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TOPIC 1:
INTRODUCTION TO CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
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GROWTH
• Growth is a quantitative process of change
– i.e. change in weight/height, size and
structure, physical and mental aspects.
• Changes can be measured & assess - from
one stage to the other.
• Growth will reach its peak once a person
mature.
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DEFINITION
 “Growth is an individual development in body size,
for ex. changes in muscles, bones, hair, skin &
glands” [Karl E. Garrison]
 “Growth is a change that can be measured from
one stage to the other, and from time to time”
[Atan Long]
 “Growth as an increment in a person external
attributes. For examples in terms of size, height
and body weight” [D.S Wright & Ann Taylor]
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DEVELOPMENT
• Developmental is defined as change.
• Human development refers to a particular type
of change or the pattern of change that begins at
conception and continue through the life span.
• Development occurs in the context of the
significant social environment of life process
(family, school, peer group, community).
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THUS….CHILD DEVELOPMENT IS…
• A scientific study of understanding
all aspects of human constancy and
change from conception through
adolescence.
• A part of a larger discipline known as
developmental psychology or human
development, which includes all
changes experienced throughout the
lifespan.
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BEHAVIORAL CHANGE AS A DEVELOPMENTAL
CHANGE
• Three general condition/criteria
– The change is orderly or sequential.
– The change results in a permanent
alteration of behavior.
– The change results in a new behavior or
mode of functioning that is more advanced,
adaptive or useful than prior behaviors.
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THE STUDY OF CHILDHOOD: BASIC CONCEPTS
• Developmental Processes: Changes and Stability
– Quantitative change (growth) – Involve changes in size or
amount, such as height, weight.
– Qualitative change – a change in types, structure, or
organization, such as the ability for verbal communication,
motor skill ability.
• Changes cannot be ‘measured’ but can be observed
and compared with earlier development. E.g. ability of a
newborn & 5 months old baby
– Stability – constancy or enduring characteristics
• Changes in development is continues  from one
stage to the other  but maintaining a pattern
• Specific characteristics  Cephalacaudal, proximodistal,
mass to specific
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DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
•
•
•
•
•
Prenatal
Infancy (0-2 year) & Toddlerhood (2-3 year)
Early childhood(3-6 year)
Middle childhood
Adolescence (11-19 year)
– Early (11-14 year)
– Middle (15-17 year)
– Late (18-19 year)
• Adulthood(≥ 20 year)
– Early (20-30 year)
– Middle (40-50 year)
– Late (60 year and above)
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DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
• Physical development
– Body, brain, senses, motor skills
• Cognitive development
– Learning, memory, language, thinking,
moral reasoning
• Psychosocial development
– Personality, emotions, social relationships
• Interrelated throughout development
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DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT (CON’T)
Domain
Physical
Changes in
•Body size & proportions, appearance
•Function of body systems, health
•Perceptual & motor capacities
Cognitive • Intellectual abilities
Social
•Emotional communication
•Self-understanding, knowledge about
others
•Interpersonal skills & relationships
•Moral reasoning & behavior
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INFLUENCES ON
DEVELOPMENT
• Factors that can influence development
are:– Nature (sejadi)
• Genetic (Warisan/baka/genetik)
– Nurture (Asuhan)
• Environment (Persekitaran)
• Food intake (Pemakanan)
• Health (Kesihatan)
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MAJOR CONTEXTUAL INFLUENCES
• Normative Influences
– Normative age-graded influences/event, i.e.
biological or social
• Example = puberty or entry into formal
schooling
– Normative history-graded event, i.e. cohort (a
group of people who share a similar experience)
• Example = living during the Great
Depression/Tsunami
• i.e. Atypical events, e.g. having a birth defect
• Non-normative Influences
– Individual events that impact the person
– Events can be traumatic or happy
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Historical Foundation:
How the study of childhood has evolved?
• Early Approaches
– Medieval times
– The Reformation
– The Enlightenment
• John Locke
• John Jacques Rousseau
• Darwin
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SCIENTIFIC BEGINNINGS
– Baby biographies
• Charles Darwin
• G. Stanley Hall
– Normative Period of Child Study
– Mental Testing Movement
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AN EMERGING CONSENSUS
• All domains are interrelated.
• Normal development includes a wide range of
individual differences.
• Children help to shape their own development and
influence others’ responses to them.
• Historical and cultural contexts strongly influence
development.
• Early experience is important, but children can be
remarkably resilient.
• Development in childhood is connected to
development throughout the rest of the lifespan.
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THEORIES IN
DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
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WHAT IS A THEORY?
• A theory is a set of logically related
concepts or statements, which seeks to
describe and explain development and
predict what kinds of behavior may occur
under certain conditions.
• Hypotheses are tentative explanations or
predictions that can be tested by
research.
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THEORY
An orderly, integrated set of statements that
– Describes
– Explains
behavior
– Predicts
Benefits of Theories in
Developmental Psychology
• Explain the meaning of an
event/facts
• Able to relate these facts
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THEORIES
 Psychoanalytic
 Psychosexual (S. Freud)
 Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
 Learning
 Behavioral Learning
 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
 Social Learning (A. Bandura)
 Cognitive
 Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget)
 Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky)
 Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg)
 Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner)
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Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality
Id
•Largest portion of the mind
•Unconscious, present at birth
•Source of biological needs & desires
Ego
•Conscious, rational part of mind
•Emerges in early infancy
•Redirects id impulses acceptably
Superego
•The conscience
•Develops from ages 3 to 6, from
interactions with caregivers
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PSYCHOANALYTIC
•
Psychosexual (S. Freud)
*Psychosexual stages
•Oral stage
•Anal stage
•Phallic
•Latency
•Genital
• Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
* 8 stages of dev.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy vs shame
Initiative vs guilt
Industry vs Inferiority
Identity vs Identity Confusion
Intimacy versus isolation
Generativity vs stagnation
Integrity vs despair
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PSYCHOANALYTIC
• Psychoanalytic theory proposes that
morality develops through humans' conflict
between their instinctual drives and the
demands of society.
• Freud identified three parts of the
personality that become integrated during
five stages
of development
• Id
• Ego
• Superego
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PERSONALITY STRUCTURE
Superego
Ego
Id
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PERSONALITY STRUCTURES
• ID (unconscious element)
– the largest portion  is the source of basic
biological needs and desires.
• EGO (semi-conscious element)
– the conscious  rational part of the personality,
emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s
impulses so they are discharged in acceptable
ways
• SUPEREGO (The conscious element that function on
the basis of morality).
– the conscience that develops between ages 3 and
6 through interactions with parents, who insist
that the child conform to the values of society.
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FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Oral stage [0- 1 year] –
– Mouth is the focus of stimulation &
interaction. Feeding & weaning are
central
• Anal stage [1-3 year] –
– Anus as the focus of stimulation &
interaction. Elimination & toilet training
is central
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FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Phallic [3-6year]
– The genital is the focus of stimulation.
Gender role & moral development are
central.
– Conflict between id & superego
– Children interested to know more different
sexes, babies etc.
– 2 main conflict:
• Oedipus Conflict  son attracted to
mother
• Electra Conflict  daughter attracted to
father
» Penis envy
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FREUD PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
• Latency [6-12 year]
– A period of suspended sexual
activities; Energy shift to physical and
intellectual activities. Focus on
achievement
• Genital [Adolescent – adulthood (12 &
above)]
– Genital are the focus of stimulation
with the onset of puberty
– Mature sexual relationship develop
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ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
Late Adulthood (60 above)
Integrity vs Despair
Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s)
Generativity vs Stagnation
Young Adulthood (20-30’s)
Adolescent (12-19)
Identity vs Role Confusion
Middle childhood (6-11)
Early Childhood (3-5)
Toddler (1-2)
Infancy (0-1)
Intimacy vs Isolation
Industry vs Inferiority
Initiative vs Guilt
Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Trust vs Distrust
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BEHAVIORISM & SOCIAL LEARNING
Classical
Stimulus – Response
Conditioning (Pavlov)
Operant
Conditioning
(Skinner)
Reinforcers (Reward)
and Punishments
Social Learning
(Bandura)
Modeling
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BEHAVIORAL THEORY
• Classical Conditioning
(Ivan Pavlov)
• Stimulus & Response
• Learning based on
association of a
stimulus that does not
ordinarily elicit a
response with another
stimulus that does elicit
the response.
• Operant Conditioning (B.F.
Skinner)
• Learning based on
reinforcement (punishment)
or punishment
• Positive
reinforcement
• Negative
reinforcement
• Punishment
• Behavior
modification
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BEHAVIORAL THEORY
• Social Learning Theory
• Albert Bandura
• Modelling (Role model)
• Theory that behaviors are learned by
observing and imitating models
– Observational learning
– Models
– Importance of values and thoughts in
imitating behavior of a model
– Practical implications?
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BEHAVIORISM & SOCIAL LEARNING
• Development results from learning
• Behaviorism – a mechanistic theory
– Continuous change
– Quantitative change
• Importance of the environment
• Associative learning
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COGNITIVE THEORY
• Jean Piaget
• Cognitive Development
• Socio-Cultural Theory
• L. Vygotsky
•
• Sensorimotor
(0-2)
• Preoperational (2-6)
• Concrete Operational
(6-11)
• Formal Operation
(11-adulthood)
•
Community & culture influence on
development  Focus is the social,
cultural, and historical complex of
which the child is part.
Social Interaction
• Zone of proximal development –
The difference between what a
child can do alone and with help
• Scaffolding – Temporary support
to help a child master a task.
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VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
• Transmission of culture to new generation
– Beliefs, customs, skills
• Social interaction necessary to learn
culture
– Cooperative dialogue with more
knowledgeable members of society
• Zone of proximal
• Scaffolding
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COGNITIVE THEORY
• Moral Development
• Kohlberg
• Lvel 1: Preconventional morality (4-9 years)
– Punishment and obedience orientation
– Instrumental/Egoistic orientation
• Level 2: Convensional morality (10-15 years)
– Good boy-nice girl orientation
– Law and order
• Level 3: Postconventional
– Social contract
– Universal ethical principles
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THE ECOLOGICAL-SYSTEMS APPROACH
• Human Ecological System
• U. Bronfenbrenner
• View of development that sees the
individual as inseparable from the
social context
• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological
theory
– Understanding processes and
contexts of development
•
•
•
•
•
Micro system
Meso system
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem
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ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
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RESEARCH METHODS IN
STUDYING CHILDREN
HOW THEORY AND RESEARCH WORK TOGETHER?
• Which theory is generally accepted
today?
• What is the relationship between
theory and research?
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RESEARCH METHODS
 Qualitative and quantitative research
 Scientific method – system of established
principles and processes of scientific inquiry
 Identifying a problem
 Formulating hypotheses
 Collecting data
 Analyzing the data
 Disseminating findings
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SAMPLING
• Groups of participants chosen to represent the
entire population
• The sample should adequately represent the
population under study
– Generalization
• Random selection
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FORMS OF DATA COLLECTION
• Naturalistic and laboratory observations
• Parental report/self-reports
– Clinical interview
– Open-ended interview
– Structured interview
– Questionnaire
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SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION
•
Observe respondent in their natural setting
• Naturalistic Observation
– In the “field” or natural environment where behavior
happens
• Structured observation
– Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of
interest
– All participants have equal chance to display behavior
• Participant observation
– Incognito
– Record data:
•
•
•
Audio
Video
Manual
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INTERVIEWS
Clinical Interview
• Flexible,
conversational style
• Probes for
Structured Interview
participant’s point of • Each participant is
view
asked same questions
in same way
• May use
questionnaires, get
answers from groups
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BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNS
•
•
•
Case studies
– Collect various information about a subject to be
studied (people/event)
– Make a conclusion about subject understudied.
Ethnographic studies
– Participant observation
Correlational studies –
– To examine the relationship between 2 variables
(independent and dependent variables)
– Research intended to discover whether a statistical
relationship between two variables exists
• Problems of control and interpretation of causality
– Survey - A study on respondent’s views  on certain
issues
• Use Questionnaires/Structured interview schedule
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CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS
Magnitude
• Size of the number
between 0 and 1.
• Closer to one (positive or
negative) is a stronger
relationship
• r value
Direction
• Indicated by + or - sign.
• Positive (+) means, as one
variable increases, so does the
other
• Negative (-) means, as one
variable increase, the other
decreases.
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CORRELATIONS
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EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES
• To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena
understudied
• Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in
which the researcher manipulates variables to
assess the effect of one on the other.
– Independent variable - the condition over
which the experimenter has direct control
– Dependent variable - the condition that may
or may not change as a result of changes in the
independent variable
– Experimental group and control group
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INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Independent
• Experimenter
changes, or
manipulates
• Expected to cause
Dependent
changes in another • Experimenter measures,
variable.
but does not manipulate
• Expected to be
influenced by the
independent variable
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MODIFIED EXPERIMENTS
Field Experiments
• Use rare opportunities for
natural assignment in
natural settings
Natural Experiment
• Compare differences in
treatment that already exist
• Groups chosen to match
characteristics as much as
possible
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DESIGNS FOR STUDYING DEVELOPMENT
Longitudinal
Same participants studied
repeatedly at different ages
Cross-sectional
People of differing ages all studied
at the same time
Longitudinal-Crosssectional
Same groups of different-aged
people studied repeatedly as they
change ages.
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CHILDREN’S RESEARCH RIGHTS
•
•
•
•
Protection from harm
Right to Informed consent
Knowledge of results
Beneficial treatments
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CHILDREN’S RESEARCH RIGHTS
• Avoidance of deception
– Debriefing, providing a full
account and justification of
research activities, should
take place with children, but
does not always work as well
• Right to privacy and
confidentiality
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TOPIC 2:
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
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SPERM
Sperm is the male reproductive cell
Chief Characteristics:
1. Tightly packed tip (acrosome) that contains 23 chromosomes that
carry genetic information
2. Short neck region
3. Trail to propel it in its search for the ovum
4. Microscopic
Fact:
• Remains capable of fertilizing egg for 24-48 hours after ejaculation
• Of 200 million sperm that enter the vagina, only about 200 survive
the journey to the fallopian tubes, where fertilization occurs
• Males, at birth, have in their testes those cells that will eventually
produce sperm
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OVUM (EGG)
The ovum is the female reproductive cell
Chief Characteristics:
1. Round
2. .01 mm in diameter
3. Consistency of stiff jelly
4. Contributes 23 chromosomes
Fact:
•
Females already have 1-2 million primal eggs at birth
•
Eggs usually fertilized about 12 hours after
discharged from the ovary or they die within 12-24
hours
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PREGNANCY
• If the egg is fertilized by a
sperm cell as it travels down
the fallopian tube, then
pregnancy occurs, it becomes
attached to the lining of the
uterus
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PREGNANCY
• In order for conception to occur, though, there must
be three factors present:
– the egg,
– the sperm
– a medium in which the sperm can travel to reach
the fallopian tubes.
• Women produce cervical fluid under the influence of
increasing levels of estrogen in the first part of the
cycle.
• Sperms can live up to five days in fertile quality
cervical fluid
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3 STAGES IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
• Germinal stage
• Embryonic stage
• Fetal stage
• Principles
– Cephalocaudal principle
– Proximodistal principle
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FIRST STAGE: GERMINAL
• Starts at conception (fertilization) until
implantation  14 days.
• Conception process  When the
sperms meets the egg (ovum) in the
fallopian tube  travel down into the
uterus where it implants in the
uterine lining and begin to grow
(implantation).
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CONCEPTION
• Conception occurs when
the sperm meets and
penetrates the ovum, or
egg
ovum
sperm
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CONCEPTION
• Normally, only one sperms will succeed
penetrating through the ovum wall.
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CONCEPTION
• When one sperms succeeded penetrating
the ovum wall, a protective lining will form
around it  preventing other sperms to
enter/penetrate.
• The combination of ovum & sperms  form
zygote (with one nucleus).
• Zygote will later develop into blastosist  a
complex organism with millions of cells 
with various functions.
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Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 Weeks)
• Rapid cell division, increasing complexity
and differentiation, and implantation
• Mitosis
• Blastocyst
– Embryonic disk
• Ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm
• Trophoblast
– Placenta & umbilical cord
– Amniotic sac & chorion
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Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2 Weeks)
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Fetal Development
Fertilization: the sperm and egg join in
the fallopian tube to form a unique
human being.
• a fertilized egg, only thirty
hours after conception.
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ZYGOTIC PERIOD
(CONCEPTION - 1ST WEEK)
• A zygote is a fertilized egg
with 46 chromosomes
• Genetic potential
determined at this time
• Egg is 2.5 mm in diameter
at end of 1st week
• Mitosis, a process of cell
division, occurs during this
period
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EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF
A HUMAN EMBRYO
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EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF
A HUMAN EMBRYO
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EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF
A HUMAN EMBRYO
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Embryo: Blastocyst burrows
into the uterine lining
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Embryo: Blastocyst burrows into the
uterine lining
• As soon as the fertilized egg burrows into the lining, it
starts releasing a pregnancy hormone, HCG (Human
Chorionic Gonadotropin) which sends a message back to
the corpus luteum left behind on the ovarian wall.
• HCG signals the corpus luteum to remain alive beyond its
usual maximum of 16 days and continuing to release
progesterone long enough to sustain the nourishing
lining.
• After several months, the placenta takes over, not only
maintaining the endometrium, but providing all the
oxygen and nutrients the fetus needs to thrive.
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CELLS DIVISION
• There are two type of cell division:
– Mitosis and meiosis
• Reproductive cells divide through meiosis
process, while all other body cells divide
through the mitosis process
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CELLS DIVISION
•
•
•
•
Mitosis is cell division that results in the duplication of
cells; the daughter cells genetic copies of the parent cell. This
cell multiplication allows for replacement of old cells, tissue
repair, growth and development.
Mitosis
– The creation of new cells through duplication of
chromosomes & divisions of cells  cells duplicates
(From 1 24  16 32, etc)
– Cells developed into organs, brain, heart etc.
Growth & Development
– You grew from a zygote, or fertilized egg (the fusion of two
cells: an egg and a sperm) into an organism with trillions
of specialized cells.
– Mitosis is the process that enabled you to grow and
develop after that fateful meeting of ovum and sperm
became ‘you’.
Cell Replacement
– Cells must divide in order for an organism to grow and
develop, but cell division is also required for maintenance,
cell turnover and replacement.
74
Meiosis is Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation
• In sexually reproducing organisms, some cells are able
to divide by another method called meiosis.
• Meiosis is a complex process by which gametes form;
involves duplication and division of reproductive cells
and their chromosomes.
– The number of chromosomes in cells divide into
two’s, and each set of cell will receive 1 from each
sets of chromosomes  makes up 23 sets.
• This type of cell division results in the production of
gametes (eggs or sperm).
• Meiosis is much more complex than mitosis involves
the duplication and subsequent division of
chromosomes, meiosis involves two divisions of genetic
material. As is the case in mitosis, in meiosis the cell
duplicates its chromosome number prior to beginning
cellular division. Then nuclear division, the sorting out of
the genetic material, begins, and unfolds over the
course of 2 cellular divisions that result in 4 gametes.
75
Meiosis is Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation
•
•
Gametes & Gonads
– Gametes are haploid (1n) with half the number of
chromosomes than the progenitor cell that they arose
from. These haploid sex cells arise in specialized
reproductive tissue called the gonads. Ovaries (female
gonads) and testes (male gonads) are the sites of
meiosis.
Fertilization & Development
– Sexual reproduction results in the merging of sperm and
egg at fertilization, and brings the chromosome count
back to the 2n diploid number necessary for a zygote to
have complete genetic information; 2 sets of genetic
instructions in 23 pairs of chromosomes.
– As cells divide, the zygote develops and grows into an
embryo, fetus and beyond. These 23 pairs of
chromosomes are duplicated with every cell division,
and are the genetic material inside nearly every cell of
the body.
76
What's the Difference between
Mitosis & Meiosis
• Mitosis is how the cells of our body
make more cells for growth,
development and repair.
• Meiosis is how our body makes sex
cells, or gametes (eggs or sperm).
77
MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY
• The Genetic Code
– Basis of heredity is a chemical called
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which contains
all the inherited material passed from
biological parents to children
– Every cell except the sex cells has 23 pairs of
chromosomes--46 in all
– Genetic action that triggers growth of body
and brain is often regulated by hormones
78
MECHANISMS OF HEREDITY
• The genetic code
– DNA and chromosomes
– Human genome
– 23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell (46
total) – except sex cells
• Meiosis – division in sex cells (23 single
chromosomes)
• Mitosis – division in body cells
79
GENETIC CODE
• Genetic information are kept in
chromosomes  ie. A long & complex set of
DNA molecules.
• Genes is a segment of DNA molecules 
contains instructions for making protein.
• Human being is said to have 100 trillions
of cells in the body  with specific
functions; and is distributed through 46
chromosomes, ie. 23 from father & 23 from
mother.
80
GENETIC FOUNDATION
• Genotype (genetic makeup)
• Phenotype (observable characteristics)
81
HEREDITARY COMPOSITION OF
THE ZYGOTE
82
What determines sex?
• Autosomes – chromosome pairs 1- 22
• Sex chromosomes – 23rd pair of
chromosomes
– XX = female
– Xy = males
83
Determination of a child’s sex
84
What determines sex?
– Sex chromosomes are either X chromosomes
or Y chromosomes
– When an ovum (X) is fertilized by an X-carrying
sperm, the zygote formed is XX, a female
– When an ovum (X) is fertilized by a Y-carrying
sperm, the resulting zygote is XY, a male
85
CHROMOSOMES
• Boy or girl?
• Chromosomes determine sex :
– 23 pairs of sex chromosomes
– Female : XX pairs of sex chromosomes
– Male : XY pairs of sex chromosomes
FATHER=XY
XY (male)
MOTHER=XX
XX (female)
86
PATTERNS OF GENETIC TRANSMISSION
– When an offspring receives two
contradictory traits, only one of them, the
dominant one shows itself
– The expression of a recessive trait, occurs
only when a person receives the recessive
traits from both parents
87
DOMINANT AND RECESSIVE INHERITANCE
88
• What Causes Multiple Births?
– Dizygotic (two-egg) twins=fraternal twins
– Monozygotic (one-egg) twins=identical twins
– The rise in multiple births is due in part to a
trend toward delayed childbearing
• Infertility
– Inability to conceive a baby after 12 to 18
months of trying
89
GENETIC AND CHROMOSOMAL
ABNORMALITIES
– Some defects are due to abnormalities in genes
or chromosomes, which may result from
mutations
– Many disorders arise when an inherited
predisposition interacts with an environmental
factor, either before or after birth
90
Sex linked inheritance of a birth defect
91
NATURE AND NURTURE
• Some Characteristics Influenced by
Heredity and Environment
– Adopted children's IQs are consistently closer to
the IQs of their biological mothers than to those
of their adoptive parents and siblings.
– Monozygotic twins generally look alike; they are
also more concordant than dizygotic twins in their
risk for such medical disorders as hypertension
(high blood pressure), heart disease, stroke,
rheumatoid arthritis, peptic ulcers, and epilepsy
– Heredity seems to exert a strong influence on
general intelligence and also on specific abilities
– A strong hereditary influence on schizophrenia
and autism, among other disorders; found in
families
92
2ND STAGE IN PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT STAGE
EMBRYONIC STAGE
93
EMBRYONIC STAGE (2 TO 8 WEEKS)
• Rapid growth and development of major body
systems and organs
• A critical period
• Trimesters
• Spontaneous abortion (miscarriage)
• Stillborn
94
PHASES IN PREGNANCY:
• First trimester (week 1-12)
• 2nd Trimester (week 13 -24)
• 3rd Trimester (week 25 & above)
95
PROCESS OF FERTILISATION
Father (Sperm)
½ cell (23 chromosome X or Y)
Mother (Ovum)
½ cell (23 chromosome X)
FERTILISATION
Zygote
Embryo
Fetus
Baby
96
2nd Stage: Embryonic Period
(2nd Week - 2nd Month)
• The phase after implantation.  after
the development of zygote  and
developing its blastosist.
• Embryo composed of millions of cells
with various functions (week 3-8)
97
2nd Stage: Embryonic Period
(2nd Week - 2nd Month)
• The differentiation of
embryonic cells into layers
marks the beginning of the
embryo, or embryonic period
• Period when all body systems
form
• Highly sensitive for
susceptibility of congenital
malformations, or abnormal
conditions with which an infant
is born
98
Embryonic Period: End of The 1st Month
• 1/4 inch (6 mm) long
• 1 oz. Weight
• Crescent-shaped
with small limb buds
on sides
• Tail with tiny ridges
• Rudimentary
circulatory system is
forming
• Heart begins to beat
• Growth acceleration
99
Embryonic Period: End of The 2nd Month
• 1.5 inches long
• Beginning of face, neck,
fingers, toes develop
• Limb buds lengthen
• Muscles enlarge
• Sex organs begin to form
• Rapid brain development
• Embryo is firmly planted on
uterine wall and is receiving
nourishment from placenta
and umbilical cord
100
7 weeks
Facial features are visible,
including a mouth and tongue.
The eyes have a retina and lens.
The major muscle system is
developed, and the unborn child
practices moving. The child has
its own blood type, distinct from
the mother's. These blood cells
are produced by the liver now
instead of the yolk sac.
101
3rd stage: Fetal Stage
(8 weeks to birth)
• Embryo develops  fetus (baby in the
uterus).
• Cells that represents eyes, head, body,
hands, legs  further develops  larger.
• The period of consumption until baby is
born  40 weeks (sometimes 38-36 weeks).
102
Fetal stage
• Increased detail of body parts and greatly
enlarged body size
• Finishing touches
• Fetal behavior
– Ultrasound
103
Early Fetal Period: 3rd - 6th Month
• Period of the fetus begins
around the 3rd month
and continues until
delivery
• Movement first becomes
apparent to mother at
this time
• No new anatomical
features appear during
this period, yet still
critical time
104
Early Fetal Period: 3rd Month
• Rapid growth, 3 inches long
at end of 3rd month
• Sexual differentiation
continues
• Teeth buds emerge
• Stomach and kidneys begin
to function
• Vocal cords appear
• Reflex actions felt:
opens/closes mouth,
clenches fist, sucks thumb
105
Early Fetal Period: 4th Month
• Most rapid growth
rate (doubles in
length to 6-8 inches)
• 6 oz. Weight
• Hands fully shaped
• Bony tissue begins to
form
106
Early Fetal Period: 5th Month
• Reaches 1/2 of birth
length (8-10 inches)
• Only 10% of birth
weight (1/2 lb.)
• Skin, hair, nails appear
• Internal organs grow
and assume proper
anatomical positions
• Pigmented hair on head
& eyebrows appears
107
Early Fetal Period: 6th Month
• 13 inches long
• 1 lb. Weight
• Eyelids reopen and
are completed
• Structurally
complete but
functionally
immature
108
Later Fetal Period: 7th-9th Month/Birth
• From the 7th month
to birth, the fetus
triples in weight
• This is a period of
filling out
• Preparation for birth
109
Later Fetal Period: 7th Month
• A layer of adipose tissue
begins to form under skin
(serves as both insulator &
food supplier)
• Rapid 2-4 lb. Weight gain
• 14-16 inches long
• Fetus is quiet for long
periods of time
• Brain more active and is
increasing control over
body systems
110
Later Fetal Period: 8th Month
• Fetus is more active
(frequent changes in
position)
• Fatty deposits distributed
• 16-18 inches long
• 4-6 lbs.
111
Later Fetal Period: 9th Month (Birth)
• 19-21 inches
long
• 6-8 lbs.
• Birth process is
initiated by
placenta and
contraction of
uterine muscles
• Birth generally
occurs after
week 40 of
gestation
(normal is 38-42
wks.)
112
IMPORTANT PARTS IN THE UTERUS
•
•
•
•
Amniotic Sac
Placenta
Amniotic fluid
Umbilical cord
113
ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES
(TERATOGENS)
• Maternal factors
– Teratogenic – capable of causing birth defects
114
MATERNAL FACTORS (CONTINUED)
• Prescription and Nonprescription
Drugs
– Medical drugs
• Thalidomide
• DES
• Aspirin
– Caffeine
– Cocaine, heroin, or methadone
115
MATERNAL FACTORS (CONTINUED)
• Tobacco/Nicotine
• Alcohol
– Fetal alcohol syndrome
– Fetal alcohol effects Sexually
transmitted diseases and other
maternal illnesses
– Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
• Radiation
• Environmental Polution
• Maternal Diseases
116
OTHER MATERNAL FACTORS
•
•
•
•
•
Exercise & Physical activity
Nutrition
Emotional Stress
Rh Incompartibility
Maternal age
117
THE BIRTH PROCESS
• Stages of childbirth
– First stage
– Second stage
– Third stage
– Fourth stage
• Electronic fetal monitoring
118
STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH
119
TOPIC 2:
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT (Continue.)
120
Stages of Childbirth
What signs indicate that labor is near?
Stage 1: Time interval? What happens?
Stage 2: Time interval? What happens?
Stage 3: Time interval? What happens?
121
The Birth Process
122
Stage 1 : Dilation of the cervix
• The longest stage of labor
– First baby  12 - 14 hours
– Sebsequent babies  4 - 6 hours
• Dilation of the cervix
– is the widening and thinning of the cervix 
resulting in a clear pathway from the uterus
into the birth canal.
• Contractions are forceful and regular
Gradually, they get closer together, occurring
every 2 to 3 minutes, and become more
powerful, continuing for as long as 60 seconds.
• Transition is reached when the frequency and
strength of contractions are at their peak and
the cervix opens completely.
123
The Birth Process
Stage 1
Figure124
7.10.1
Stage 2 : Delivery of the Baby
• First baby 50 minutes
• Subsequent births  20 minutes
• Strong contractions continue  mother feels a
natural urge to squeeze and push with her
abdominal muscles  forcing the baby down and
out.
• An episiotomy is a small incision at the perineum
 increases size of the vaginal opening  permits
baby to pass without damaging the mother’s
tissues.
• The baby’s head crowns when the vaginal opening
stretches around the entire head.
125
Stage 2
Stage 3
Figure126
7.10.2
Stage 3: Delivery of the Placenta
• The final stage lasts about 5 to 10 minutes.
• The final contractions and pushes cause the
placenta to separate from the uterine wall and
be delivered.
127
Factors influencing the development
during prenatal period
• Parents age
– Too Young
– Mum too old
– Dad too old
• Mother’s Pregnancy History
– Frequent pregnancy
– Frequent miscarriage/abortion
• Mother’s Physical condition
– Size (too fat/ thin)
• Mother’s Diet
• Mother’s Emotion
• Teratogenic Agent
128
TOPIC 3:
POSTNATAL DEVELOPMENT
129
The Baby’s
Adaptation
to Labor and
Delivery
Newborn’s
appearance
130
The Newborn Baby
• Newborn are called Neonate.
• First four weeks of life (neonatal period)
– A time of transition from the uterus, where a
fetus is supported entirely by the mother  to
an independent existence.
• When neonate are first born:
–
–
–
–
–
Covered by fluid from amniotic sac
Blood from placenta
Brownish fluid from own faeces.
Covered with lanugo (fuzzy prenatal hair)
Covered with vernix caseosa (cheesy varnish)
131
The Newborn Baby
•
Size and Appearance
– New babies have distinctive feature a
large head and a receding chin
– On the head  Fontanels (the soft spots)
– Newborns have a pinkish cast  skin so
thin that it barely covers the capillaries
through which blood flows.
– Boys tend to be slightly longer and
heavier than girls, and a firstborn child is
likely to weigh less at birth than laterborns
132
The Newborn Baby
•
•
•
•
•
Weight :
2.8 -3.2 kg
Length :
51-53 cm (Boy > girl)
Head Circumference: 30-33 cm
Breathing:
– Initially fast, short & irregular
– Later  more stable & with rhythm
Blood pressure become stable in 10 days.
133
Is the Baby Healthy?
•
•
Medical and Behavioral Screening
1. Apgar Scale
2. The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment
Scale
3. Checks are also done for any structural or
physical deformities (eg. spinal defect, cleft
palate)
Silver nitrate or tetracycline is usually dropped
into neonate eyes to prevent from bacterial
infection while passing through birth canal.
134
Apgar Scale
•
•
•
•
Apgar Scale is a standard measurement of a
newborn’s condition
Introduced by Dr. Virginia Apgar
Access newborn
• 1 min after birth
• 5 min after birth
Assess:
– Appearance (colour)
– Pulse (heart beat rate)
– Grimace (reflex)
– Activity (muscle tone)
– Respiration (breathing)
135
APGAR SCALE
Sign
0
1
2
Appearance
Blue, pale
Body pink,
extremities blue
Entirely Pink
Pulse
Absent
Slow (below 100) Rapid (over
100)
Grimace
No response Grimace
Coughing,
sneezing,
crying
Activity
Limp
Weak, inactive
Strong, active
Respiration
Absent
Irregular, slow
Good, Crying
Score: Above 7 = good/normal
4 -7
= average, need monitoring
3 & Below = need immediate attention, high risk situation
136
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
– The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment
Scale (NBAS) (Dr. Berry Brazelton) serves 3
purpose:
• As an index of neurological integrity after
birth
• To predict future development
• To assesses neonates' responsiveness to their
physical and social environment
– Screening done on 3rd day and repeat again
after several days.
137
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral
Assessment Scale (NBAS)
•
•
•
Test on four distinct areas:
– Social behavior (interactive behaviors in
the home)
– Motor behaviors (reflexes & muscle
activities)
– Control of physiology (baby’s ability to
quiet himself)
– Stress response (startle reaction)
High score  a neurologically well developed
infant
Low score  a sluggish infant who need help
in responding to social situations, or possible
brain damage.
138
Babies In-born Reflexes
•
•
•
•
Reflexes  an inborn, automatic response to a
particular form of stimulation.
Full term newborns come equipped with a variety
of reflexes for use in dealing efficiently with
stimuli present in their environment.
Some reflexes are necessary for survival (eg.
Rooting & sucking reflexes)
Reflexes are probably genetic in origin & include a
timing mechanism that allows them to fade away
after a period of time.
139
Examples of
Newborn Reflexes
•
•
•
•
•
Eye Blink
Withdrawal
Rooting
Sucking
Swimming
•
•
•
•
•
Moro
Palmar Grasp
Tonic Neck
Stepping
Babinski
140
In-born Reflexes
Reflexes
Eliciting Stimulus
Response
Developmental
duration
Babinski
Gentle stroke along
sole of foot (heel toe)
Toes fan out: big toe
reflexes
Disappears by
end of first
year
Moro
Sudden lost of
support
Arms extended, then
brought towards each
other
Disappear in
6 months
Palmer
Grasp
Rod of finger pressed Object grasp
against infant’s palm
Disappear in
3-4 months
Rooting
Object lightly brushes Baby turns towards
infant’s cheek
object and attempts to
suck
Disappear in
3-4 months
Sucking
Insert Finger in mouth Rhythmic sucking
Disappear in
3-4 months
Walking
Held baby upright.
Infant step forward as if Disappear in
Sole of feet placed on walking
3-4 months
hard surface
141
Rooting
• Stroke cheek near corner of mouth
or object brushes the area
• Infant response by turning head
toward stimulation
• Disappears at 3 weeks when child
begins to be able to voluntarily turn
head
• Helps infant find nipple
142
Moro Reflex
• Hold infant horizontally on back and let head
drop slightly or produce sudden loud sound
against surface supporting infant
• Infant response is to make an embracing motion
by arching back, extending legs, throwing arms
outward and then bringing them in toward the
body
• Disappear at 6 months
• Probably in human evolution helped baby cling
to mother
143
Palmer Grasp
• Spontaneous grasp of
adult’s finger
• Disappears at 3-4 months
to allow reaching and
grasping
• Prepares infant for
voluntary grasping
144
Tonic Neck Reflex
• Turn baby's head to one side
while lying on back
• Infant responds by lying in a
“fencing position” with one
arm extended in front of eyes
on side to which head is
turned other arm is flexed
• Disappears at 4 months
• May prepare infant for
voluntary reaching
145
PATTERNS OF GROWTH
• Children grow faster during the first years,
especially during the first few months.
• This rapid growth rate tapers off during the
second and third years
 Physical growth and development follow the
maturational principles of the cephalocaudal
principle and proximodistal principle.
146
Influences on Growth
• Genes interact with environment, i.e.
nutrition and living conditions,  general
health and well-being
• Well-fed, well-cared-for children grow taller
and heavier than less well nourished and
nurtured children
• Better medical care, immunization and
antibioticsbetter health
147
Growth And Nutrition
• Nourishment
– Breast milk is almost always the best food for
newborns and is recommended for at least the
first 12 months
– Parents can avoid obesity and cardiac
problems in themselves and in their children
by adopting a more active lifestyle for the
entire family--and to breastfeed their babies
148
The Brain
• First 3 years of life is critical to baby’s brain
development.
• Before & after birth  brain growth is
fundamental to future development.
• It is estimated that about 250,000 brain cells
are form every minute in the uterus.
• By birth, almost 100 billion nerve cell are
formed, but not fully develop.
149
Molding the Brain:
The Role of Experience
• Smiling, babbling, crawling, walking,
and talking are possible due to rapid
development of the brain, particularly
the cerebral cortex
150
…BRAIN
• Each part of the brain is very important in infuencing a child development 
integration between child emotions and behavior.
Middle brain: Limbic System
• Covers motivation, emotions, &
long term memory, aggressive
behavior, body temperature,
hunger, nerve system
activities, hormon secretion
Outer Brain: Cortex &
neocortex
• Divided into
lobes/sections
(folds) with specific
functions.
• Placement of
‘intelligence’ & higer
mental process,
learning, memory,
thinking, language
(last to develop)
• Also control vision,
hearing, inventing.
Brain stem

Contro process such as
breathing, heartbeat muscle
movement, kidney process,
reflex behavior, sleep,
arousal, attention,
balance/movement etc.
151
Regions of the Cerebral Cortex
Thin layer on the brain’s surface that include lobes or
sections:
• Occipital lobe
– Process vision.
• Temporal Lobe
– Process hearing
• Parietal Lobe
– Process sensory stimuli
• Frontal Lobe
– Critical thinking & problem solving
– Frontal cortex  area of the cortex that controls
personality and the ability to carry out plans
152
Molding the Brain:
The Role of Experience
• Early experience can have lasting effects on
emotional development and the capacity of
the central nervous system to learn and store
information
• Sometimes corrective experience can make
up for past deprivation
153
Brain and Neurons
...OTAK & NEURON
 First 3 years of life  children’s brain are actively
building and developing connections between the
neurons cells.
 Connections are developed when the brain are actively
receiving stimulus  process between receiving and
sending impulses between the cells.
 Through axons/dendrites  send signals to other neurons
& receive incoming message through connection called
synapses.
154
Infant States of Arousal
• States of arousal are different degrees of sleep and
wakefulness
• Infants move in and out of 5 states throughout the
day and night:
– Regular sleep
– Irregular sleep
– Drowsiness
– Alert Activity
– Waking activity and crying
• Striking individual differences in daily rhythms exist
that affect parents’ attitudes toward and interactions
with baby.
155
Early Sensory Capacities
•
•
•
•
•
Touch
Hearing
Vision
Taste
Smell
156
Touch and Pain
• Touch seems to be the first sense to develop
• Sensitivity to touch, pain, and temperature change
is well-developed at birth.
• Pain experienced during the neonatal period may
sensitize an infant to later pain, perhaps by
affecting the neural pathways that process painful
stimuli
• Relieve pain with anesthetics, sugar, gentle
holding
• Reflexes reveal sensitivity to touch, for example
touch on mouth, palms, soles, genitals
• Touch helps stimulate physical and emotional
development.
157
Newborn Senses of
Taste and Smell
• Prefer sweet tastes at birth
• Quickly learn to like new
tastes
• Have odor preferences from
birth
• Can locate odors and identify
mother by smell from birth
158
Taste
• Babies are born with the ability to communicate
their taste preferences to caregivers.
• Infant facial expressions indicate they can
distinguish among several tastes.
• Newborns' rejection of bitter tastes is probably
another survival mechanism, since many bitter
substances are toxic
159
Smell
• The responsiveness of infants to the smell of certain
foods is similar to that of adults  showed that some
odor preferences are innate.
• A newborn infant is attracted to the odor of her own
mother’s lactating breast  helps to find food source
and to identify own mother a survival mechanism.
• Newborns can identify the location of an unpleasant
odor and turn head away.
• A preference for pleasant odors seems to be learned in
utero and during the first few days after birth
160
Studies conducted:
Smell and Taste
• Lipsitt, Engen & Kye (1963): Baby showed negative
response to the smell of ammonia.
• Steiner: Baby showed different facial expression when
exposed to different type of scent.
• Mac Farlane (1977): Baby can differentiate between
own mother’s milk and other mothers’ milk.
• Schmidt & Beauchamp (1988): Baby’s ability to smell is
almost equivalent to a 3 years old ability to smell.
• Harris & friends: By aged 4 months old, baby like the
taste of salt
161
Smell
•
•
Baby LIKES the
smell of:
• Banana,
• Margerine
• Tangerine
Baby DISLIKES
the smell of:
• Amonia
• Rotten egg
162
Hearing
• Well developed at birth - sensitive to voices and biologically
prepared to learn language
• Hearing is functional before birth ability to discrimination
sound develops rapidly after birth. E.g. Infants respond with
changes in heart rate to loud sounds (even in the womb)
• Can hear wide range of sounds but are more responsive to some
than others – i.e. prefer complex sounds to pure tones
• Newborns prefer complex sounds such as voices and noises to
pure tones - learn sound patterns within days
• Newborns prefer speech that is high-pitched and expressive.
• There are only a few speech sounds that newborns cannot
discriminate, and their ability to perceive speech sounds outside
their language is more precise than an adult’s.
• Hearing is a key to language development thus hearing
impairments should be identified as early as possible
163
Developments in Hearing
4 – 6 months
6 months
Sense of musical phrasing
“Screen out” sounds from non-native
languages
Recognize familiar words, natural
7 – 9 months phrasing in native language
10 months
Can detect words that start with weak
syllables
164
Studies conducted:
Hearing
• De Casper & Fifer (1980): Baby can differentiate
mother’s voices from others  through baby
sucking pattern.
• Birnhold & Benacerraf (1983): 28th week baby
showed his/her response through facial
expression.
• Wertheimer (1961) : Baby able to follow source
of sound through the “clicker” test.
165
Vision
• Vision - the least developed sense at birth
• Newborns cannot focus their eyes very well and their
visual acuity  fineness of discrimination, is limited
• However, newborns explore their environment by
scanning it for interesting sights & tracking moving
objects.
• They can’t yet discriminate colors but color vision will
improve in a couple of months.
• Visual perception is poor at birth  but improves to
20/100 by age 6 months
• Binocular vision using both eyes to focus
• Perception of depth & distance at 4/5 months
166
Infants’ Scanning of Faces
167
Face-like Stimuli
168
Studies conducted: Sight
• Langlois & friends (1990): Babies are more attracted
to attractive and beautiful human faces.
• Fantz (1993): Babies prefer to look at pictures of
human.
• Aslin (1987): 4 days old babies can differentiate
between green and red.
• Babies prefer blue and red as compared to other
colors.
• Gibson & Walk (1960): Visual cliff experiment. 6
months babies has already develop in-dept
perception in visual.
169
Steps in Depth Perception
Birth – 1
month
Sensitivity to motion cues
2–4
months
Sensitivity to binocular cues
5 –12
months
Sensitivity to pictorial cues.
Wariness of heights
170
Steps in Pattern Perception
3 weeks
Poor contrast sensitivity.
Prefer large simple patterns
2 months
Can detect fine-grained detail. Prefer
complex patterns.
4 months
Can detect patterns even if boundaries are
not really present
12 months
Can detect objects if two-thirds of drawing
is missing
171
Improvements in Vision
Brain development helps
infants reach adult levels of
vision skills:
• 2 months: Focus and color
vision
• 6 months: acuity, scanning &
tracking
• 6–7 months: depth
perception
172
Integrating Sensory Information
• By 1 month, can integrate sight and touch
• By 4 months, can integrate sight and sound
• 4- and 7-month-olds can match facial appearance
(boy or man) with sound of voice
173
Motor Development
• Maturity affect infant perceptual and motor abilities.
• Milestones of Motor Development
– Babies first learn simple skills and then combine them
into increasingly complex systems of action
• Week 1
• Month 1
• Month 2
: Motor ability progress
: Chin lift
: Reach for object
 Denver Developmental Screening Test measures:
 Gross motor skills (those using large muscles), such
as rolling over and catching a ball, and
 Fine motor skills (using small muscles), such as
grasping a rattle and copying a circle.
 Language development (for example, knowing the
definitions of words)
 Personality and social development (such as smiling
spontaneously and dressing without help).
174
Motor Development
• Newborn are not able to control their body
movement  no coordination.
• Most movements are due to inborn reflexes
(rooting, moro, palmer grasp etc.)
• Humans begin to walk later than other species,
possibly because babies' heavy heads and short
legs make balance difficult
175
Milestone in motor development
176
Motor Development
How Motor Development Occurs:
Maturation in Context
• According to Thelen, normal babies
develop the same skills in the same order
because they are built approximately the
same way and have similar physical
challenges and needs
177
Motor Development
Cultural Influences on Motor
Development
• Chances to explore their
surroundings motor development
likely to be normal
• Some cultures actively encourage
early development of motor skills
178
Motor Development
Training Motor Skills Experimentally
• Gesell concluded that children perform
certain activities when they are ready, and
training gives no advantage
• Interaction of biology and environment are
involved in infant motor development
179
Social Development
• Baby's ability to interact with other people
• Develops through regular interaction with babies:
– Feeding
– Cleaning
– Caring/loving
• Newborn can imitate facial expression.
180
Attachment
• What is attachment?
– The most important form of social development
that occurs during infancy is ATTACHMENT,
the positive emotional bond that develops
between a child and a particular individual.
– Bowlby viewed attachment as based on
infant's needs for safety and security
(especially from the mother)
181
Infant Attachment
• Attachment
– an infant responds positively to specific others, feels
better when they are close, and seeks them out
when frightened.
• Attachment provides
– a sense of security to the child
– information about the environment
182
Infant Attachment
Infant
Attachment
• Critical for allowing the infant to explore the
world
• Having a strong, firm attachment provides a
safe base from which the child can gain
independence.
• Attachment:– adaptive
– suggests that the tendency to form
relationships is at least partly biologically
based.
183
Infant Attachment
• Mary Ainsworth (1978) identified three
major attachment styles:– Secure  strong bonding
– Avoidant  negative bonding
– Anxious/ambivalent  display a combination of
positive and negative bonding
184
TOPIC 4:
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
IN CHILDREN
185
Physical Development
• Growth
• Motor skills
• Puberty  Maturity
186
Growth
• Changes in
– size
– body weight
– height
– head & arm circumference
– body muscles
– teeth
– bones
– etc.
187
Changes in Body Size
• Body grows more rapidly
– Growth occurs in small
spurts
• Length
– 50% greater at age 1
– 75% greater at age 2
• Weight
– Doubled by 5 months
– Tripled by 1 year
– Quadrupled at 2 years
188
Changes in Body Proportions
189
Body weight
• Changes in body weight is more dramatic
– New born  2.7 – 3.6 kg.
– 5 mths  body weight 2 x weight at birth)
– 1 year old  3 x
– 2 year old  4 x
• 2-3 yr. old  rapid change in weight (spurt)
• After 3 yr. old  slower rate
• The first 6 mths  changes focused > on muscle growth.
• 6-12 mths  dev. focused > on movement
• 2 yrs – pre puberty  body weight increase 2.5 kg per year
• Girls slightly shorter and lighter
• Ethnic differences
190
Growth Trends
• Cephalocaudal trend
– proceeds from head to tail
– head and chest develop/grow first before
trunk and legs.
• Proximodistal trend
– Center of the body outward
– arms and legs before hands and feet.
191
Body Fat/Appearance
• Subcutaneous fat  begin to form in the fetus about 6 weeks
before birth.
• First 9 months  sub. fat continue to accumulate rapidly 
making baby look rounded & filled up.
• Gain “baby fat” until about 9 months  After 9 months, fat
accumulation slows down.
• 1 year old – middle childhood  less fat accumulation
Toddlers become more slender (slimmer)
• Muscle tone increase
• Helps maintain constant temp.
• Muscle tissue increases slowly  Peaks in adolescence
• Girls= more fat than boys
192
Body fat and muscle  contributes to the
development and body structure:
– Ectomorph  small/tall, slim, skinny
– Endomorph  flabby, obese
– Mesomorph  tough, musculine
193
Height
•
•
•
•
•
Child of same age may differ in height.
Baby  length increase 30% until 5 mths old
By age 1 yr  length increase to 50%
5 years old  height doubles/triples
2yrs old - puberty  height increase 2-3 in. per
year.
• Adolescent  sudden changes in height &
weight (growth spurt)
194
Head circumference
• Baby
– Brain mass of a newborn  about 2/3 of adult size
– Head circ. of a new born  30-38 cm
– 6 mths old baby  42.5 cm
• Head circ/size increase  parallel to brain development.
• Newborn head bigger than body size  due to rapid
brain development during pre natal period.
• 5 yrs. Old brain weigh about 90% of adult brain.
• 6 yrs. old brain  equivalent to adult weight.
195
What is brain?
• Body most vital organ.
• Each person is born with over 100 billions brain cells
(neurons).
• Brains can send signals to thousands of other cells in the
body at speed of more than 200 miles per hr.
• Brain growth before & after birth is fundamental to future
development.
• Sensitive Periods in Brain Development
– Several growth spurts in first 2 years
– Rich and varied experiences stimulate brain development
• Experience-expectant growth
– Ordinary experiences
“expected” by brain to grow normally
• Experience-dependent growth
– Specific experience, varies widely
196
1 organ with 3 mini brains:
Brainstem (inner core)
– Breathing, heartbeat
muscle movement,
reflex behavior
Limbic system
– Covers the brainstem
– Motivation, emotions,
& long term memory
– Cerebellum – control
automatic movements
& balance
Cerebral cortex
– Higher mental process.
– Learning, memory,
Thinking, Language
– Last to develop
Structure of the
Brain
197
Regions of the Cerebral Cortex
198
Skeletal Growth
• Embryonic skeleton
– Soft, pliable tissue (cartilage)
– Beginning at week 6
• At birth babies have soft bones  cartilage.
• Changes is bones structure:
– Lengthen
– Harden
– Increase
199
Lengthened
– Bones become longer, bigger & thicker
– Bones will stop growing when it harden (reach
maturity)
200
Hardened
• At birth/baby  soft bones (cartilage)  water
content is high.
• During the process of ossification, bones harden 
calcium deposited.
• Eg. As baby skulls harden & fuse  Fontanel
gradually close (about 2 years old).
• Ossification occurs before birth and ends when a
person reach maturity.
• Nutritious food  calcium, phosphorous & vitamins
helps ossification
201
Increase
– Number of bones increases  parallel to its
function
– Eg. Number of bones in the wrist & ankle
increases with age
• 1 yr. 3 wrist bones;
• adult  9 wrist bones
202
Growth of the Skull
(Rapid during first 2 years)
• At birth
– Bone of the skull separate
– These gaps are called
fontanels
– Sutures = seams of the
skull
• By 2 years  Gaps filled in
203
Motor Skills
• Motor skills are
– Voluntary movements of the body or parts of
the body.
– Controlled development of body movement
through the coordination of central nervous
system , sensory system and body muscles.
• A child motor skill contributes to child further
development  able to control movement  assist
adaptation in the environment.
204
Motor Development
• Gross motor development
– Large movements
• Eg. Crawling, Walking, Running, Jumping
– Head proceeds arms and trunk
– Improves dramatically during preschool years
• Fine motor development  The ability to carry out smoothly small
movements that involve precise timing but not strength.
– Smaller movements
• e.g. Reaching and grasping
– Sequence the same
– Large differences in rate of motor progress
– Eg. Reaching, grasping, pinching, writing, drawing
– Involves the coordination between hand control and vision
205
(Eye-Hand coordination)
Voluntary Reaching
• Vital role to cognitive development
• New ways for exploring environment
206
Fine motor skill development
Steps in fine motor skill development: Pre-reaching (newborn) - Palmer grasp (reflex
grasp)
• Ulnar Grasp (3-4 months)
• Changing/passing object from one hand to the
other (5-8 months)
• Pincer grasp (9- above)
207
Reaching and Grasping
• Pre-reaching (0-2 months) (Palmer grasp)
• Ulnar grasp (3-4 months)
• Pincer grasp (9 months)
208
Reaching and Grasping
• Pre-reaching (0-2 months)
– Uncoordinated, primitive reaching
– Palmer grasp (reflex grasp)
– Hand grasping & movement without
coordination.
– Often fail to grasp object successfully
 may make contact with object but
fail to enclose it in their fingers
• The grasp reflex should disappear in
2 -3 months
209
Reaching and Grasping
• Ulnar grasp (3-4 months)
– Clumsy grasp
– Fingers close against the palm
210
Reaching and Grasping
• Pincer grasp
(9 months)
– Well-coordinated
grasp
– Oppositional use of
the forefinger and
thumb
211
Early Experience and Reaching
• Trying to push infants beyond their current
readiness to handle stimulation can
undermine the development of important
motor skills.
• As infants’ and toddlers’ motor skills develop,
their caregivers must devote more energies
to protecting them from harm.
212
213
Influences on Early
Growth
• Heredity
• Nutrition
– Breast v. Bottle Feeding
– Malnutrition
• Emotional Well-Being
– Problems can cause Failure to
Thrive
214
Benefits of Breastfeeding
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Correct fat-protein balance
Nutritionally complete
More digestible
Better growth
Disease protection
Better jaw and tooth development
Easier transition to solid food
215
Malnutrition
Marasmus
Types
Kwashiorkor
Iron-deficiency anemia
Food insecurity
Physical symptoms
Growth and weight problems
Consequences
Poor motor development
Learning, attention problems
Passivity,
216 irritability, anxiety
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 3 MONTHS OLD:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
lift head when held at your shoulder
lift head and chest when lying on his stomach
turn head from side to side when lying on his stomach
follow a moving object or person with his eyes
often hold hands open or loosely fisted
grasp rattle when given to her
wiggle and kick with arms and legs
217
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 6 MONTHS OLD:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
hold head steady when sitting with your help
reach for and grasp objects
play with his toes
help hold the bottle during feeding
explore by mouthing and banging objects
move toys from one hand to another
shake a rattle
pull up to a sitting position on her own if you grasp her
hands
sit with only a little support
sit in a high chair
roll over
bounce when held in a standing position
218
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 12 MONTHS OLD:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
drink from a cup with help
feed herself finger food like raisins or bread crumbs
grasp small objects by using her thumb and index or forefinger
use his first finger to poke or point
put small blocks in and take them out of a container
knock two blocks together
sit well without support
crawl on hands and knees
pull himself to stand or take steps holding onto furniture
stand alone momentarily
walk with one hand held
cooperate with dressing by offering a foot or an arm
219
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 18 MONTHS OLD:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
like to pull, push, and dump things
pull off hat, socks, and mittens
turn pages in a book
stack 2 blocks
carry a stuffed animal or doll
scribble with crayons
walk without help
run stiffly, with eyes on the ground
220
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 2 YEARS OLD:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
drink from a straw
feed himself with a spoon
help in washing hands
put arms in sleeves with help build a tower of 3-4 blocks
toss or roll a large ball
open cabinets, drawers, boxes
operate a mechanical toy
bend over to pick up a toy and not fall
walk up steps with help
take steps backward
221
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 3 YEARS OLD:
- feed himself (with some spilling)
- open doors
- hold a glass in one hand
- hold a crayon well
- wash and dry hands by himself
- fold paper, if shown how
- build a tower of 54 blocks
- throw a ball overhead
- try to catch a large ball
- put on shoes (but not tie laces)
- dress herself with help
- use the toilet with some help
- walk up steps, alternating feet
- walk on tiptoes if shown how
- walk in a straight line
- kick a ball forward
- jump with both feet
- pedal a tricycle
222
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 4 YEARS OLD:
- feed herself
(with little spilling)
- try to use a fork
- hold a pencil
- try to write name
- draw with the arm and not small hand movements
- draw a circle & a face
- try to cut paper with blunt scissors
- sometimes unbutton buttons
- try to buckle, button, and lace, even though she probably
needs help
- completely undress herself if wearing clothes with simple
fasteners
- brush teeth with help
- build a tower of 7-9 blocks
- put together a simple puzzle of 4-12 pieces
- pour from a small pitcher
- use the toilet alone
- try to skip
- catch a bouncing ball
- walk downstairs using a handrail and alternating feet
- swing, starting by himself and keeping himself going
223
Motor Skills
• 4-5 years old  Child able to control most of
his movement (jump, run, walk, climb).
• Above 5 yrs. old  good fine motor
development  able to do more complex
coordinated movement (throw & catch ball,
writing, hold object with care)
• The sequence in motor skill development also
follows cephalocaudal, proximodistal and mass
to specific principle.
224
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 5 YEARS OLD:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
hops and skips
dresses without help
good balance and smoother muscle action
Skates
rides bicycles and scooter
prints simple letters
ties shoes
• girls small muscle development about 1
year ahead of boys.
225
MOTOR-PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
BY 6-8 YEARS OLD:
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
skilled at using scissors and small tools
shows development of permanent teeth
enjoys testing muscle strength and skills
has good sense of balance
can tie shoelaces
enjoys copying designs and shapes, letters and numbers
may have gawky awkward appearance from long arms
and legs
throwing at targets,
running,
jumping rope,
tumbling
aerobics may be of interest
226
MOTOR-PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
BY 12 YEARS OLD:
• (Boys  80% adult height; Girls  90% of adult height)
• Growth is slower than in preschool years, but
steady.
– Eating may fluctuate with activity level.
– Some children have growth spurts in the later stages of middle
childhood.
• Transition towards adolescent
– Pre puberty period  Body changes (hips widen, breasts bud,
pubic hair appears, testes develop) indicate approaching puberty.
– Beginning of Puberty  menstruation in girls (menarch) 12-14
years old First ejaculation in boys  12-13 years old
(semenarch)
– Recognize differences between boys and girls.
227
MOTOR-PHYSICAL
DEVELOPMENT
BY 12 YEARS OLD:
– Children find difficulty balancing high energy activities and quiet
activities.
– Intense activity may bring tiredness Children need around 10
hours of sleep each night.
– Muscle coordination and control are uneven and incomplete in
the early stages, but children become almost as coordinated as
adults by the end of middle childhood.
– Small muscles develop rapidly, making playing musical
instruments, hammering, or building things more enjoyable.
– Baby teeth will come out and permanent ones will come in.
– Permanent teeth may come in before the mouth has fully grown,
causing dental crowding.
– Eyes reach maturity in both size and function.
– The added strain of school work (smaller print, computers,
intense writing) often creates eye-tension and leads some
children to request eye examinations.
228
TOPIC 4:
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
IN EARLY CHILDHOOD
229
Physical Development in
Early Childhood
• Body Growth Slows
– Shape becomes more streamlined
• Skeletal Growth Continues
– New growth centers
– Lose baby teeth
• Asynchronies
– Brain, lymph nodes
grow fastest
230
Brain Development in Early Childhood
• Frontal lobe areas for planning and
organization develop
• Left hemisphere active
– Language skills
– Handedness
• Linking areas develop
– Cerebellum
– Reticular formation
– Corpus callosum
231
Linking Structures of the Brain
232
Handedness
• Begins as early as 1 year and strengthens
• 90% are right-handed
• Left-handedness not caused by brain
problems
• Affected by Experience
– Practice
233
Influences on Physical Growth & Health
• Heredity and Hormones
– Growth hormone
– Thyroid-stimulating hormone
• Emotional Well-Being
– Psychosocial dwarfism
• Sleep
• Nutrition
• Infectious Disease
– Immunization
• Childhood Injuries
234
Helping Young Children Sleep
• Regular bed time
– Early enough for 10-11 hours of sleep
•
•
•
•
Special pajamas
No TV or computer games before bed
Bedtime ritual
Respond firmly but gently
to bedtime resistance
• No sleeping medication
235
Nutrition in Early Childhood
•
•
•
•
Appetite becomes unpredictable
Like familiar foods
Need high-quality diet
Social environment influences food choices
– Imitate admired people
– Repeated exposure to foods
– Emotional climate, parental pressure
– Poverty
236
Factors Related to Childhood Injuries
• Individual Differences
– Gender
– Temperament
• Poverty, low parental education
• More children in the home
• Societal conditions
– International differences
237
Motor Skill Development in Early Childhood
• Gross Motor Skills
– Walking, running smoother
– Catching, throwing, swinging,
riding
• Fine Motor Skills
– Self-help: dressing, eating
– Drawing
238
Progression of Drawing Skills
• Scribbles: during 2nd year
• First Representational Forms
– Label already-made drawings:
around age 3
– Draw boundaries and people:
3–4 years
• More Realistic Drawings:
preschool to school age
• Early Printing: Ages 3–5
239
Development of Children’s Drawing
240
Development of Printing in Early Childhood
Up to Age 3
Around
Age 4
Scribbles
Varied
pencil grips
“Drawing
print”
Between Gradually realize writing stands for
Ages 4 and language, identify individual letters
Adult pencil grip by age 5
6
241
Variations in 3-Year-Olds’ Pencil Grip
242
Individual Differences in Motor Skills
• Body Build
– Taller, longer limbed better
at running and jumping
• Sex
– Boys: better at power
and force
– Girls: fine motor skills,
balance, foot movement
243
Enhancing Early Childhood
Motor Development
• Mastered through everyday play
– Formal lessons have little impact
• Daily routines support fine motor
development
• Provide appropriate play space
and equipment
• Promote fun and positive attitude
244
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN
“MIDDLE CHILDHOOD”
245
Body Growth in Middle Childhood
•
•
•
•
•
•
Slow, regular pattern
Girls shorter and lighter until about age 9
Lower portion of body growing fastest
Bones lengthen
Muscles very flexible
All permanent teeth arrive
246
Middle Childhood
Growth Worldwide
• Shortest children:
South America, Asia, Pacific Islands, parts of Africa
• Tallest children:
North & central Europe,Australia, Canada, U.S.
• Secular trend in industrialized countries toward
larger and heavier children
247
Brain Development
in Middle Childhood
• Myelination increases white matter in
– Frontal lobes
– Corpus callosum
• Children acquire complex abilities
• Neurotransmitters and hormones may affect
cognition and behavior
248
Common Health Problems
in Middle Childhood
• Vision – Myopia
• Hearing – Otitis media (middle ear
infection)
• Malnutrition
• Obesity
• Bedwetting
• Illnesses
• Injuries
249
Causes of Myopia
• Genetics
– Myopic parents
– Asian heritage
• Early biological trauma
– Low birth weight
• Experience
– Reading & close work
– Computer use
250
Nutrition Problems in
Middle Childhood
•
•
•
•
Little focus on eating
Fewer meals with family
Too few fruits and vegetables
Too many fried foods
and soft drinks
• Poverty and lack of
nutritional food
251
Causes of Obesity in Middle Childhood
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Overweight parents
Early rapid growth or malnutrition
Low SES
Family eating habits
Response to food cues
Low physical activity
Television
252
Risks for Obese Children
• More likely to be
overweight adults
• Health risks
– Blood pressure,
cholesterol
– Respiratory
problems
– Diabetes
– Liver, gall
bladder
– Cancer
• Psychological risks
– Feeling
unattractive
– Stereotyping and
teasing
– Depression
– Problem behaviors
– Early puberty and
sexual problems
253
Illnesses in Middle Childhood
• More acute illnesses first two years of school
– Exposure
– Still developing immune system
• Chronic Diseases - 15–20 percent
– Asthma
– Severe illnesses – 2%
254
Accidents in Middle Childhood
• Most common types:
– Motor vehicle
– Bicycle
– Pedestrian
• Prevention
– Teach safety
– Model safe behavior
– Require helmets
– Watch high-risk children more
255
Motor Development in Middle Childhood
• Gross Motor Skills Improvements
– Flexibility
– Balance
– Agility
– Force
• Fine Motor Skills Gains
– Writing, Drawing
256
Six-Year Old’s Drawing
257
Eight-Year Old’s Drawing
258
Ten-Year Old’s Drawing
259
Individual Differences in Motor Skills
• Body build
• Sex
• Family encouragement,
expectations
• SES
• School & community lessons
available
260
Physical Play Development in
Middle Childhood
• Child-Organized Games with Rules
– Sports
– Invented Games
• Video Games
• Adult-organized sports
• Physical Education
261
Providing Developmentally Appropriate Sports
• Build on children’s interests
– Emphasize enjoyment
– Let kids contribute
• Teach age-appropriate skills
– Limit practices
• Discourage unhealthy competition
– Focus on personal and team improvement
262
Rough and Tumble Play
• Friendly chasing and play-fighting
• Common in many mammals and
across cultures
• Peaks in middle childhood
• Boys do more
• May help establish dominance
hierarchy
263