRHIZA.
MYRMECOPHYTE: Of the plants that offer specialized shelter or food for ants, i.e. Formicidae; a plant pollinated by ants
(H).
NATIVE SPECIES: Indigenous species that is normally found as part of a particular ecosystem; a species that was present in
a defined area prior to European settlement.
NATURAL PRUNING: The natural death of branches on the stem of a tree from such causes as decay, or deficiency of light
or water (self-pruning), or snow, ice and wind breakage.
NATURAL RANGE: The geographical and altitudinal limits within which an organism occurs naturally - DISPERSAL.
NATURALIZED: Alien species that have become successfully established (H); when a species that is not native to a certain
area grows, reproduces and maintains itself.
NAVIGABLE: Generally, waters used by humans for transportation. Legally, interstate waters; intrastate lakes, rivers and
streams which are utilized by interstate travelers for recreational or other purposes; intrastate lakes, rivers and streams
from which fish or shellfish are taken and sold in interstate commerce; and intrastate lakes, rivers and streams which are
utilized for industrial purposes by industries in interstate commerce.
NEMATODES: Roundworms in the phylum Nematoda, mostly free-living in moist environments, but some are parastic (G
from Campbell).
NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION: Gross primary production minus biomass used in respiration by primary producers. The
amount of food in an ecosystem available for primary consumers (H).
NEUTRALISM: The lack of an interaction between two organisms (or species); neither has any effect on the other (Begon et
al.).
NICHE: (1) The ultimate unit of the habitat, i.e. the specific spot occupied by an individual organism. (2) By extension, the
or less specialized relationships existing between an organism, individual or synusia, and its enviornment. (3) The
specific set of environmental/habitat conditions that permit the full development and completion of the life cycle of an
organism (K) (4) the limits, for all important environmental variables, within which individuals of a species can survive,
grow, and reproduce.
NODUM: Any abstract classificatory unit of vegetation, irrespective of category or hierarchy; analogous to taxon in
systematic botany. Cf. COMMUNITY.
NON-NATIVE: See EXOTIC SPECIES.
NUTRIENT BUDGET: A model of nutrient cycling that calculates the mass per unit time of a nutrient that is input, exported,
and stored in a given system (G).
NUTRIENT CYCLE: The exchange of elements between the living and non-living components of an ecosystem.
NUTRIENT CYCLING: The transformation of chemical elements from inorganic form in the environment to organic form in
organisms, and back to inorganic form (Begon et al.).
OBLIGATE: A species that is limited in its habitat to few environmental conditions.
OLD GROWTH FOREST: Uncut virgin forest; A forest that has not undergone a stand-replacing disturbance such as logging
or a crown fire, such that succession has not occurred.
OLIGOTROPHIC: Habitats low in basic nutrients, characterized by a low accumulation of dissolved nutrient slats,
supporting only a limited plant and animal life, and having a high oxygen content owing to the low organic content.
OMNIVORY: The process of animals eating both plants and other animals. Feeding on prey from more than one trophic
level (Begon et al.).
ORIGINAL SOURCE: The location of a native plant or plants from which seed or popagules were collected.
OROPHYTE: A plant inhabiting hills and mountains.
12
OUTWASH: Material, chiefly sand or gravel, which is washed from a glacier by melt water from the glacier.
OUTWASH PLAIN: A flat area formed by sedimentation, carried to the site from a glacier and deposited by changes in
stream carrying capacity.
PALEOECOLOGY: The study of the relationships of past organisms and the environment in which they lived. Also:
palaeoecology.
PARASITE: An organism (plant or animal) that lives in or on another living organism of a different kind (HOST) and derives
subsistence from it without returning any benefit.
PARASITISM: The mode of life of a parasite, i.e. as between it and its host. Cf. PARASITIZATION.
PARASITIZATION: The act of infestation by a parasite.
PARASITOID: Free-living insects that lay eggs on or near an insect host, after which the parasitoid larva develops inside the
host, consuming it before or during the pupal stage (G from Begon).
PARK: A relatively small opening of grassland in a forest.
PARTHENOCARPY: The development of a fruit without fertilization, as in the banana. NOTE: Similar development of a
(seedless) cone has been termed parthenocony.
PATANA: A xerophytic grassy slope in the Ceylon upland - SAVANNA.
PEAT BOG: A bog with the dominant underlying material of peat. See also BOG.
PELAGIC: Relating to the open ocean (G). Open water areas away from the shore and the bottom. Growing at or near the
surface in water away from the shore.
PENEPLAIN: A nearly flat, land surface, particularly one formed by erosion - plantation.
PERCHED GROUND WATER: Ground water that is separated from the main body of ground water by unsaturated material.
PERENNIAL: A species that persists for several years.
PERIPHYTON (AUFWUCHS): Attached microscopic organisms growing on a lake bottom, or on other submerged
substrates.
PHANEROPHYTE: (1) A land lant whose buds and shoot apices destined to survive the unfavorable season project into the
air on stems that persist from year to year and often for many years. NOTE: One of the major (non-cryptophytic) life
forms of Raunkiaer. (2) Of subdivisions by size, a phanerophyte 2m high is termed nanophanerophyte, one >30m a
megaphanerophyte.
PHREATOPHYTE: A plant that derives its water supply from groundwater and is more or less independent of precipitation,
e.g. much riparian vegetation, particularly trees.
PHYLLOSPHERE: The micro-environment of leaves.
PHYLOGENY: The evolutionary history of an organism or a taxonomic group, e.g. a species. Cf. ONTOGENY.
PHYTOGRAPH: A polygonal figure depicting the role of a species in a plant community, the polygon being formed by
straight lines connecting points representing values on each of the chosen axes. NOTE: The axes may represent such
pertinent, quantitative data as basal area, frequency, and canopy density for trees size class.
PHYTOPLANKTON: The plant portion of plankton. Microscopic plants, typically algae, suspended in the water column and
subject to movement by waves and current.
PIEDMONT: Situated or formed at the foot of a mountain.
PIONEER: (1) A plant capable of invading bare sites (e.g. a newly exposed soil surface) and persisting there, i.e.
"colonizing" them, until supplanted, by successional species. NOTE: Pioneers often invade in large numbers and over
considerable areas - ECESIS. (2) By extension, any new arrival in the early stages of succession, generally with
particular reference to certain species whose presence appears to promost the establishment of more exacting species.
PLANKTON: Microorganisms suspended in the water having little or not power of locomotion carried by waves, currents
and other movements of water. Macroplankton: Over 500 microns, Microplankton: 50-500 microns, Nannoplankton: 1050 microns, Ultraplankton: 0.5 to 10 microns.
PLAYA: A marsh found on high plains in Texas and New Mexico.
POCOSIN: An upland swamp or bog of the Coastal Plain of the Southeastern United States.
POLLUTION: The presence of matter or energy whose nature, location or quantity produces undesired environmental
effects.
POND: Body of standing water smaller than a lake.
POTABLE: Suitable or safe for drinking.
PRAIRIE: An extensive tract of level or rolling land that was originally treeless and grass covered. NOTE: (1) Generally
characterized by a deep fertile soil. (2) Similar but generally infertile tracts in S. America are termed llano north of the
Amazon, and pampa south of it; in Asia, steppe, in S. Africa high veld(t).
PRAIRIE POTHOLE: Pothole marsh or depression formed by glaciers and located in Minnesota , Iowa, North Dakota, and
South Dakota in the U.S. and in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba in Canada.
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PREDATOR MEDIATED COEXISTENCE: The coexistence of species in a community, one or more of which would have
become competitively excluded were it not for the presence of a keystone predator (G).
PRODUCTION: (1) The process of producing organic material (2) The increase in biomass, by individuals, species, or
species groupings, over time, such as the total amount of fish tissue elaborated by a population of fish within a specified
period of time.
PRODUCTIVITY: The rate at which biomass is produced per unit area by any class of organisms (Begon et al.). Rate of new
tissue formation or energy utilization by one or more organisms. Capacity or ability of an environmental unit to produce
organic material. The ability of a population to recruit new members by reproduction.
PROFUNDAL: The deep, bottom-water area beyond the depth of effective light penetration. All of the lake floor beneath the
hypolimnion.
PROPAGULE: Any spore, seed, fruit or other part of a plant or microorganism capable of producing a new plant and used as
a means of dispersal Cf. RAMET (H).
PSAMMOPHYTE: A plant growing in sands or sandy soils - EREMOPHYTE.
PYROPHYTE: A species that is adapted to survive severe fires, - FIRE CLIMAX.
QUAKING BOG: Accumulation of organic matter and living organisms in the littoral zone that overtops and floats on open
water.
QUADRAT: A small, clearly demarcated, sample area of known size on which ecological observations are made . NOTE: (1)
The term was originally applied to square areas, but now frequently to rectangles and even circles. (2) The area generally
a square decimetre, a square mile or a milacre.
r-SELECTION: Selection of life-history traits which promote an ability to multiply rapidly in numbers (Begon et al.).
RAIN FOREST: Evergreen forest associated with a climate characterized by continual high humidit and abundant rainfall
and a short or no dry season. NOTE: Commonly applied, in a restricted sense, to tropical forests with an annual rainfall
80in and abundant epiphytes and climbers, e.g. equatiorial rain forest. Cf. MONSOON FOREST.
RAIN SHADOW: An area to the leeward of a high land mass, particularly a mountain range, which receives less rain than
would be expected had the hihg land mass not been upwind of it. NOTE: What it receives is mainly the residue of
orographic rain.
RAISED BOG: Accumulation of organic matter with excellent capillarity that raises water level in the mat which can result
in the bog being raised above the original surface level; a bog that occurs in level terrain that is dome-shaped as a reesult
of greater peat accumulation towards the center.
RAMET: An individual member of a clone, as an offshoot of a plant reproducing by stolons.
RANDOM QUADRATS: Random placement of fixed sampling areas in which to conduct vegetation research.
RANGE - (1) The area in which a plant naturally lives and reproduces; the known geographical distribution of a plant or
animal during a defined period of time. (2) The area in which an animal seeks.
RE-ENTRANT: An introversion of land levels, as exemplified by bays, inlets and valleys and delineated in map contours, in
contrast to their extroversion, i.e. extension, as in capes, promontories and spurs.
RELEVE METHOD: (1) A method of vegetation classification that groups classes by presence and abundance of
characteristic species that are neither ubiquitous nor rare - typically a European methodology - (Braun - Blanquet
method). (2) a method of systematic and comprehensive searches through an area to collect information on species
diversity.
REMOTE SENSING: An explicitly spatial method of using satellite imagery to conduct ecological research and decisionmaking (G).
RESILIENCE: The ability with which a community returns to its former state after disturbance (Begon et al.).
RESTORATION ECOLOGY: The restoration of derelict land to the exact state it was in previous to the disturbance (G).
RHIZOSPHERE: The micro-environment of roots; the area of soil immediately surrounding and influenced by plant roots.
RIPARIAN: Of, pertaining to, situated, or dwelling on the margin of a river or other body of water. Trees forming a strip
along a watercourse may be termed gallery forest. Vegetation growing along the seashore or a very large lake is termed
littoral.
RIPARIAN AREA: Terrestrial areas where the vegetation complex and microclimate conditions are products of the
combined presence and influence of perennial and/or intermittent water, the associated high water tables and soils which
exhibit some wetness characteristics. Also called Riparian Zone or Riparian Habitat.
RIFT VALLEY: A long, narrow valley resulting from subsidence of strata between more or less parallel faults, or form the
elevation of strat outside the latter.
RIVERVAIN: Of vegetation growing in the close proximity of watercourses, or on small islands in river beds.
RUDERAL: A plant that grows on wasteland, old fields, waysides, etc. - PIONEER.
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SAVANNA: Essentially lowland, tropical and subtropical grassland, generally with a scattering of trees and/or shrubs.
NOTE: If woody growth is absent, termed grass savanna; with shrubs and widely, irregularly scattered trees, tree
savanna. Cf. SAVANNA WOODLAND, PRAIRIE.
SAVANNA WOODLAND: A more or less open, tropical or subtropical woodland having an undergrowth mainly of grasses,
the trees being of moderate height and generally deciduous or, if evergreen, tending to have small leaves - SAVANNA,
llano.
SCION. Any unrooted portion of a plant used for grafting or budding onto a rootstock. NOTE: Shoots of woody plants from
which scion are cut are termed scionwood.
SCLEROPHYLLOUS FOREST: Forest characterized by the prevalence of species having leathery, generally small, leaves
and developed in a climate with relatively cold/wet and hot/dry seasons.
SCLEROPHYTE: A plant with thick, hard leaves--generally small, evergreen and xerophytic.
SCRUB: (1) Inferior growth consisting of small or stunted trees and/or shrubs, generally of unmerchantable species. NOTE:
Where the trees are sufficiently numerous, termed scrub forest. (2) Any woody growth of low economic potentiality.
SEICHE: A sudden oscillation of the water of a lake, bay, etc., causing fluctuations in the water level and caused by wind,
earthquakes, etc.
SELECTION: (1) Non-random differential reproduction of different genotypes (H). NOTE: natural selection is the process
by which the genetic makeup of a population changes allowing for a better adapted phenotype to be produced (K) (2)
Plant(s) that display one or more desirable characteristics and are selecteed for a specific use.
SERAL STAGE: A temporal and intermediate stage in the process of succession.
SHANNON DIVERSITY INDEX: A measure of the diversity of a community:
S
H = ∑ Pi ln Pi
i =1
where H = Shannon diversity index; S = species richness (number of species); Pi = proportion abundance contributed by the
ith species to the total (Begon et al.).
SHEET EROSION: Erosion of a fairly homogenous layer of material; may be imperceptible, particularly when caused by
wind, or else evidenced by numerous fine rills. Cf. RILL EROSION - SHEET FLOW.
SHRUB: A woody, perennial plant differing from a perennial herb in its persistent and woody stem, and less definitely from
a tree in its lower stature and the general absence of a well-defined main stem. NOTE: Dwarf shrubs, e.g. of the genus
Calluna, are termed suffruticose.
SINK: A depression; a lowlying, poorly drained area or hhole formed by the dissolution of underlying rock, wehre waters
collect or disappear by sinking down into the ground or by evaporation.
SLIP EROSION: A sliding downhill of the mantle rock, as a whole. NOTE: The large-scale, spectacular forms of this are
termed landslips.
SLOUGH: (1) Low, swampy ground or overflow channels where water flows sluggishly for considerable distanes. (2) Side
channel slough formed by channelization. (3) A sluggish channel of water, such as a side channel of a stream, in which
water flows slowly through low, swampy ground, or a section of an abandone stream channel containing water most or
all of the year, but with flow only at high water, and occurring in a flood plain or delta. (4) A marshy tract lying in a
shallow, undrained depression on a piece of dry ground (5) A term used for a creek or sluggish body of water in a
bottomland.
SITE: An area considered in terms of its environment, particularly as this determines the type and quality of the vegetation
the area can carry. NOTE: Sites are classified either qualitatively, by their climate, soil and vegetation, into site types, or
quantitatively, by their potential wood production, into site classes.
SOCIABILITY: The tendency of organisms to grow together with others of the same kind. NOTE: Expressed by BraunBlanquet on an arbitrary numerical scale from 1 (growing singly) to 5 (growing in great crowds or pure populations).
SOCIES: Clement's term for the seral equivalent of a society.
SOCIETY: Clement's term for a localized climax community, occurring within an area controlled by a single or a few
dominant species, which is characterized by a single subdominant species. NOTE: A society may constitute a seasonal
aspect or a synusia of the larger community of which it is a component. Cf. ASSOCIATION
SPECIATION: The formation of a new species by evolution. (G)
SPECIES: The main category of taxonomic classification into which genera are subdivided, comprising a group of similar
individuals having a number of correlated characters. NOTE: (1) There is generally a sterility barrier between species or
at least reduced fertility in interspecific hybrids. (2) The species is the basic unit of taxonomy, on which the binomial
system has been established.
SPECIES INVASION: The immigration and establishment of a species in an area it did not previously occupy. (G)
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SPECIES RICHNESS: The number of species present in a community, ecosystem, landscape, region, etc.
SPECIES-AREA CURVE: The graph of species versus area that describes the asymptotic growth in number of species
encountered as the area sampled increases. (G)
STABILITY: The extent to which the variation in some characteristic of an ecological system is less than the variation in
those environmental variables which influence that characteristic. (Putman)
STAGE STRUCTURE: The demographic distribution of a population based on developmental stages rather than absolute
age. (G)
STATION: (1) According to Braun-Blanquet, the exact place of occurrence of a species or individual within a given habitat
(B.B and P). (2) A circumscribed area representing a complete and definite ensemble of conditions of existence, as
reflected in the uniformity of the vegetation. -- STAND
STENOTHERMIC: Of organisms having or tolerating a small range of temperature.
STREAM ORDER: A hierarchical ordering of streams based on the degree of branching. A first-order stream is an unforked
or unbranched stream. Two first orders flow together to make a second order; two second orders combine to make a
third-order stream.
SUBALPINE: The highest elevation mountainous areas that can support forests. (G)
SUBCLIMAX: The (seral) stage in plant succession immediately preceding the climax.
SUBDOMINANT: (1) A component of a community, typically a species, which, though locally (co)dominant, exerts much
less dominance than the widespread dominant does.
SUBLITTORAL ZONE: The part of a shore from the lowest water level to the lower boundary of plant growth; transition
zone from the littoral to profundal.
SUBSPECIES: A category intermediate in rank between species and variety, based on a smaller number of correlated
characters than are used to differentiate species and generally conditioned by geographical and/or ecological occurrence.
NOTE: (1) It generally has a larger number of correlated characters than are used to differentiate variaties and also a
wider geographical occurrence. (2) Subspecies are fully interfertile.
SUCCESSION: The gradual supplanting of one community of plants by another, the sequence of communities being termed
a sere and each stage seral. NOTE: (1) A sere whose first stage is open water is termed a hydrosere, one whose first stage
is dry ground, a xerosere. (2) Succession is primary (by pioneers) on sites that have not previously borne vegetation,
secondary after the whole or part of the original vegetation has been supplanted; allogenic when the causes of succession
are external to and independent of the community (e.g., accretion of soil by wind or water, or a change of climate); and
autogenic when the developing vegetation is itself the cause.
SUPERORGANISM: The behavior of a population or community as if it were one organism. (G)
SUPRALITTORAL ZONE: The portion of the shore adjacent to the water's edge.
SURVIVORSHIP CURVE: A plot of percent survival in a cohort over time resulting in a curve whose shape identifies the
competitive strategy (r- or K-selection) of a species. (G)
SWALE: A moist or marshy depression [USA], particularly in prairie.
SWAMP: (1) Generally, a more or less permanently wet, uncultivated tract whose soil has a considerable percentage of
vegetable matter. (2) More particularly, a tract characterized by a soil that is slightly acid, neutral, or slightly alkaline,
and a water table at or above the soil surface (the water often moving perceptibly), supporting not only low vegetation,
e.g., sedges (Cyperaceae), but also reeds (e.g., Arundo, Phragmites) and woody vegetation, including trees. NOTE: In
tidal areas, is termed a tidal swamp. Cf. BOG, MARSH. (3) Tree or tall shrub dominated wetlands that are characterized
by periodic flooding and nearly permanent subsurface water flow through mixtures of mineral sediments and organic
materials, essentially without peat accumulation.
SYMBIOSIS: A relationship between two or more kinds of living organisms wherein all (the symbionts) benefit and which is
sometimes obligatory for all. NOTE: (1) A non-obligatory relationship may be termed proto-cooperation. (2) In the
extreme condition of conjunctive symbiosis, the symbionts form a single body or organ, as in mycorrhizae and lichens.
SYNUSIA: Any component of a community of one or more species, belonging to the same life-form, having similar
environmental requirements and occurring in similar habitat, e.g., lianes in forest and including stratified communities,
e.g., a layer of moss plants.
TAIGA: Northern, subarctic, coniferous forests of Europe, Asia, and North America, typically open or interspersed with
bogs, which form a transition zone between the denser forests to the south and the tundra to the north.
THEROPHYTE: A plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to ripe seed, within a single growth period, e.g., an
annual. NOTE: One of the life forms of Raunkiaer.
THICKET: (1) A dense growth of small trees, bushes, bamboos, canes, etc. (2) A sapling crop.
TIDAL: Within reach of the influence of tides.
TIDAL FLAT: Tide land that has little elevational variation, and is often muddy or marshy.
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TIDAL MARSH: Low, flat marshland traversed by interlaced channels and tidal sloughs and subject to tidal inundations;
normally, the only vegetation present is salt-tolerant bushes and grasses.
TOLERANCE: (1) The ability of an organism or biological process to subsist under a given set of environmental conditions.
NOTE: (1.1) The range of these under which it can subsist, representing its limits of tolerance, is termed its ecological
amplitude -- ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE. (1.2) For trees, the tolerance of most practical importance is their
ability to grow satisfactorily in the shade of, and in competition with, other trees; if intolerant of shade, they are termed
light demanders, if tolerant, shade bearers. (1.3) For wildlife, it is its ability to adjust to different or disturbed habitats.
TRANSECT: A narrow sample strip or a measured line taken through vegetation chosen for study; i.e., for analysis,
profiling, and charting -- VEGETATION PROFILE.
TREE LINE: A loose term for the limit beyond which trees cannot or do not occur. NOTE: (1) The limiting factor is most
commonly altitude or geographical latitude but may also be e.g., aridity, flooding, air pollution. (2) Tree line is most
generally used for the altitudinal boundary. (3) A distinction may be drawn between tree line and timber line, the latter
being roughly the limit of timber rather than isolated trees -- TUNDRA.
TROPHIC DYNAMICS: Energy flow through a community organized into several tropic levels (G from Begon et al.)
TROPHIC LEVEL: Position in the food chain assessed by the number of energy transfer steps to reach that level (Begon et
al.).
TROPOPHYTE: A plant that markedly changes its character, particularly its water requirements, with seasonal changes of
climate, e.g., a deciduous tree.
TUNDRA: The zone of low, arctic vegetation between the tree line of the taiga to the south and the region of perpetual ice
and snow. NOTE: The corresponding zone on high mountains may be termed mountain tundra.
TURNOVER: (1) The complete mixing of a lake that occurs when the epilimnion and hypolimnion become isothermal (G
from Wetzel). (2) in reference to the production and death of roots (usually fine roots) over a certain period of time.
TYPE SPECIMEN: (1) The original plant from which a description was drawn up. (2) The constituent part (i.e., an
individual) of a taxon to which a botanical name is permanently attached.
UPWELLING: The rise of deeper, nutrient-rich water to the surface of the ocean along coasts. (G)
VARIETY: (1) A category intermediate in rank between species or subspecies, and forma, given a Latin name preceded by
var., based on a smaller number of correlated characters than are used to differentiate species or subspecies and having a
more restricted geographical occurrence. NOTE: The hierarchy is forma. (2) Subdivision of a species having a distinct,
uniform, though often inconspicuous difference, and typically breeding true to that difference.
VEGETATION PROFILE: A diagram of the above-ground portions of plants along a line-transect presented in elevation,
i.e., in their natural positions in contrast to a chart quadrat which shows in plan the location of and areas covered by each
plant. NOTE: A similar diagram showing the whole of the plants, i.e., roots and shoots, in one or more vertical profiles is
termed a bisect.
VEGETATIVE COVER: A broad term comprising all the vegetation (trees, palms, bamboos, canes, shrubs, herbs, etc.)
occupying an area.
VIRGIN AREA: Any area in which there has been virtually no human disturbance (e.g., burning, cutting, grazing) of the
natural vegetation.
WATER BUDGET: The balance of all water moving into and out of a specified area in a specified period of time.
WATER TABLE: Depth below which the ground is saturated with water.
WATERSHED: The region or area drained by a river or other body of water.
WEED: A valueless, troublesome, or noxious plant, often exotic, growing wild, especially one growing profusely.
WEIR: (1) Notch or depression in a levee, dam, embankment, or other barrier across or bordering a stream, through which
the flow of water is measured or regulated. (2) A barrier constructed across a stream to divert fish into a trap. (3) A dam
(usually small) in a stream to raise the water level or divert its flow, with water flowing over the top of the structure.
WELL: A hole dug or drilled into the earth, or a natural spring source of water.
WETLAND: Land where saturation with water is the dominant factor determing the nature of soil development and the types
of plant and animal communities living in the soil and on its surface. Soil or substrate that are at least periodically
saturated with or covered by water, and differ from adjoining non-inundated areas. A general term for any poorlydrained, uncultivated tract, whatever its vegetation cover and soil.
WOODY DEBRIS. See COARSE WOODY DEBRIS.
XERIX: Of sites or habitats characterized by decidedly dry conditions.
XEROTHERMAL PERIOD: Hypsithermal period.
ZOOPLANKTON: Microscopic animals living within the water column. Cf. Plankton.
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References
Begon, M., J. Harper, and C. R. Townsend. 1990. Ecology, Individuals, Populations and Communities. 2nd ed. Blackwell
Scientific Publications, London. 945pp.
Eyre, F. H. 1980. Forest Cover Types. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC. 148pp.
Hartl, D. L. 1981. A Primer of Population Genetics. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 191pp.
Lawrence, E. (ed.). 1995. Henderson's Dictionary of Biological Terms. 11th Ed. Wiley & Sons, New York. 693pp.
Odum, E. P. 1971. Fundamentals of Ecology. 3rd ed. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia. 574pp.
Pickett, S. T. A., and P. S. White. 1985. The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics. Academic Press, New
York. 472pp.
Putman, R. J. 1994. Community Ecology. Chapman and Hall, London. 178pp.
Spurr, S. H., and B. V. Barnes. 1973. Forest Ecology. 2nd ed. Ronald, New York. 571pp.
Waring, R. H., and W. H. Schlesinger. 1985. Forest Ecosystems, Concepts and Management. Academic Press, Inc. 340pp.
Wetzel, R. G. 1983. Limnology. 2nd ed. Saunders College Publishing, Fort Worth, TX. 858pp.
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