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Unification Movements and World War I (2014)
Italy
At the Congress of Vienna in 1815 Italy was divided. Austria annexed part of Italy and
the rest of the country was fragmented into states controlled by Austria or ruled by monarchs.
Italian nationalism became a strong force in Italy in the early 1800s due to a revival in
Italian traditions. The nationalist movement had goals of liberation from monarchy and the
unification of Italy. The nationalist movement became known as Risorgimento (meaning
resurgence).
The first move toward Italian unification was led by the Young Italy Movement. In 1848,
Young Italy led a number of revolutions in areas of Italy; however, all were unsuccessful except
in Sardinia which remained independent. Still, Italian patriots agreed their chief aim was the
unification of Italy; they disagreed though on how to achieve this goal. Liberals like the Young
Italy Movement wanted to create an Italian republic while other groups wanted a constitutional
monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia.
In Sardinia, the chief minister (premier), not the king, actually governed the nation. The
premier in Sardinia was Count Camillo Cavour.
 He disliked absolutism and admired the British parliamentary government.
 He wanted a united Italy under the rule of Sardinia.
 Cavour also brought prominence to Sardinia when the region fought with Great
Britain and France in the Crimean War.
In 1860, the Italian peninsula became a target the “Red Shirts” who also wanted a united
Italy. With financial assistance from Cavour, the Red Shirts led a number of successful
revolutions in Italy. The Red Shirts and Cavour soon met and for the sake of Italian unification.
Both agreed to support the establishment of the kingdom of Italy under the rule of Victor
Emmanuel II. Unification was completed when Italy gained additional regions in the Seven
Weeks’ War in 1866. During the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon II was forced to leave
Rome where the city joined Italy and became the capital.
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Germany
For a number of years, Germany was a patchwork of independent states, each with its
own laws, currency, and rulers. In the late 1800s, Prussia took the lead in uniting these
states.
From 1806-1812, Napoleon dominated Prussia. Napoleon’s rule stimulated German
nationalism and now Germans appreciated their language, past, and traditions. In 1815, the
Congress of Vienna led to the creation of the German Confederation. Prussia was the
strongest of the German states.
In 1848, uprisings and nationalism in Germany called for liberal reforms. Demands of
liberals for a representative government failed. In 1861, William I became King of Prussia,
and appointed Bismarck as Prussia’s chancellor. Bismarck had several goals for Germany.
 Bismarck believed in the Prussian destiny to lead the German people to unification at
any cost. He was willing to use trickery, bribery, or military force to fulfill this destiny.
 He hated democracy and the liberals and idealists, calling them “…talkers and not
people of action.” Bismarck said that the German policy of unification could be carried
out not by “speeches and majorities…but [only through] iron and blood.”
 In 1866, Bismarck moved to drive Austria out of the German Confederation in the
Seven Weeks War. Prussia took advantage of modern technology and defeated Austria
in seven weeks. At the Treaty of Prague, Austria agreed to the dissolution of the German
Confederation and surrendered territory to Prussia. Germany now united under
Prussian rule.
On January 18, 1871, representatives of the allied German states met at Versailles to
formally unify Germany. From the palace, the official proclamation declared:
 The formation of the German Empire which included all of the German states
except Austria.
 The former capital of Prussia, Berlin, became the capital of Germany. King William I
of Prussia was proclaimed emperor of Germany. He appointed Bismarck as the new
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nation’s chancellor. Bismarck became known as the Iron Chancellor because of his
“iron and blood” policy. Despite his “iron and blood” policy, Bismarck is forced to
accept a constitution with a representative form of government (republic).
Bismarck wanted transform Germany into an industrial power. Germany contained a lot
of natural resources, including the coal and iron in the Ruhr Valley making the industrialization
of Germany much quicker. Under Bismarck’s leadership, the government helped industry in
many ways. Consequently, industrialization came later in Germany than Great Britain and
France proving to be an advantage for the German nation.
In 1888, William I died. Shortly after in 1890, his grandson, William II, came to power.
William II thought Bismarck was too powerful and forced the chancellor to resign. With
Bismarck gone, William II set out to expand Germany’s colonial empire.
 He was obsessed with making Germany a world power. Wilhelm’s ambitions
soured relations between Britain and Germany.
 Germany needed a large navy in order to acquire colonies worldwide. As a result,
William II increased the size of Germany’s army and navy (militarism) leading to a
“naval race” (militarism) with Great Britain between 1906 and 1914.
 Furthermore, William II created alliances with Germany’s neighbors making Germany
stronger than ever before. Britain, France, and Russia formed an alliance called the
Triple Entente to protect Europe against German aggression
France
After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, monarchs ruled France until a series of
Socialist Revolutions in 1848. Riots and revolts soon led to the establishment of a Second
French Republic with an elected president. In December 1848, voters elected the nephew of
Napoleon, Louis Napoleon, as the President of the French Republic. Louis Napoleon,
supported by the army, won consent to take the title Emperor Napoleon III. France came
under a new style of absolutism.
By opposing German unification, Napoleon III hoped to regain support of the French
people who distrusted Prussia. In 1870, the French Legislature, controlled by Napoleon III,
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declared war on Germany. The act started the Franco-Prussian War. France suffered
disastrous defeats and Napoleon III was captured by German forces. The French Legislature
declared an end to the Second Republic and created the Third Republic. The new government
tried to defend France but fell to the Prussians in 1871 signifying the end of the war.
The terms of the treaty forced France to up the territories of Alsace and Lorraine on the
French-German border.
In 1888, William I of Germany died. In 1890 William II came to power. William II set
out to expand Germany’s colonial empire. He was obsessed with making Germany a world
power. William II increased the size of Germany’s army and navy (militarism) creating
an “arms race” and “naval race” (militarism) between France and Great Britain.
Russia
By the mid-1800s, Russia had the largest territory and population of any European
nation. However, most of Russia’s natural resources were underdeveloped and its ports were
blocked by ice for much of the year. In addition, exits from the seas were controlled by
other countries.
Consequently, Russia was almost entirely landlocked. In the 1850’s Russia’s
geographical situation led to attempts to gain access to warm water ports in the
Mediterranean Sea, particularly through the Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea.
 Russian control of the Crimean would give the nation access to a warm water port
connected to the Mediterranean.
 The Crimean War between Russia and the French and English allies over port
access soon began. Russia was unsuccessful in the attempt to control the Crimean.
Even though the Russian Czar (king) was an autocrat (someone who holds absolute power),
liberalism and nationalism (conquered groups disliked Russian control) appealed to Russian
ethnic minorities. The conflicts within Russia lead to disunity among the Russian people.
Conquered groups were also dissatisfied with Russian rule.
In the 1830s, to counteract liberalism, the Russian government strictly censored speech and
the press and rejected all demands for a constitution.
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 To lessen the nationalist movements, Czar Nicholas I began a program of
Russification forcing all non-Russian peoples in the empire to use the Russian
language, accept the Orthodox religion, and adopt Russian customs.
During the 1860s, the Russian Czar, Alexander II, attempted liberal reforms like trial by
jury and emancipation for serfs. Still, several political groups carried on radical political
activities in Russia.
Some radical groups favored the use of terrorism (bombings and assassinations of high
officials by political groups) to force the government to grant their demands. In 1881,
Alexander II was assassinated by a Russian terrorist. The Czar’s assassination led to another
intensive campaign of repression. Future Czars used every available means to stamp out
liberalism. Alexander III and Nicholas II intensified Russification and severely persecuted
Jews in massacres called pogroms.
The attempts of the Russian government to suppress all of these varied aims produced an
explosive situation. Terrorism increased. By 1898, the Social Democratic Labor Party grew
increasingly radical in its demands on the Russian government.
Radical movements in Russia soon led to the rise of Communism/Scientific Socialism in
Russia. Communism is a form of Socialism which sees class struggle between employers
(“haves”) and employees (“have-nots”) as unavoidable.
“The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles between the
haves and the have-nots.”
Karl Marx, Fredrich Engels, Communist Manifesto (1848)
Based on the consequences of the industrial revolution, we know that Karl Marx is
considered the “Father of Communism” and he outlined, along with Fredrich Engels,
communist economic and political principles in the Communist Manifesto (1848).
Key ideas of Marx and Engels included:
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 Working class or Proletariat is taken advantage of by capitalist bosses to increase
profits.
 The Proletariat must overthrow the capitalists through violent, worldwide
revolution in order to solve the problem of class differences.
“The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to
win. Workingmen of all countries UNITE.”
 The Proletariat then establishes a CLASSLESS society where all wealth and power
are equally shared among people (“haves” and “have-nots).
 Private property is then abolished and government takes control of all means of
production (the process of creating products) thus becoming a Communist society.
By 1905, a series of events in Russia led to the implementation of Communism by 1920.
 Russo-Japanese War (1905) - Russia suffered a humiliating defeat by Japan- The
loss exposed a corrupt and inefficient Russian government spurring almost all of the
discontented groups in the country to action.
 January 22, 1905 (“Bloody Sunday”) military troops loyal to Czar Nicholas II shot at
a group of unarmed strikers on their way to deliver a petition to the czar. The incident
triggered the Revolution of 1905.
The revolutionary movement eventually failed to succeed for three main reasons:
 The army remained loyal to the Czar and thus would not overthrow the regime of
Nicholas II.
 The French, bound to Russia by military alliance, lent money to support the
government.
 The revolutionary groups remained divided in their goals.
Austria-Hungary
In 1821 Nationalist revolts in the Balkans (powder keg of Europe and part of the Ottoman
Empire) began to upset the balance of power in Europe. Foreign powers intervened for their
own best interests.
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 Greece revolted against the Ottoman Turks. Russia, Great Britain, and France forced
the Turks to grant Greek independence.
 Serbia, supported by Russia in hopes of gaining access to warm water ports and the
cultural similarities of the two regions, gained its independence from the Ottoman
Empire. Great Britain on the other hand supported the Ottoman Turks to prevent
a Russian challenge to British Sea power.
 Soon, both Greece and Serbia attempted territorial expansion, possibly upsetting the
balance of power in Europe.
 The Ottoman Empire shrank dramatically. Possessions either revolted gaining
independence or they became part of other European nations. (creation of AustriaHungary)
Austria was a traditional European power and a multi-national empire. Nationalist
revolts in Europe eventually spread to Austria and Hungary. In 1848, clashes between
nationalists and the Austrian government led to the abdication of the Austrian ruler Ferdinand
and the 18 year old Francis Joseph I as Austria’s new king. For almost 20 years, Austria
managed to keep liberalism and nationalism from becoming major issues.
However, after Austria’s defeat by Prussia in 1866 created a number of setbacks for the
Austrian government.
 Hungarian nationalists began to demand more freedom. Austria solved this problem
in 1867 by forming the Dual Monarchy (Austria-Hungary). Hungarians now shared
power with the Austrians. Francis Joseph I became Emperor of Austria and King of
Hungary with each region having its own parliament.
 To compensate for the loss of territory, Austria-Hungary turned its attention to the
Balkans (Serbia “Powder Keg of Europe.”)
 The region Austria-Hungary sought to control was chiefly controlled by the
Ottoman Empire (Turks).
The Balkans/Ottoman Empire
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During this period, the Balkan region is ruled by the Ottoman Empire. In the early
1800s, the rise of nationalism led to discontent in the Balkan area of the Ottoman Empire
leading to a dramatic decline in the size of the Ottoman Empire.
The Balkan region contained several different peoples-Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, etc. All of
these ethnic groups wanted independence from the Ottoman Empire.
 During the 1820s Greece and Serbia gained independence and tried to expand their
own territory.
 Russia along with other foreign countries intervened in the Ottoman struggles to
gain an advantage for their respective countries.
 Russia supported Serbia because of cultural similarities as well as a desire for access
to warm water ports.
 Britain, on the other hand, supported the Ottoman Turks in an effort to maintain a
balance of power in Europe and to protect English naval dominance.
Between 1878 and1913, the Ottoman Empire dramatically shrank in size due to
nationalist revolts (independence movements) and European control of the region.
Serbia became the most powerful of the new nations and sought to unite all Serbian
peoples. However, Serbia needed Bosnia-Herzegovina as an outlet to the sea. Her only
obstacle was Austria-Hungary
Great Britain
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain making her the first nation to
“industrialize.” Industrialization gave Britain a huge advantage globally because it made
Britain rich and powerful (land (natural resources), labor (workers), and capitol (money)).
Several other factors explained why Great Britain had a global advantage.
 Because of Britain’s naval dominance and economic power, the nation had the
world’s largest empire, ruling one-fourth of the earth’s territory.
 Additional trade opportunities existed in many other parts of the world which could be
reached by the British navy and merchant fleet. Britain’s main concern became
protecting the British Empire and developing global trade.
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 The British government, determined to achieve its trade goals, protected the balance
of power (maintaining equilibrium in international politics) on the European
continent.
Causes of World War I
Militarism - policy of building up strong military forces to prepare for war
1. During the late 1800s, the unification of Germany and Italy shifted the balance of
power in Europe. Germany in particular created an entirely new situation. Otto von
Bismarck, the skillful and ruthless German chancellor (appointed by Kaiser Wilhelm, shaped
Germany’s ambitious foreign policy. France wanted revenge for her defeat during the
Franco-Prussian War and the return of the Alsace Lorraine. The conflict between the two
nations created an arms race (militarism) between France and Germany.
Alliances - agreements between nations to aid and protect one another
Triple Alliance
2. Bismarck dedicated German foreign policy to keeping France isolated and without
allies at any cost. In 1879, Bismarck formed the Dual Alliance (a mutual defense pact) with
Austria-Hungary. In 1882 Bismarck agreed to Italy’s request for the Triple Alliance, pack
among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. The formation of the Triple Alliance
completely upset the balance of power in Europe.
Triple Entente
France meanwhile had been trying to gain allies. An economic crisis shook Russia and
the Russian Czar sought a loan from France. The French loaned the money to the Russians
creating an alliance between the two nations.
3. Great Britain also began to look for allies because German colonization (imperialism)
led by Wilhelm threatened the power of the British Empire. This led to a Naval Race
between the two nations. Soon, Russia, Great Britain, and France formed the Triple
Entente or friendly understanding or agreement between nations.
The alliance system divided Europe into two armed camps.
Nationalism–pride in or devotion to one’s country
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4. Rivalry in the Balkans between Serbia and Austria-Hungary Between 1878 and 1914, the Ottoman Empire dramatically shrank in size due to
nationalist revolts (independence movements) and European control of the
region.
 Serbia became the most powerful of the new nations and sought to unite all
Serbian peoples. However, Serbia needed Bosnia-Herzegovina as an outlet to the
sea. Her only obstacle was Austria-Hungary
Assassination
5. July 1914, assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife in Sarajevo
Serbia. The assassination brought to a head the long conflict between Austria-Hungary and
Serbia. Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to the Serbian Government with a list of
demands or war would begin in 48 hours. Serbia refused the demands. WWI had begun.
On June 28, 1914, a young student, Gavrilo Princip, assassinated Archduke Franz
Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria. This single event placed in motion a set of
circumstances that triggered an elaborate alliance system that put all of the European powers in
a state of war . . . the Great War.
The outbreak of war caught Americans off guard. President Wilson promptly issued a
Proclamation of Neutrality and asked the nation to be “impartial in thought.” This was an
impossible assumption because one-third of U.S. inhabitants were immigrants or children of
immigrants.
Fourteen million of those simply hated Britain – they were Germans and Italians who had
their historical reasons. But when Germany violated international law and invaded the tiny
neutral nation of Belgium, American sympathy leaned toward the ‘allies.’
Allies
Central Powers
Britain
Germany
France
Austria
Russia
Ottoman Empire
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As the war progressed, the allies cleverly exploited German atrocities, but allied
propaganda was not near the issue of importance as international trade.
Under international law, “neutrals” could trade freely with any belligerent. Of course,
law is written on paper, not on the high seas of the north Atlantic where British navy ships
forced ‘neutral ships’ into allied ports. They searched for goods headed to enemy ports and
confiscated the goods as contraband of war.
The powerful navy of Britain essentially set up an economic blockade of Germany – and
since it violated the rights of neutral nations, including the U.S., to trade with Germany – the
blockade was a clear violation of international law.
Although the British blockade hurt America’s feelings, Britain made up for it by
increasing war related imports such as food, clothing, steel and munitions. Germany became
more alienated and U.S. exports 400% to the allies.
Germany retaliated with a terrifying new form of combat that also violated traditional
rules of naval engagement – submarine warfare.
The very nature of submarine warfare violated how civilized nations should behave – but so
was:
 The German invasion of Belgium
 The British blockade against ‘neutral’ trade
 The U.S. accepting the blockade as evidence of increased trade with the allies.
When the war broke out in Europe, Wilson proclaimed that neutral nations had the right,
under international law, to trade freely with ALL nations. DeJure –that was true, DeFacto – it
was not!
Then, on May 7, 1915, the British passenger ship, Lusitania was torpedoed off the Southern
coast of Ireland. 1,198 passengers died including 128 Americans. The international incident
dominated the newspapers – British propaganda focused on the drowning of women and
children; Germany claimed the ship was carrying war armaments.
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Wilson warned Americans traveling on ships of belligerent countries that they traveled at
their own risk. The German military strategy on the high seas was becoming more defined as
unrestricted submarine warfare.
Two more high profile attacks on the British ship ‘Arabic’ and the French ferry ‘Sussex’
provoked the U.S. Wilson managed to obtain pledges from Germany modifying their
commitment to unrestricted submarine warfare. They agreed in the form of a promise that
they would not attack passenger ships without ‘provisions for the safety of civilians.’
Merchant ships, to a degree would be included.
Wilson’s success of securing pledges from Germany not to sink anything but military ships
without warning served him well as he ran for re-election in 1916. “He kept us out of the war”
became the winning campaign slogan.
By 1917, the developed trade with the allies (Britain and France) reached a new level. The
allies could not finance the purchase of everything that they needed from the U.S., so the U.S.
government permitted bankers to extend credit to Britain and France. The economic
implication was plain – if the allies lost the war, the loss would have a devastating effect on the
U.S. economy.
Germany was now on the ropes. The British blockade actually threatened to ‘starve’
Germany out of the war. To counter the blockade, Germany declared that it would resume the
practice of unrestricted submarine warfare.
This would violate the pledges that were promised to Wilson but Germany was willing to
gamble – unrestricted submarine warfare would swing the over all war in favor of Germany but
it would assure that the U.S. would enter the war on behalf of the allies.
Wilson was still holding out for a peaceful solution . . . and then Britain authorities
informed Wilson of a secret telegram sent by the German foreign secretary, Arthur
Zimmermann to the German minister in Mexico.
The content of the Zimmermann telegram was shocking!
It promised that in the event of war between Germany and the U.S., Germany would see
that Mexico regained the territories in the Southwest it had lost in the Mexican-American war,
if Mexico would declare war against the U.S.
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Analyze the Zimmermann note.
The Zimmerman Telegram convinced Wilson that entrance of the U.S. into the Great
War on the side of the allies was indeed a defense of democracy against autocratic German
Aggression
On April 6, 1917 Congress issued a declaration of war responding to Wilson’s call “to
make the world safe for democracy.” The U.S. positioned itself to come to the aid of its
mother country, Britain and its first ally, France.
When war was declared in April 1917, the U.S. was totally unprepared – and it had
become clear that the allies could win only with massive and swift American mobilization.
Mobilization and the Homefront:
 Congress passed a sweeping Selective Service Act in 1917 authorizing the draft of
young men into the armed forces. The conscription transformed United States small
volunteer army spread thinly around the Caribbean and the Far East into a world class
force of nearly three million.
 General John BlackJack Pershing was placed in command of the developing American
Expeditionary Force. His professionalism would assure the hard-core steel army that
fighting modern warfare demanded.
 The War Industries Board (WIB) created to direct and increase industrial production
was placed under Bernard Baruch. He oversaw everything from ‘boots to bullets,’
making the American soldier the best equipped in the world.
 Herbert Hoover was placed over the Food Administration. He further advanced
volunteerism with his Hooverizing campaigns for “Wheatless and Meatless” days,
victory gardens and the conservation of natural resources to support the war effort.
 Liberty loan and victory loan drives spurred by advertising, parades, and other appeals to
patriotism persuaded Americans to open their pocket books and loan money to the
government. The government was also able to increase the wealthy side of the graduated
income tax bracket to help short falls.
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 Thousands of southern blacks began a northern migration as jobs were created in “steel
towns” that produced war armaments. During the war years, the migration from the
cotton belt to the industrial north doubled and tripled the black populations of major
northern cities such as St. Louis, Chicago, Detroit, and New York City.
Weighing the pushes against the pulls that served as a catalyst for the Great Black Migration,
African Americans were certainly better off in the north.
White resentment was strong and they were refused union membership. Nevertheless, they
earned good wages, had basic human rights; they could vote, send their children to decent
schools and had reasonable freedom of speech, movement, etc.
 African Americans also joined the Armed Forces. All blacks were placed in segregated
units and many fought and died for their country and the hope that their ‘condition’
would be better off when they returned to the states. After all, they were fighting for
democracy and liberty of Europe.
 But most African American servicemen were assigned to labor battalions. They did the
common labor; cooks, supply details, stevedores, etc.
 The war also presented new opportunities for women. Women began to join the labor
force in sizable numbers. They found employment in defense plants as welders and
heavy machine operators, etc.
 The war also led women to victory in the political arena as well. The women’s suffrage
movement was having success in western states but was rejected in the northeast. By
linking the crusade for a constitutional amendment giving women the right to vote to
national unity infighting the war, Wilson gave his support to suffrage. The states ratified
the 19th amendment in 1920 giving women the right to vote.
Also, the homefront dealt with the anti-war factions of society. As we know the progressive
movement was dealing with the ills of American society during the imperial years and war
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years. Only a handful of reformers did not embrace the tide of patriotism that swept the country
as war approached.
As an example, Hull House founder, Jane Addams, ‘denounced the war’ and organized the
‘women’s peace party.’ The movement’s members were labeled as cowards and traitors.
Wilson’s government did go a step beyond calling those with anti war tendencies ‘cowards
or traitors.’ To defend democracy, Congress passed
 The Espionage Act (1917)
 The Sedition Act (1917)
These acts gave the government sweeping powers to punish any opinion or activity it
considered disloyal.
The Espionage Act and Sedition Act were quick to stifle voices like Socialist leader, Eugene
V. Debs. Debs was convicted and sentenced 10 years in prison under the acts for giving
speeches condemning the war as a capitalist plot.
The most far-reaching impact of the espionage and sedition act was its impact on the free
speech rights given in the first amendment.
The constitutionality of the two acts was tested in the Supreme Court case of Schenck vs
United States in 1919.
Brief: Schenck vs U.S. (1919)
Facts: Charles Schenck, general secretary of the Socialist party of America, was arrested
for violation of the Espionage Act. He mailed 15,000 leaflets urging draftees and soldiers to
resist the draft. He was arrested, tried, convicted and sentenced for attempting to cause
others to be insubordinate and disturb the intent of the draft. Schenck appealed his case to
the Supreme Court.
Constitutional Question: Does the Espionage Act violate ones first amendment rights of
free speech and expression?
Decision: No
Rationale: the courts unanimous (9-0) opinion was written by Justice Oliver Wendell
Holmes –
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“The most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man in falsely shouting
fire in a theatre and causing panic.” Holmes argued that “The question in every case is
whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are of such nature as to create
a clear and present danger that they will bring about the substantive evils that Congress
has a right to prevent.”
In other words, the court said that reasonable limits can be imposed on the 1st Amendment’s
guarantee of free speech. No person may use free speech to place others in danger. “Protected
Political Speech” was distinguished in wartime.
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The course of the war:
 The war bogged down in northeastern France characterized by surreal trench warfare,
poison gas, machine gun and artillery fire, and the inevitable blowing of the whistle that
sent young lives “over the top.”
Analyze war art:
 “Over the Top” – John Nash
 “Gassed” – John Singer Sargent
 After the U.S. put its mobilization plans in motion, thousands of tons of war material,
armaments, foodstuff, and men headed toward Europe on the convoy system. The
convoy system was implemented so the fleets of merchant ships could be protected from
German U-Boats by the U.S. Navy.
 Under the leadership of General John BlackJack Pershing, the fresh American
‘Doughboys’ began arriving in France to the tune of George Cohen’s “Over There.”
Over there, over there,
Send the word, send the word over there
That the Yanks are coming, the Yanks are coming
The drums rum-tumming everywhere.
So prepare, say a prayer,
Send the word, send the word to beware –
We’ll be over, we’re coming over,
And we won’t come back till it’s over, over there.
When America entered the war in spring of 1917, another ally bowed out. A revolution
in Russia forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate. The communist Bolsheviks signed a separate
peace treaty with the Germans. The Brest-Litovsk Treaty gave Germany the ability to launch
a massive offensive; their hope was to defeat French and British forces before the fresh
American forces were ready to fight.
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The American Expeditionary Force made the difference. In May, 1918 the American
soldiers engaged in the fight at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood. The adventures of the AEF
were brief, bloody and victorious. On November 11, 1918 an Armistice was signed between
the French high command and the newly established German Weimar Republic to end the
war. The AEF lost 112,000 soldiers – less than 2% of the total war deaths.
In January 1918, Wilson revealed his vision f peace in a Congressional speech. His
Fourteen Points was actually a blueprint for a new democratic world order.
The first five points affirmed basic liberal ideas that should be embraced by free democratic
nations:
 The end of secret treaties between nations
 Freedom of the seas
 Removal of economic trade barriers
 Reductions of weapons of war
 Recognition of the rights of colonized peoples.
 The next eight points supported the right to self determination of European peoples who
have been dominated by Germany and or its allies.
Wilson’s 14th point called for a “general association of nations or a League of Nations,” to
provide guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states
alike.
He believed that such an organization would serve as a forum for all nations to discuss
problems and prevent future wars.
Citizens of the U.S. and allied countries enthusiastically embraced the Fourteen Points.
Even Germany believed that the Fourteen Points would serve as the blueprint for the Peace
Treaty that would replace the armistice.
The leaders wanted to blame Germany for the war, totally disarm it, and make it pay so
dearly that it would never threaten its neighbors again.
Wilson headed to France to participate in treaty negotiations. He made two critical mistakes
1. He believed that the 14 points would be the treaty blueprint
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2. He did not include the majority Republicans in the negotiation process – the majority
Republicans controlled the senate – and only the U.S. Senate has the power to ratify
treaties.
The powers shredded Wilson’s Fourteen Points – Self Determination? Does that mean for a
race, territory, ethnic groups? It could lead to hundreds of new nations – everyone wanted their
own place – Ideological, but totally impractical.
In the end, most of Wilson’s 14 points were voted down, but his League of Nations, which
would provide collective security and order, made the cut and was incorporated into the harsh
Treaty of Versailles. The Treaty of Versailles also included the harsh articles 231 and 232.
 231 blamed Germany for the war
 232 said Germany was obligated to bear the cost of the war
Wilson was overjoyed. Even though several key ‘points’ (such as freedom of the seas) did
not make the cut, a functioning League of Nations would be able to address the issues that
would serve all nations.
When Wilson returned from France he faced a very hostile Republican Party. The
Republicans controlled both houses of Congress. Henry Cabot Lodge, was the Senate majority
leader and he became the chief opponent to U.S. participation in the League of Nations.
The main objection of the Republicans was Article 10 (X) of the League covenant.
Article X
“The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external
aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the
League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression
the Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.”
The wordage of Article X suggested that the collective security agreements embedded in the
League covenant determined if the U.S. went to war against an aggressor – not the U.S. Senate.
Two Senatorial groups opposed the League and the Treaty of Versailles.
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The Irreconcilables were hard core isolationists who refused to vote for the Treaty of
Versailles and U.S. membership into the League of Nations no matter what.
Another group, the Reservationists, was also led by Wilson’s political archenemy, Henry
Cabot Lodge. Lodge and his Republican allies attached “reservations” or amendments to the
Treaty. Wilson refused amending the Treaty because it would water down the effects of the
document – not to mention it would be impossible to run the treaty back through the
international process again.
To bypass Lodge and his proposed reservations, Wilson decided to take his case directly to
the American people. He set out by train on the most ambitious speaking tour made by any
president. Already exhausted from the peace conference in France, he collapsed on tour in
Colorado. He returned to Washington and had a massive stroke.
From his bed, he could only observe the Senate battle concerning ratification.
Two times the Senate refused to ratify the treaty, once with the Lodge reservations and then
without the reservations; thus the U.S. never became a member of the League of Nations.
The rejection of the Treaty by the Senate transferred to the public. At first they supported
the treaty but in the end, they wanted to be left alone, hide behind our beloved policy of
isolation and not be drawn into future wars.
The defeat of Wilson’s idealistic plan for “international democracy” also was a fatal blow to
the Progressive Movement. America demobilized swiftly. In the process, servicemen, defense
workers, and farmers lost their war related jobs. Most gains made by workers made during the
war years evaporated.
In 1919, inflation, wage cuts, and layoffs caught up with workers. The country witnessed
over 3,600 strikes.
A major strike in Seattle led by the radical Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies) led
newspapers across the nation to claim the intent of the strike was to start a “Bolshevik
Revolution” in the U.S. Negative public opinion from the strike contributed to the destruction
of the IWW shortly afterward.
In Boston, underpaid and over worked policemen gained little public sympathy when they
went on strike. Looters took advantage, sacked the city, bringing it to near anarchy. The
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Governor of Massachusetts, Calvin Coolidge, called the state national guard to restore order.
The public, in Massachusetts and around the country, welcomed Coolidge’s anti-union
assurance that “there is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere
anytime.”
Labor unrest was only one of the ingredients that mixed a nativist fear in 1919 that became
known as the Red Scare. (Red refers to the color of the Bolshevik flag)
A communist revolution in the United States was extremely unlikely, but fearful Americans
faced a flurry of ‘terrorist acts’ most notably 38 bombs mailed to prominent individuals.
(Holmes, Palmer, Rockefeller, etc.)
Fear, anger and uncertainty led swiftly to a hunt for terrorists by Attorney General Mitchell
Palmer. In January 1920, Palmer ordered a series of raids that resulted in 6,000 ‘subversives’
arrested. Most were immigrant Jews, Slavs associated with unionism. Some had communist
and socialist connections, about 500 were deported.
In time the Red Scare lost credibility because of the loss of credibility by Palmer himself.
He warned that radicals were planning on celebrating the Bolshevik Revolution with a
nationwide wave of violence on May 1, International Worker’s Day. State militias, police,
national guardsmen all readied. Nothing happened. The public mood turned, the Red Scare
died down, and so did the presidential aspirations of Mitchell Palmer.
Anti-foreign hysteria did get a final jolt with the arrest of Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo
Vanzetti. They were practicing anarchists from Italy, who were arrested for robbery and
murder in Massachusetts. At their trial, their anarchism was used as evidence against them –
evaded the draft, voiced anti-Americanism, owned guns –etc. they were sentenced and
executed. Historically, their trial symbolizes some short-comings in the American judicial
system.
Nativist sentiment against radicals and immigrants expanded in the 1920s. In the early
1920s, industrialists no longer needed new “cheap” factory workers. Protestants were
particularly alarmed about immigrants because of immigrant Catholicism, Jewishism, or
atheism.
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In the 1920s Congress passed a series of immigration acts that set quotas on immigration
into the U.S. The quotas favored National Origins nations. For example, the Johnson-Reid
Act of 1924 gave quota preference to nations based on the immigrants to the U.S. before 1890.
Under this act Britain was allowed to send in 63,000 immigrants to Russia’s 2,000. These acts
clearly favored old immigrant Protestant nations over new immigrants and Eastern European
cultures.
In the wake of the world war, the Red Scare and the Progressive movement, Americans
wanted to simply return to ‘normalcy.’ The election of 1920 defined the term.
Democrats – James Cox – Ohio (Governor)
Republican – Warren Harding – Ohio (Senator)
Issues: the Democrats viewed the election as one last chance to vote for the League of
Nations. A vote for Cox would signal for Congress to approve the treaty.
Warren Harding ran on the campaign slogan: “Return to Normalcy” and he won in a
landslide. Return to Normalcy became a mandate to turn away from Progressive activism and
foreign involvement. “Normalcy” described American’s desire to:
 Return to its beloved policy of isolationism
 Forget about spreading democracy or chasing grand schemes of world peace
 Forget about fixing the ills of society and move away from reform and progressive
movements
 Concentrate on their own individual problems and be left alone
People were extremely cynical of the world situation and war results. They were pessimistic
and distrustful. With a return to normalcy, it was assured that the U.S. was to return to its
policy of isolation – but the policy ‘had’ to be modified to deal with the post-war new world
order. Examples of the U.S. modifying its isolationism policy to adjust its foreign policy
include:
 The Washington Naval Conference of 1921 was an international conference called by
the U.S. to address the powers interest in the Pacific. The Washington Naval Conference
resulted in several treaties between the Nine Powers that attended. Agreements included:
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o Respect for China’s territorial integrity
o Respect each other’s rights over island possessions
o Declare a ten year “holiday” on military ship construction
The Washington Naval Conference is accredited with ‘slowing’ hostilities between the
‘powers’ in the Pacific.
 In 1921, the United States again stepped out of the policy of Isolationism concerning the
payment of Germany’s war debt. Germany owed Britain and France war reparations for
damages according to Article 232 of the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France
borrowed money from the U.S. to help fight the war – to make the ‘collectable process’
more difficult, Germany was bankrupt and politically unstable.
The American loans to Britain, France, and other allies made the U.S. the world’s greatest
creditor nation and the U. S. wanted its money.
American, Charles Dawes headed a committee to work out an international plan to enable
Germany to afford to pay its war debts.
The Dawes Plan cycle:
 The U.S. would loan Germany money to rebuild and pay reparations to Britain and
France
 The money Britain and France were paid would be paid to the U.S. for war debts
 The cycle created a movement of money that eased tensions
In 1929, the Dawes plan was replaced with the Young Plan to further lower German
reparations. The U.S. again stepped out of Isolationism with the signing of the Kellogg-Briand
Pact of 1928 – the act was pushed by post-war peace movements in the United States and
France. U.S. Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand
drafted the document as an international agreement not to use war as an instrument of national
policy except in defense. (62 nations signed)
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The purpose of the policy was to essentially ‘outlaw war’ to prevent a recurrence of the
carnage of World War I.
Even though the Kellogg-Briand Pact proved not enforceable, it served as a ‘benchmark’ in
world politics for aggressor nations as they ‘stepped over the line.’ Examples of pact violations
include Japan aggressing in China, Italy aggressing in Ethiopia and Germany aggressing in
Europe.
No one really believed that the harsh Versailles treaty solved the issues that brought the
world to war in 1914. Even though the U.S. attempted to ‘defuse’ world tension, nationalism
increased, militarism increased and new alliances formed.
Many European nations as well as ‘world nations’ fell under the control of dictators. The
‘caged’ nation of Germany and its new allies of Japan and Italy were surely worthy to watch.
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