Download Unit 4: The Twentieth-Century Crisis

Unit 4: The Twentieth-Century Crisis
I.
Isms that threatened European stability. The growing strength of several forces presented a threat
to the continent.
A. Nationalism-Came to view the power & prestige of their nation as more important than
democratic rights, individual freedoms, or traditional values. 2 places where this prevailed
strongly-Germany & Austria.
1. Friedrich Nietzsche(NEE-cheh)-German philosopher who declared that a leader must be
one who followed no rules but his own.
2. They glorified war and wanted to dominate others by war and military might.
B. Social Darwinism-Darwin’s theory of evolution applied to all aspects of life by Herbert
Spencer, an English philosopher. Those who were better fitted for the struggle for survival
would become rich and successful. The poor were those unable to compete. Extreme
nationalists took these claims and justified aggression, war, and the persecution of minorities.
C. Anti-Semitism: Form of racism-the notion that one’s own racial or national group is superior
to others. In Germany, the Aryans were the superior race and the Jews inferior. There had
been a strong hatred for Jews since the Middle Ages. Many were forced to live in a ghetto-a
section of a European town or city where Jews were required to live. Acts of violence were
often encouraged by Russians against the Jews.
D. In 1896, Theodor Herzl(HAIR-tsul) suggested Zionism-a separate homeland for the Jews
where they would be safe from persecution; carried out several years later with the founding
of the state of Israel in 1948.
As the 20th century began, European society seemed strong and stable. Rapid changes, however,
brought uncertainties. Extreme nationalism and racism were creating bitter hostilities among
nations and peoples.
I.
Alliance Systems
Remember, European nations had struggled for centuries to maintain a balance of power. The
modern power struggle began with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which drew new boundaries
in Europe. The increasing German (Prussian) strength and the policies of the newly united
German Empire realigned Europe into 2 hostile camps between France and Germany. The French
defeated Germany in the Franco-Prussian War, which resulted in the loss of Alsace-Lorraine in
1870-1871. Russia and Austria were potential enemies because they shared borders and
competition for the territory of weaker nations. The alliance system was based on both internal
loyalties and fears.
A.
To keep France isolated and deprive it from taking Alsace-Lorraine back, Chancellor
(chief minister of state) Otto von Bismarck began to make alliances-a union between
nations with a common interest. 1879-Germany & Austria-Hungary made a dual
alliance (secret military alliance).
B.
1882-The dual alliance expanded to include Italy, making the Triple Alliance (later, the
Central Powers).
C.
1894-France seeks an ally due to Germany’s military strength, which was increasing,
industries were expanding, and population was growing. They allied with Russia,
forming an entente-a friendly alliance (public treaty of friendship).
D.
1904-Great Britain joined in the Triple Entente (later the Allies), setting aside
differences. Germany regarded this as a threat from the east and west. By 1907, Europe
was divided.
E.
Militarism-another cause of tension-the policy of glorifying war and promoting the
buildup of military power. If one country increased their military, the other followed
suit. Remember, Germany wanted to extend power & territory; France wanted to retain
Alsace-Lorraine. Militarism was a powerful force in the prewar period. So influential
were Germany’s military leaders that a historian described Prussia as not “a country that
had an army but an army that had a country.” The belief that quarrels must be settled on
the battlefield were widespread.
F.
Slavs Nationalists Movements in Eastern EuropeRussian related Pan-Slavists wanted Russia to rule over the Slavs of Eastern Europe.
Serbia had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, but the Slavs in
Bosnia and Herzegovina had come under Austrian rule. The Serbs wanted to unite with
these and create “Greater Serbia.” Their obstacle was Austria, who fears a revolt; the
Serbs feared trouble from Austria.
G.
The Triggering of World War I
1.
Assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne.
June 28, 1914: A Serbian nationalist (Black Hand; Union of Death), 19-year-old
Gavrilo Princip shot and killed Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, who were riding
in an open car; a car that made a wrong turn in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo.
The Serbs hoped this would increase tensions and the occurrence of a Slavic
revolution.
2.
Alliance system reacts.
July 23, 1914: Austria sent Serbia demands that if they did not answer, Austria
would declare war. The Serbs accepted all but one of the demands; they refused
to let Austria investigate the shooting, which displeased Austria. A chain
reaction occurs as the Balkans were about to explode: Germany had promised
help to Austria. Austria was ready to declare war on Serbia, which alarmed
Russia.
3.
The Great War begins: July 28, 1914. (5 days after the ultimatum was issued.)
a.
Austria declared war on Serbia.
b.
2 days later, Russia mobilized for war against Germany & Austria.
c.
Germany wanted to attack first and warned Russia to stop preparing for
war. Russia did not and Germany declared war on Russia on August
1st. 2 days later, Germany declared war on France since they were
Russia’s ally.
d.
The war escalated as Germany put the Schlieffen Plan into effect.
Named for Count Alfred von Schlieffen, chief of the German general
staff from 1891-1906, this plan aimed at going around French defenses
by sweeping through Belgium to the English Channel, then wheeling to
the south and east to overpower the French and crush them against the
German fortresses in Lorraine. Germany asked Belgium first, but was
refused, resulting in an invasion on August 3 rd. This involved Great
Britain since the British had pledged to guarantee Belgium’s neutrality
(this had happened after Belgium had gained its independence in 1830).
On August 4th, the British joined its allies.
e.
2 days later, Austria declared war on Russia.
The war drew in the major nations in a matter of days (July 28 th-August 6th, 1914; less than 6 weeks after
the shooting at Sarajevo. Extreme nationalism and militarism supported each other and made it difficult for
diplomacy to work. All the great powers of Europe were at war; still more countries would become
involved until it truly was a world war.
II.
A World at War: The opposing sides reflected the alliance system. Triple Entente-France,
Britain, & Russia (later, the Allies); Triple Alliance-Germany and Austria-Hungary (later, the
Central Powers). Italy, the other member of the Triple Alliance, objected to Austria’s aggression
and eventually joined the Allies. The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and Bulgaria joined the Central
Powers. In 1917, the United States joined the Allies.
A.
War Action-The German army invaded Belgium in August, 1914, confident of victory.
1.
Western Front-The German army invaded Belgium in August, 1914, confident
of victory. Everything depended on speed. The bulk of the German army would
defeat France while a small army would hold off Russia in the East until this
victory. Germany trains would then rush the troops to the eastern front. The
plan failed, though. The Russians moved faster and invaded East Prussia in late
August. The remaining ones on the western front were stalled by counterattacks
by British troops who united with French troops defending Verdun against a
major German offensive.
2.
New techniques and weapons.
a.
Trench warfare-(no man’s land) Hundreds of miles of trenches were
dug across France marking the western front. Between lines laid
barricades of barbed wire, mud, torn earth, & shattered trees. Attacking
soldiers had to get out of trenches & climb over. Trench warfare was
first used as a method of defense by the Confederates in the Civil War.
b.
New Weaspons.
1.
machine guns
2.
long-range guns
3.
poison gas
4.
tanks (Germans introduced these in 1916.)
5.
airplanes (2 of the best known wartime fliers (aces)-the
German Baron von Richthofen (the Red Baron) and the
American Eddie Rickenbacker.
6.
Submarines (introduced by the Germans)
3.
Eastern Front-While the Germans were attacking France in 1914, the Russians
won some early victories in eastern Germany. However, they were badly beaten
at Tannenberg by the armies of the German commander, Field Marshall Paul
von Hindenburg. In the spring of 1915, another Austro-German offensive
forced a retreat. By late 1916, the Russian war effort was near collapse. The
Russian army was poorly trained, inadequately equipped, and incompetently led.
(Over 2 million casualties) Problems within Russia resulted in a revolution
which resulted in the czar’s overthrow. In March, 1918, Russia signed the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk giving up land, resources, and population, and leaving
the war and losing to Germany.
4.
Several areas of involvement.
a.
Italy-1915, Italy signed an agreement with France and Britain, joining
the Allies. Fighting broke out on the Austrian-Italian border. In the
fall of 1917, combined German/Austrian forces broke through the
Italian lines at Caporetta, causing retreat.
b.
Asia & the Pacific-Japan took over German spheres of influence on
China’s Shantung Peninsula.
c.
The Ottoman Empire (Turkey)-along the coast. Allies were stopped at
Gallipoli in their attempt to take the Turkish Dardanelles in 1915.
d.
Africa-French & British troops took over German colonies at
Togoland, Kamerun, and southwest Africa.
e.
Juttland-only major naval battle between Britain & Germany, 1916,
with the British forcing the Germans back into German waters.
B.
C.
D.
The United States enters the War.
President Woodrow Wilson advocated a policy of neutrality, which was hard to maintain
for a number of reasons.
1.
Propaganda caused sympathy. News & information was designed to persuade
people to adopt a particular point of view.
2.
Economic Reasonsa. Both Britain & Germany interfered with shipping by neutral nations.
Britain seized cargo to keep war supplies from reaching Germany. The
Germans turned their submarine fleet into weapons. (Their subs were
called U-boats: short for Untersee, German word for undersea.) They
attacked neutral merchant ships carrying food and supplies to Britain.
Many were killed. In May, 1915, the Lusitania (a British ship) was sunk,
killing 1,200 including over 100 Americans.
b. Loans-Individual American banks and businesses had loaned 1.5 billion
dollars to the Allies, who used much of it to buy U.S. supplies.
3.
Zimmerman Telegram. 1917, German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman
tried to make an alliance with Mexico, promising that a German victory would
return Texas and other parts of the American Southwest to Mexico. Britain
broke the code to this secret telegram and the offer was made public. Although
Mexico remained neutral, America was now very angry.
4.
U.S. declares war in April, 1917. Wilson’s aim was to “make the world safe for
democracy.” By early summer, troops of the American Expeditionary Force,
under the command of General John J. Pershing, began to arrive in France.
They joined with the Allies, led by the French general, Marshal Ferdinand Foch
(Fohsh). In June, 1918, the German offensive was stopped at Chateau-Thierry
(shah-TOH-TYEH-ree) on the Marne River.
The Central Powers collapse. Germany had problems: shortages of food, medicine, oil,
and ammunition. The Allies counterattacked. German generals knew the war was lost &
asked the government to ask for an armistice-a halt to the fighting. In October &
November, 1918, Austria & Turkey surrendered and rebellions in Germany forced the
Kaiser (William II) to give up the throne. A newly established government signed the
armistice on November 11, 1918.
The “War to End all Wars” ends with 9 million killed; 21 million wounded or disabled;
and 13 million dead of disease and starvation.
IV.
Peace creates problems-The peace settlement did not create the atmosphere that was desired.
A. Wilson’s 14 Points: Even before the end of the war, President Wilson offered a peace plan in
a speech to Congress (1-8-18). Wilson outlined his points that he thought would bring world
peace.
1. Self-determination: The right of national groups to determine their own political status.
This meant that Austrian lands inhabited by Italians would belong to Italy. The South
Slavs and the Czechs in Austria-Hungary could form their own states, as well as the
Poles.
2. “Peace without victory”-Wilson urged a fair treatment for Germany, believing that harsh
treatment would cause them to seek revenge. A just settlement would cause those
defeated to work with the Allies for a new & better world. He envisioned free trade and
freedom of seas for all nations.
3. Disarmament-Wilson wanted to eliminate militarism, hold open negotiations, and disarm
the nations so that no country would fear its neighbors or seek to invade them.
4. Fair treatment of colonial peoples-Wilson called for a “free, open-minded, and absolutely
impartial adjustment of all colonial claims.” He hoped that the imperialist nations would
eventually apply the principle of self-determination to their colonies, considering the
interests of the people as well as their own concerns.
5. League of Nations-To preserve peace, Wilson urged the formation of an international
organization, hoping it would help both large and small nations settle their quarrels and
discourage aggressors from taking up arms.
6. Wilson’s idealism clashed with reality. The war had great losses and bitterness. Hatred
was not gone between the nations.
B. The Versailles Treaty
There were actually 5 separate treaties (one with each of the defeated states: Germany,
Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, & the Ottoman Empire), but the one with Germany (June, 1919)
was the most important, with France gaining and Germany paying the consequences.
1. Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine to France.
2. Germany lost land to Poland.
3. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was repealed, giving back land to Russia.
4. German territory on both sides of the Rhine was demilitarized (free of troops).
5. The German army was reduced to only 100,000 men, with no artillery, tanks, or war
planes in order to prevent Germany from being a future threat. The German army could
consist of only volunteers, and the navy was limited to a small fleet with no submarines.
6. Germany lost its overseas territories in Africa, Asia, & the Pacific Ocean. Its colonies
were given to France and Britain.
7. Germany and its allies received blame for the war, therefore, Germany was required to
pay reparations to other nations, as compensation for property destroyed in the war. The
price-$33 billion. Germany felt this was unfair.
C. New nations formed from Germany & Austria-Hungary: The Czechs and Slovaks became
Czechoslovakia; the Croatians, Slovenes, & Serbs joined with Serbia to form Yugoslavia;
Austria & Hungary became separate nations.
D. The League of Nations formed with more than 60 nations joining. But the U.S. Senate
refused to ratify the treaty and never became a member. Many Americans adopted
isolationism-the feeling that their country should avoid involvement in foreign affairs. Some
thought that league membership would involve the U.S. in more wars.
In the aftermath of the war and the peace settlements, there were widespread political and territorial
changes. Idealistic plans for peace were advanced, but bitter feelings and resentment in many nations
worked against a lasting, permanent peace.
“Russia in Upheaval”
I.
Czarist Rule is overthrown: At the end of the 19th century, Russia remained one of the most
autocratic states in the world. Think back to the 1800s: There was dissent in Russia because of
Alexander II’s reforms which went against the people’s normal way of life. Alexander repressed
this by ending the reforms, thus, Russia lagged behind the rest of western Europe. Even further
back in Russia’s history, at the turn of the 18 th century, Peter the Great tried to westernize Russia,
but did not meet with favor from those who favored traditional ways.
The Bolshevik Revolution grew out of the long-standing conflict between the goals of the czarsthe desire to modernize Russia & the desire to maintain their autocratic rule.
A.
Czarist Unpopularity Continues.
Czar Nicholas II became czar in 1894 at 26. He strongly believed in autocratic rule, thus,
Russia stayed behind while western Europe experienced industrialization, urbanization,
and the spread of democratic government. Russia remained weak & underdeveloped.
B.
There were attempts to industrialize and modernize Russia.
1.
Sergei Witte (VEET-tyeh), a minister to the czar, realized change was needed
and urged a program of industrialization. Foreign experts were hired. Taxes
werer increased; railroads developed; etc.
2.
The people reacted negatively. Why? Agriculture had been the mainstay of the
Russian economy & Russian life. Workers became discontent with the low
standard of living that factory work provided.
3.
Social Discontent-other reasons for dissatisfaction.
a.
Russo-Japanese War: This had humiliated the Russians and was
followed by rebellions of workers, peasants, sailors, & other groups.
b.
Imperial Duma was established. The czar agreed to this first
parliament and managed to increase participation in the government.
There were now more reforms:
1.
land was given to more peasants.
2.
Greater freedom was given to the most successful farmerskulaks (fists).
Yet, troops were used to suppress rebellion.
c.
Bloody Sunday-January 22, 1905: a group marched to the Winter
Palace with demands and were fired on by imperial troops; hundreds
were killed and wounded.
4.
Political Discontent-Ideas introduced from the west caused people to question
czarist rule, and improved transportation & communication helped the formation
of political parties.
a.
Bolsheviks-believed strongly in the views of Karl Marx (majority
party). These revolutionaries thought industrialization made socialism
possible. What is socialism? A political & economic philosophy that
calls for government or worker ownership and operation of business
and industry for the benefit of society. The leader of this movement,
Vladimer Lenin, was dedicated to overthrowing czarist rule & the
capitalist system.
b.
Mensheviks-(minority) hoped revolutionary goals could be realized by
less violent means.
C.
Revolution is at hand.
1.
March Revolution-1917: 3 factors contributed to this.
a.
World War I-Russia’s interest in the Balkans involved an unprepared
Russia. Neither the industry, government, nor military were ready.
b.
2.
Rasputin Affair-Czar Nicholas II had been with the troops fighting
since 1915. His wife, Alexandra, ran the government. She had no
experience in ruling & turned to her son (heir to the throne) for help.
He suffered from hemophilia-a disease that prevents blood from
clotting. In her despair, she believed Rasputin, who convinced her he
could cure her son. She began to rely on his advise and choice of
government officials. The mis-management alarmed many who killed
him in 1916.
c.
Czar is overthrown-The mis-management of the war effort by the czar
and his officers led the soldiers to lose respect for czarist rule & made
them willing to join the workers when the revolution began. This was
unplanned. The war had aggravated tensions. The czar was
overthrown in March, 1917.
Bolshevik Revolution-Also known as the October Revolution of 1917.
Actually, November 7th. Pre-revolutionary Russia continued to use the Julian
calendar, which would have been October 25th.
a.
Provisional Government-had been set up by the Duma under the
leadership of Alexander Kerensky, who wanted to protect individual’s
rights and continue the war against Germany. He wanted to restore
unity through Democratic rule with a parliament.
b.
Military Dictatorship proposed-With disunity, some said this would
hold the country together by armed force.
c.
Opposition by Petrograd Soviet to the Provisional government. Sovieta representative council of workers, peasants, & soldiers. This was an
influential group who excluded the upper class. It was under the
control of the Bolsheviks led by Lenin, who understood the people’s
demands. By mid-1917, Russians wanted reforms and an end to the
war.
1.
To peasants, Lenin offered land that would be taken from the
landowner.
2.
To workers, he offered bread & control of the factories.
3.
To soldiers, he offered peace.
4.
To national minorities, he offered self-determination.
The Bolsheviks gained support in the major cities.
d.
Soviets begin rule. Lenin’s supporters, led by Leon Trotsky, seized
government buildings in Petrograd & arrested members of the
Provisional Government. St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd at the
beginning of the war in 1914 to eliminate the Germanic sound of the
name. After Lenin’s death in 1924, the city was renamed Leningrad.
Bolsheviks declared a Soviet Republic, dedicated to a Marxist society.
Soviets would be in power for 74 years.
II.
Lenin builds a Soviet State.
A.
The new government was established-Before Lenin could build a solid government, there
would be much strife confronted by the people.
1.
Shaky beginningsa.
Treaty of Brest Litovsk-humiliating: The Polish lands, the Baltic
provinces, Finland, & the Ukraine, which was rich farmland, were
given up. The Allied defeat cancelled this, but Finland, & the Baltic
states of Latvia, Lithuania, & Estonia, retained their independence from
the Bolsheviks.
b.
Civil war within-The Communist leaders faced opposition. Bolsheviks
are now referred to as Reds. (Red army was organized by Trotsky.)
Those opposing were the Whites. They supported the parlimentary
government. Greens fought in Ukraine. The new independent nation
of Poland declared war on Soviet Russia & took territory in western
Russia. Forces from Britain, France, the U.S., and Japan, moved into
Russian territory and helped the Whites. It was anarchy & chaos.
2.
Dictatorship established-Violence and absolute power was used to suppress
opposition. The Russian Secret Police (KGB) used this. Enemies were sent to
concentration camps. Czar Nicholas, his wife & children, were imprisoned &
killed in July, 1918. The capital was moved from Petrograd to Moscow.
B.
Economic & Social Changes
1.
War Communism-These were emergency measures that failed to revive the
economy.
a.
1st goal-control of economic activity.
b.
Industry, banks, & foreign trade came under governmental control.
c.
All men under 50 were drafted for labor or for the armed services.
d.
Women were mobilized to work in factories & on construction projects.
e.
Strikes were forbidden.
f.
To feed the people in the cities & the army, soldiers seized food from
the peasants.
There was much opposition to this.
2.
New Economic Policy (NEP)-Lenin abandoned the socialist goal of a rigidly
planned economy. This allowed small scale manufacturing, trade, & agriculture
to return to private ownership, while the government kept control of major
industries, banks, & means of communications.
3.
State Planning Agency (Gosplan)-promoted electrification throughout the
country. The first step in giving the state complete control, it was backed by
force & terror over all factors involved in production & distribution.
4.
Social Changes: Communist philosophy (political) or ideology-appealed to
workers & peasants. Social services were promised, yet, everyone had the duty
to work. National minorities were granted the right to use their own languages
& to preserve their cultures, as long as they followed Communist leadership.
C.
Marriage of the Soviet Government and the Communist Party.
1.
Political Opposition is suppressed.
In the Kremlin, Lenin directed the Soviet State. The key to success: unification.
The only political party permitted in the new Russia was the Communist party.
2.
Leaders dominate. The new government led by members of the Party’s
Politburo (political office). Leaders controlled the government, women’s
groups, and professional & cultural organizations.
3.
Supreme Soviet-Highest government authority: Council of Ministers, staffed
with the highest ranking party members, formed the executive branch of
government.
4.
Many Republics united (new approach). Russia had often tried to impose
Russian culture on others. The USSR (Union of Soviet Socialists Republic)
formed in 1922 with each member republic representing a different major
nationality, such as Georgia, the Ukraine, Kasakh, & Uzbek. The selfdetermination principle preserved without harming the unity of the multinational country.
5.
Religious persecution-One of the first acts of the Bolsheviks had been to seize
Church land and property. They wanted to reduce the role of the Church in
people’s lives, because it was a rival for their loyalties. Religious people
suffered much persecution under Communist rule.
6.
Communism becomes international. Lenin looked beyond the Soviet Union.
He sent out an appeal for revolution to all who blamed their governments for
poverty, suffering, or injustice. Communist parties sprang up in India, China,
Egypt, & Turkey. In 1919, Lenin formed the Communist Third International
(Comintern) to bring about world revolution. This goal soon became secondary
to that of strengthening the Soviet Union.
By late 1918, the Communists, led by Lenin, emerged as the leaders of a new state.
Lenin finally established a dictatorship that attempted to create a state with a planned
economy.
III.
The Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.
A.
Rivalry between Stalin & Trotsky over command.
1.
Trotsky’s planning was behind both the Bolshevik seizure of power in 1917 &
the strict discipline of the Red Army. Lenin favored him.
2.
Stalin was the son of a Georgia shoemaker. 1922-appointed general secretary of
the Communist Party. Stalin used his position to gain control of the party. He
eliminated from the Party anyone who opposed him or his goals, including
Trotsky. They were eventually driven out of the Soviet Union. In 1929, on his
50th birthday, Stalin was officially hailed as Lenin’s successor.
B.
Stalin’s governing policies.
1.
Rapid industrialization-replaced the NEP.
a.
5 year plans-This involved a series of 5 year plans set up for the
deliberate, forced growth of industry. The first in 1928 was drastic.
Total state control began. Private business ended. All economic
activity came under state management.
b.
Problems:
1.
The plans led to shortages, delays, & poor service for
consumers.
2.
Under the plans, large numbers of men & women were forced
to work in factories.
3.
They were paid low wages based on what they produced.
4.
Workers were poorly fed and lived in overcrowded housing.
5.
The emphasis on quantity led to the production of shoddy
(poor quality) goods.
2.
The governmental use of art-was to boost Soviet industry. Writers, painters, &
musicians could produce only works of “socialist realism.” They were to inspire
the people’s devotion to the state.
3.
Agriculture-This was reorganized under collective farming.
a.
collective farming-the bringing together of the livestock, equipment, &
buildings of many small farms on one large tract of land. The people
could not voluntarily produce their crops.
b.
The peasants resisted, however, the armed forces forced
collectivization in the winter of 1929-1930. Those kulaks (most
prosperous & successful farmers) who kept resisting were shot or sent
to gulags-forced labor camps.
c.
4.
Consequences1. Peasants slaughtered their own animals rather than turn them over
to the state.
2. the loss of livestock (100 million animals) caused severe shortages
of meat, dairy products, leather goods, & fertilizer.
3. Grain was seized for export & millions starved to death. By the
mid-1930s, collective farms, each composed of hundreds of
households, were the rule in the Soviet Union.
d.
Stalin showed no concern. He made 1 concession-he allowed peasants
to keep small plots of land for private use.
Government changed.
a.
A new constitution-the rights of Soviet citizens could be severely
restricted under this. The constitution described the goals of the party;
everything must be done in the interest of the state.
b.
Opposition grew. Many said Stalin had gone too far and suggested he
step down in favor the Party secretary in Leningrad, Sergei Kirov.
c.
Stalin’s purge-December 1934, Kirov was murdered. The purge lasted
from 1935-1939. Many were arrested and tortured until those being
interrogated signed “confessions.”
d.
Stalin achieved unity, demanding a totalitarian state-designating a
government in which unified action is achieved through the complete
authority of the leader.
Stalin came to power after Lenin’s death in 1924. Stalin ruthlessly enforced
policies of industrial growth and the collectivization of agriculture. Years of
purges killed millions and made Stalin the all-powerful ruler of the Soviet
Union.
The World Between the Wars
Fascism-an ideology stressing dictatorship & nationalism, and placing the strength of the state
above the welfare of individual citizens. One who believes in fascism is a fascist. The word
fascist comes from fasces (FASS-eez), an ancient Roman symbol of power and authority.
(symbolized by a bundle of sticks bound around an ax.) This originated with Mussolini’s name
for his political party and then came into general use. Fascism exalts a nation and race, and stands
for a centralized autocratic government headed by a dictatorial leader.
Pacifism-opposition to war or violence as a means of settling disputes; an attitude or policy of
nonresistance. Fascists deny the existence of peace. Fascist views: extreme nationalism,
glorification of war, strongly authoritarian, anti-democratic, and anti-Communist.
I.Fascism emerged in Italy & Germany; it developed due to unemployment, inflation, & resentment over
the peace settlements after World War I; fascists feared the spread of communism.
A.
Fascist Italy.
1.
Post-World War I Italy.
a.
Italy had food shortages, rising prices, unemployment, & business
failures.
b.
Nationalists felt cheated of German & Austrian territories by the
Versailles Treaty.
2.
Benito Mussolini-school teacher & political journalist; once a Socialist; he was
for peace; the son of a blacksmith, he did not agree with the government totally.
a.
Mussolini organized the Fascist Party in 1919. This appealed to several
groups who feared the spread of communism.
1.
business owners.
2.
Government officials.
3.
Landowners.
4.
Thousands of war veterans-the military style discipline &
organization of fascism appealed to many. They wore blackshirted uniforms.
5.
Middle Class-university students; shopkeepers, & professional
people feared growing political power of the industrial
workers & the Socialist party.
b.
March on Rome-Fascists denounced the ineffective government and
prepared to march on Rome, taking over the administration.
c.
At this point (October, 1922), King Victor Emmanuel III offered
Mussolini the position of Prime Minister; he accepted.
3.
Fascists then take control.
a.
All other political parties are suppressed in order to win elections.
b.
A secret police is created to spy on enemies.
c.
Anyone who threatened Mussolini’s power was imprisoned or
deported.
d.
Communication (radio, press, & movies) was controlled & censored,
giving the impression that Fascists had eliminated crime, poverty, &
labor problems.
e.
It was made difficult for citizens to leave the country.
f.
Single men were taxed.
g.
Availability of jobs to women were limited.
h.
Families were encouraged to have more children.
i.
The economy was reorganized by dividing areas of production into 22
nationwide syndicates like a corporation. Labor unions were abolished
and syndicates controlled wages, prices, & working hours, making Italy
self-sufficient so as not to rely on imports.
Despite all this, Fascists only had limited power. Industrialists, landowners, &
the Catholic Church and the army retained much of their influence.
B.
Fascism in Germany.
1.
The Weimar Republic-the German people had been sure of victory in World
War I, so defeat caused confusion. In November, 1918, a republic was
proclaimed. The former emperor, Kaiser William II, left for the Netherlands.
Authoritarian rule had been in place since 1871. An elected national assembly
met in the city of Weimar (Vy-mar) in February, 1919 and adopted a republican
constitution, electing Friedrich Ebert (Ay-bert) as president. The Republic was
led by members of the Social Democratic party.
2.
Criticism of the republic.
a.
Communists-who wanted a state like Russia.
b.
German nationalists who favored authoritarian rule.
c.
Military leaders.
d.
Industrialists
e.
Large landowners.
f.
Judges.
3.
Criticism of the Versailles Treaty.
The Nationalists and militarists wanted to do three things:
a.
reject the treaty;
b.
rebuild the army;
c.
restore Germany to power.
4.
Adolf Hitler-one of the most outstanding critics, born in 1889 in Austria; wanted
to be an artist, but was a poor student. He welcomed World War I &
volunteered to serve in the German army.
a.
Hitler organized the National Socialist German Workers (Nazi) Party,
whose symbol was the swastika. This appealed to the lower middle
class-shopkeepers, small farmers, office workers, & teachers.
b.
In 1923, the Nazi’s tried unsuccessfully to over the government of
Bavaria. Hitler was sentenced to 5 years in jail for this but was
released after 9 months.
c.
While in jail, he wrote his political views in Mein Kampf (My
Struggle).
d.
Hitler claimed that Germans were a “master race” descended from the
Aryans. Jews & Slavs were inferior & weakened the nation. He
practiced anti-Semitism, blaming the Jews for Germany’s defeat in the
war, high unemployment (1929), & for the spread of communism.
(Inflation made the currency practically worthless.) Hitler announced
this through the use of propaganda, repeating what he wanted the
people to believe. He gave them an enemy to hate, a cause to fight for,
and a leader to obey.
e.
Hitler organized a private army, the stormtroopers or Brown Shirts.
f.
By the end of 1932, the National Socialists had become the strongest
political party in Germany, though they were still far from having a
majority in the Reichstag (lawmaking body). In January, 1933,
President of the Weimar Republic, Paul von Hindenburg, made Hitler
chancellor.
1.
Elections to the Reichstag were set for March, 1933. Shortly
before the elections, fire swept through the Reichstag building.
Hitler claimed it was part of a Communist plot. Thus, the
Germans were scared into voting for Nazi candidates.
2.
The newly elected Reichstag gave Hitler the powers of an
absolute dictator and turned Germany into a totalitarian state.
The elections gave Hitler such power for 4 years; of course, he
meant to stay in power longer.
g.
Hitler proclaimed the Third Reich (RYK), the 3rd great empire in
German history. (The Holy Roman Empire was the 1st; Germany under
the Kaisers the 2nd.) Hitler’s actions:
1.
abolished all political parties except the Nazis.
2.
Dissolved the trade unions.
3.
Set up courts for secret trials.
4.
Purged storm troopers, who he feared as a threat. Hitler’s
personal guards, the S.S., led by Heinrich Himmler, arrested
and shot around 1,000 officers.
5.
The Nazi Secret Police, or Gestapo, ensured that everyone
obeyed Hitler, the Fuhrer (leader).
6.
Germany started rearming;
7.
Propaganda was used to strengthen Nazi rule; books were
burned that praised democracy or denounced war.
8.
The Jews were persecuted; anti-Semitism became official
government policy.
a.
Jews lost their citizenship.
b.
Jews were forbidden to hold government jobs.
c.
Jews were forbidden to own businesses.
d.
Jews were forbidden to carry on their professions.
e.
Stores refused to sell to them.
f.
Landlords refused to rent to them.
Many fled Germany.
9.
November 10, 1938, the Nazis set fire to synagogues &
vandalized Jewish homes and stores-“the night of broken
glass” or Kristallnacht (kris-TAHL-nahkt). Those who
opposed this openly were sent to concentration camps.
Fascism had been established in Italy. By 1938, many Germans saw things in Nazi Germany that pleased
them. Businesses were thriving, workers were employed, and the Armed forces had been rebuilt. The
world was taking note. Few in Germany, though, envisioned the long-range effect of Nazism.
II.
Authoritarian rule spreads in Europe.
A.
Democracies of Eastern Europe failed-Hungary, Poland, Rumania, Austria, Bulgaria, &
Greece. The peace treaties ending World War I set up new governments in parts of
eastern & central Europe. Most were based on the governments of western Europe. The
people did not have experience in this type of government. When the new governments
were unable to solve postwar problems, people attempted to return to authoritarian rule.
Only in Czechoslavakia was democracy preserved. In the others, Communism &
Fascism competed for the people’s support.
B.
Spain
1.
The Constitutional Monarchy had been under attack by various groups within
the country. Some wanted a republic with government officials elected.
2.
In 1923, fearing a revolution, King Alfonso XIII allowed General Miguel Primo
de Rivera (PREE-moh day ree-VAY-rah) to take power as a military dictator,
which did not satisfy the people. He resigned in 1930.
3.
In the 1931 elections, supporters of a republic won, demanding that the King
leave and declared a republic. They established 3 reforms:
a.
reduce the influence of the Catholic Church.
b.
Reduce army officers.
c.
Confiscate large estates and give land to peasants.
4.
Those who had been influential opposed this: army officers, landowners, & the
Catholic Church. These joined a fascist-type party called the Falange (fuhLANJ).
5.
In the 1936 elections, there would be 2 main factions.
a.
Fascists.
b.
Popular Front-Anti-fascist groups who wanted to preserve the republic,
including liberals, Socialists, Communists, and radical labor groups.
6.
Civil War breaks out (1936-1939)
a.
In July, 1936, Falangist army officers in Spanish Morocco rebelled &
revolts broke out.
b.
By October, the rebel soldiers proclaimed General Francisco Franco
head of a fascist Spanish state. Civil war raged between Falangists and
supporters of a republic.
c.
Foreign nations intervened.
1.
Hitler & Mussolini aided Franco.
2.
The Soviet Union aided the republic.
3.
Volunteers from Britain, France, & the U.S. flocked to Spain
to join the republic force-the International Brigade. (One of
these volunteers was George Orwell.)
7.
Results of war: In 1939, Madrid fell to Franco. Spain came under a fascist
dictatorship that lasted until Franco’s death in 1975..
Truly, Europe was in an unstable situation. Most of the nations after World War I faced severe social &
economic problems. Unfortunately, authoritarian rule was their answer for solving these problems. This
would prove to be an illusion, however, for their problems still existed.
III.
Post-war crises in other areas of the world: After World War I, the world continued to experience
difficulty.
A.
The United States
1.
Isolationism-The Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles and the U.S. did
not join the League of Nations. Americans wanted to “return to normalcy” to
enjoy prosperity at home & avoid involvement in European affairs; normalcy
attributed to President Warren G. Harding.
2.
Signs of improvement-profits of American businesses soared and the standard of
living increased for many.
3.
Economic problems.
a.
Farmers faced severe hardships. With new technology, more food was
produced than people could buy. As the food supply rose, food prices
fell. Farm incomes declined, thus many failed.
b.
Factories were producing more goods than American could buy,
leading to lay-offs.
c.
There was a tremendous increase in installment buying-“buy now, pay
later.”
d.
The stock market crash-October 29, 1929. Many bought stocks (shares
in the ownership of corporations) on credit. An investor could pay only
a fraction of the cost of the stock and use credit for the rest. In
October, 1929, stock prices began to fall sharply. Investors panicked to
sell their stock while it was worth something. Thousands, particularly
those who bought on credit, were wiped out financially.
e.
The Great Depression-the U.S. economy was bad.
1.
Those who lost their money could not afford to buy new
goods. Already, they were producing more than they could
sell.
2.
Factories cut production and laid off more workers.
3.
Those unemployed could not meet installment payments.
4.
Few banks could collect what they loaned.
5.
American investors started withdrawing capital invested in
Europe. Thus, European banks & businesses also failed.
4.
The New Deal-When Franklin Delano Roosevelt became the 32 nd president in
1933, more than 13 million Americans were out of work. Many were homeless
& hungry. FDR believed that it was the government’s responsibility to help.
Under this economic reform, the federal government played a larger part in the
economy than ever before.
a.
Rules for banking & for the sale of stocks were established to ensure
against future problems. (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation;
Securities & Exchange Commission)
b.
Help for the unemployed was provided. (Social Security Act)
c.
Programs to create jobs were set up. (Civilian Conservation Corps)
d.
Farmers were encouraged to cut back food production so that farm
prices would rise. (Agriculture Adjustment Act)
e.
The Tennessee Valley Authority was established to develop the
Tennessee River in the interest of navigation & flood control & to
provide electric power to a wide area of the southeastern U.S.
f.
The National Recovery Administration enforced competitive codes for
industry.
B.
Great Britain.
1.
Economic Problems
a.
Great Britain was dependent on foreign trade, but many of its merchant
ships had been lost in the war, thus, it was losing markets to other
nations.
b.
Worldwide development of water power & oil reduced demand for
British coal.
c.
d.
2.
C.
D.
E.
The Depression caused problems.
Political parties could not solve the problems, so, in 1931, a coalition
government was formed, in which all the major parties (Liberal, Labor,
& Conservative) were represented.
Empire changes.
a.
Commonwealth of Nations formed in 1931. Parliament enacted the
Statute of Westminster, which created a new relationship between
Britain & the dominions (former colonies): Canada, Newfoundland,
Australia, New Zealand, & the Union of South Africa became part of
the Commonwealth of Nations, becoming equal members with Great
Britain sharing a common loyalty to the monarch, but not under the
authority of the British Parliament.
b.
Trouble in Ireland-another new member of the Commonwealth of
Nations. The Irish Free State, or Eire (AYH-ruh) had become a
dominion in 1922 amid violence. Many in Ireland wanted to remain;
others did not. In 1921, Ireland was divided. Northern Ireland (Ulster)
remained part of Great Britain and was represented in Parliament. The
rest of the country became the Irish Free State.
France
1.
Economic Problems-they had been made worse by the devastation caused by the
4 years of warfare on French soil. They had counted on Germany’s payment of
reparations, but, in 1922, the Weimar Government announced it could pay no
more.
2.
Unstable political problems: the Third Republic had been unstable since
established in 1871. The parties could not work together to solve problems,
causing division.
China
1.
China & Japan clashed over the Shantung Peninsula after World War I.
Germany had previously claimed this.
2.
Sun Yat-sen and his Nationalist party (Kuomintang) had been unable to set up a
central government because of the power of the warlords. No aid was sent from
the Western nations. Only the Comintern supported China with military &
political help.
3.
Sun died in 1925. His hand-picked successor, Chiang Kai-shek (JYAHNG kySHEK). He distrusted the Communists & purged them from the party. He tried
to strengthen & modernize China.
4.
Communists grew under Mao Tse-tung (MAH-oh dzuh-DOONG) and were
driven into south-central China (Hunan). Nationalist troops heavily armed and
surrounded them (about 100,000). Several escaped on a journey known as the
Long March (October, 1934). It began in the southern part of Kiangsi Province
and ended 1 year & nearly 6,000 miles later in Yenan (Shensi Province) in the
hills of northwestern China.
Japan.
1.
Economic Problems-Japan had modernized & depended heavily on international
trade. Trade declined due to worldwide depression, which was disastrous.
2.
Japan’s military leaders looked to solve problems by advocating expansion, to
gain more resources & power. They take more & more control of the
government in the 1930s and put down any opposition.
The economic hardships of the years between the wars made it difficult for democracy to survive in
Europe. The settlements of the Versailles Treaty created a climate of bitterness & hatred in which fascism
flourished. Although not a fascist state, Japan in its aims and policies had much in common with Italy &
Germany in the interwar years. Japan would join up with the Axis powers in 1940. Even before this, it
was clear another world war was certain.
World War II
I.Aggression leads to war in Europe and Asia.
A.
Attempts at Peace (good intentions).
1.
The League of Nations-had been established by the Treaty of Versailles to
promote world peace. More than 60 nations joined, but the League was weak
due to the refusal of the United States to join. More importantly, the League
lacked power to enforce decisions.
2.
International Conferences-in London & Washington, D.C., diplomats discussed
disarmament & agreed to limit the size & strength of navies.
3.
Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact, 1928-an agreement eventually signed by all
countries to renounce war, named for American Secretary of State Frank B.
Kellogg, & Premier Aristide Briand of France. This promise would soon be
broken.
B.
Germany violates the Versailles Treaty.
Germany had originally joined the League of Nations, but left when the Nazis took over.
Germany had bitterly resented the treaty due to the fact that disarmed the country, taken
away conquests, and ordered the payment of huge sums for war damages. When Hitler
gained power, he vowed to change things.
1.
His first step in restoring Germany’s power was to rebuild its military force. In
1935, Hitler declared Germany would build a peace-time army of 550,000 men,
going against the provision in the treaty that set a 100,000 limit.
2.
Britain & France denounced German rearmament but did not take action in
order to preserve peace. A law or rule was violated and there were no
consequences.
C.
Fascist aggression goes unchecked.
1.
Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935. (Italy would leave as a member of the Leauge.)
Ethiopia, this independent African kingdom, had resisted earlier Italian
invasions in 1896. Now, they would be defeated.
a.
Haile Selassie (HY-lee suh-LASS-ee), Ethiopia’s emperor, appealed for
help from the League of Nations.
b.
The League condemned Italy for this act of aggression.
c.
The League urged members not to sell arms or raw materials to Italy,
rather, adopt economic sanctions, but only a few cooperated.
2.
Hitler sent troops into the Rhineland in March, 1936, the region between the
Rhine River and the French border, violating the Versailles Treaty again.
3.
Japan took Manchuria in 1931.
a.
The League of Nations condemned the move but took no action.
b.
Japan resigned from the League in 1933.
c.
In July, 1937, Japanese & Nationalist Chinese troops clashed and the
Sino-Japanese War followed.
d.
Japanese troops began an all-out invasion of China-1937.
4.
Hitler south to bring together all German-speaking peoples.
a.
Troops entered Austria in March, 1938 & declared it part of the Third
Reich, violating the treaty again. A union, or Anschluss, was prohibited
between Germany & Austria.
b.
1938, Hitler moves on Czechoslovakia. Most Czechs & Slavs lived
here, but there were some Germans.
1.
Most Germans lived in the Sudetenland, the western region
along the German border.
2.
France & Britain opposed this & British Prime Minister
Neville Chamberlain called for the Munich Conference in
September, 1938. The two agreed to the German claim on the
Sudetenland, continuing a policy of appeasement. Both
nations desired peace at almost any price.
3.
Americans wanted to stay out of European wars.
Germany’s actions were often unopposed for many, especially
in Britain, felt the Versailles Treaty was too harsh.
5.
March, 1939, German troops took Prague, the Czech capital,
and Czechoslovakia now ceased to exist as an independent
nation.
March, 1939-Hitler demanded that the city of Danzig, Poland return to German
rule; Hitler wanted Poland. He demanded that Germany be granted a railroad &
a highway through the Polish Corridor, which had been created after World War
I. This corridor was a strip of land that separated East Prussia from the rest of
Germany, giving Poland access to the sea.
a.
Poland refused.
b.
Britain & France declared that they would help defend Poland’s
independence.
c.
They were stunned when the Nazi-Soviet Pact was signed in late
August, 1939-a pact of friendship & non-aggression. In return for half
of Poland, the Soviet Union agreed not to interfere with Hitler’s
invasion.
d.
On Sept. 1, German troops marched into Poland.
e.
On September 3, 1939, Britain & France declared war against
Germany.
At the time of the invasion of Poland, Germany was better prepared than Britain
& France for war and would now begin to exert their power in Europe, thus, a
long war was in store for the world.
4.
5.
II.
Europe falls to the Axis Powers (Italy & Germany) between 1939 & 1942.
A.
Poland falls to Germany-In less than 1 week after the Sept. 1st invasion, the German
blitzkrieg (BLITS-kreeg), or lightning war, occurred. Hitler developed this type of
warfare that used quick, massive attacks on land and in the air. On Sept. 27, 1939, after
heavy days of bombing, Warsaw surrendered. Poland was divided between Germany &
the Soviet Union.
B.
The Soviet Union claimed land in the Baltics.
1. They established military bases in Latvia, Lithuania, & Estonia.
2. Finland was seized in the winter war of 1939.
C.
Phony war of Western Europe-little action in late 1939-early 1940.
D.
Germany strikes in the spring of 1940. Heavy bombing devastated cities & terrorized the
civilian population as Germany pushed into northern France.
1.
Denmark-April, 1940
2.
Norway-April, 1940
3.
Belgium-April, 1940
4.
The Netherlands-April, 1940
5.
Luxembourg-April, 1940
6.
France-June, 1940
a.
Allied forces (British, Belgian, & French) rescued at Dunkirk. The fall
of Belgium allowed the German army to move around the end of the
Maginot Line. Germans broke the French defenses near Sedan &
moved to the English Channel. Every available vessel set sail from
England-even fishing boats. By June 4, most of the soldiers were taken
to England leaving equipment behind. Germany advanced steadily
across northern France. Many civilians fled south.
b.
Italians invaded from the South.
c.
German troops marched into Paris on June 14th.
d.
The French government asked for an armistice, under which Germany
occupied northern France, including Paris, and the coast.
e.
In the south, a government was established at Vichy (VEE-shee), that
was very cooperative with the Germans, headed by Marshal Henri
Philippe Pe’tain, a hero of World War I.
7.
E.
F.
Battle of Britain, 1940-1941; Great Britain stood alone. Hitler planned to
invade, but hoped they would surrender.
a.
When it was clear Britain would not surrender, Hitler ordered the
Luftwaffe to heavily bomb British factories, airfields, seaports, &
cities. On August 8, 1940, hundreds of bombers & fighter planes
attacked, beginning months of air raids, day & night, in preparation for
an invasion.
b.
British Royal Air Force defended Britain inflicting heavy losses on
German aircraft and the British were aided by radar, a new device to
detect enemy planes.
c.
By late fall, Hitler abandoned his invasion plans. The Blitz continued
until spring, however, claiming thousands of British civilians.
d.
A German naval blockade prevented the shipment of food & supplies,
thus there were shortages. Britain needed help, but U.S. neutrality
prevented the U.S. from lending money or goods to a country at war.
8.
Invasion of the Soviet Union.
June 22, 1941-anniversary of Napoleon’s invasion. Even though Hitler & Stalin
had made a nonaggression pact when they divided Poland, Hitler moved to
destroy communism & seize Soviet territory.
a.
Reasons for the invasion:
1.
Hitler wanted land for German settlers.
2.
Hitler wanted rich grain fields to feed the German nation.
3.
Hitler wanted oil, coal, & iron ore to supply the German war
machine.
Soviet armies suffered enormous losses in the first months. By
October, 1941, German troops were only 50 miles from Moscow. The
Russian civilians were suffering hardships.
b.
The Soviet defense.
1.
As the Soviet troops withdrew, crops were burned in the fields
& equipment was destroyed. These “scorched earth” tactics
left no food or supplies for the advancing Germans.
2.
Autumn rains & winter snow slowed the Germans.
Obviously, blitzkrieg tactics were not effective on muddy,
snowy roads. The Soviets were ready for winter, while the
Germans were not.
a.
Soldiers suffered 30 degree below zero weather in
summer uniforms.
b.
Tanks & trucks could not start in the cold.
c.Even another offensive would not be successful. The Soviet victory marked
the turning point for Eastern Europe in the war. Germany surrendererd
Stalingrad in 1943.
Lend-Lease: In March, 1941, the U.S. Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act which
allowed President Roosevelt to sell, lease, or lend military equipment to nations whose
defense was vital to American security. This applied to Britain & China, and was
extended to the U.S.S.R.
Fighting in North Africa.
Mussolini sought control over the Mediterranean, while Hitler expanded westward in
Europe.
1.
In the fall of 1940, Italian forces from Libya invaded Egypt.
a.
to capture the Suez Canal.
b.
To open the way to the oil fields of the Middle East.
2.
The forces here were led by the German Field Marshall Erwin Rommel, whose
clever tactics earned him the nickname, “The Desert Fox.”
3.
The British forces were led by Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery; they
blocked Rommel’s advance toward Egypt. At El Alamein (ell ah-lah-MAYN),
Britain had their first major victory of the war.
4.
The U.S. meanwhile had entered the war after the attack at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii
on December 7, 1941. In November, 1942, Allied troops were under the
command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower. They began in French Morocco
and Algeria. Rommel’s armies became trapped between the two Allied armies.
By May, 1943, the Allies held North Africa.
G.
Europe under Hitler.
1.
A New Order was imposed. Despite the Allied victories in Africa & Eastern
Europe, most of Europe was firmly under Nazi control.
a.
Over this Reich, Hitler planned to extend a New Order in which all of
Europe would serve the German “master-race” idea of Aryan
superiority.
b.
These racial policies called for enslavement or extermination of all
inferiors. The non-Aryans were not only the Jews, but Slavs (mostly
Poles & Russians).
c.
These policies were administered by Heinrich Himmler, Hitler’s police
chief.
2.
Persecution begins in Poland-When Poland fell in 1939, both the Soviets & the
Nazis terrorized the Poles.
a.
Soviets transported over 1 million from eastern Poland to labor camps
and concentration camps in the U.S.S.R., especially the upper class.
4,000 officers were massacred.
b.
In Western Poland, concentration camps were built and many Poles
were relocated here.
3.
Conquered lands are exploited by Germany. (France, U.S.S.R, Czechoslovakia,
& Rumania) Food, resources, labor, and art were taken by the Germans. About
7 million were sent to forced labor camps.
4.
European Jews faced the Holocaust-remember, wiping out the Jews was one of
Hitler’s major goals.
a.
Genocide-considered the final solution to the Jewish problem; the
systematic murder of an entire people.
1.
Jews were rounded up, loaded into sealed cattle cars, &
shipped to death camps. Remember Anne Frank.
2.
Those who were used in labor were of a prime age; the very
young and old were killed first.
3.
Many were herded into gas chambers.
4.
Others were beaten and starved.
5.
Some were victims of cruel medical experiments.
6.
6 million Jews died; about 1.5 million children.
b.
Most notorious death camp was Auschwitz (OUSH-vitz) in Poland.
Here alone, 3-4 million died. In charge here was Rudolf Hoess, who
was later tried for crimes against humanity and executed.
5.
Resistance movements; some occurred in each German-occupied country. Some
aided the Allies. Some led strikes. Others sabotaged plants making German
war equipment.
a.
They symbol of resistance became the “V” for the Victory sign.
b.
These people took great risk. For every German soldier killed, many
other civilian hostages were executed.
c.
Governments in exile were established; for example, the Free French,
led by General Charles de Gaulle (de GOHL).
While war was raging in Europe, another arena caught the attention of the world. This Pacific theater
would bring the United States directly into the war.
III.
War Breaks out in the Pacific.
A.
Japan expands in southeastern Asia.
1.
Occupation of British, French, & Dutch colonial possessions in Asia & the
Pacific. These nations’ involvement in World War II in Europe left these areas
undefended. Japan already had control of Korea, Manchuria, & parts of China
for oil, rubber, tin, & rice. This was very important to feed their people on the
island. The United States would have been capable in 1940 to stop Japanese
expansion. The Japanese feared this and thus worried.
2.
Attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii: December 7, 1941
a.
Reasons for Japan’s actions:
1.
The U.S. passed an embargo, which limited trade & banned
the export of war material.
2.
Japan resented the Russo-Japanese War settlement; unhappy
because they had to remove their troops from Manchuria.
This settlement, the Treaty of Portsmouth, had been
orchestrated by Theodore Roosevelt.
3.
They disliked the U.S. immigration policy because it excluded
orientals. Earlier in 1941, the U.S. Congress passed an act
providing for the refusal of visas to aliens whose presence in
the U.S. would endanger public safety. For those Japanese
living in America, they were herded into internment camps.
4.
Japan also wanted to cripple American naval bases, as well as
the United States’ power to interfere in Asia.
b.
The attack came on Sunday, December 7, 1941, at 7:55 a.m. Before
this, the U.S. & Japan had been negotiating to improve relations.
Nothing came from these talks, though, and many expected war. Japan
had talked of an attack. However, Americans were take by complete
surprise. That morning, the radar picked up the Japanese bombers
headed toward the base in the Hawaiian islands, but thought they were
American planes. No alert was sounded, thus, destruction came.
c.
The fleet was destroyed. American losses: 8 battleships & 10 other
naval vessels were sunk or badly damaged; about 200 aircraft were
destroyed; about 3,000 naval & military personnel were killed or
wounded. Over 1,000 were entombed in the USS Arizona when it
exploded and sank. Japan's losses: 29 planes, 45 pilots, 1 submarine,
& 5 midget subs.
d.
This resulted the U.S. entering the war. On December 8, the U.S. and
Great Britain declared war on Japan; 3 days later, Germany & Italy
declared war on the United States.
3.
Japan continues its conquests in Asia.
Japan had more victories after Pearl Harbor, and by early 1942, claimed these
possessions.
a.
The Philippines-an American possession.
b.
Burma-British
c.
Singapore-British
d.
Dutch East Indies
e.
French Indochina
Japan also had plans to capture New Guinea and Australia.
B.
U.S. regains strength.
1.
Battle of the Coral Sea-In May, 1942, American & Japanese clashed here. After
this defeat, Japan made some plan changes.
2.
Battle of Midway-June 4-7, 1942: Japan suffered its most serious defeat at
Midway Island, 1,135 miles northwest of Pearl Harbor. Japan lost their 4 best
aircraft carriers along with the planes on deck and many pilots. Despite the loss
of the carrier Yorktown, the U.S. regained naval superiority. The tide was now
turning; the Allies would now be more aggressive.
IV.
The Allies are Victorious.
A.
The Allied Offensive Becomes Aggressive.
1.
The Invasion of Italy-By occupying North Africa, the Allies were in a good
position to invade Italy.
a.
July, 1943-British & American troops landed on the island of Sicily.
b.
July, 1943-Mussolini was overthrown. Fascism collapsed after 20
years. Mussolini was now powerless, but somewhat popular still. He
later died on April 28, 1945, telling his family goodbye, then going into
hiding with his long-time mistress Clara Petacci. A partisan
communist leader found their hiding place in a farmhouse up in the
mountains of Italy. He wanted to put down any fascist, especially
Mussolini. Both were shot dead.
c.
September, 1943-Allies landed on the mainland and the new Italian
government surrendered. There was still stiff German resistance.
d.
The Allies took Rome in June, 1944.
e.
Northern Italy was finally taken in early 1945.
2.
The invasion of Nazi-occupied France.
After much preparation, “Operation Overlord” was ready for action.
a.
Before Normandy, the first conference of the Big Three occurred in
Tehran, Iran (November, 1943) to coordinate military plans &
agreements about the future of Europe. (Roosevelt, Churchill, &
Stalin) Another meeting was at Yalta on the Black Sea to discuss Asia.
b.
Allied forces were led by General Dwight D. Eisenhower.
c.
June 6, 1944; D-day: the day of the landing on the beaches of
Normandy.
1.
The Allies (approximately 120,000 forces of mostly
American, British, Canadian, & Free French) crossed the
English Channel.
2.
Thousands of ships & planes were coordinated for this. This
caught the Germans by surprise. On some beaches, soldiers
struggled through 4 feet waves in the face of fierce German
gunfire.
3.
Allied control of the air was crucial to the invasion’s success
by bringing in more soldiers & supplies.
4.
Less than a month after D-day, a million soldiers were in
France.
d.
August 25, 1944-Paris was liberated & the Allies were advancing
toward Germany. Southern France was later liberated in September
when the Allies invaded Dijou in Operation Dragoon.
3.
The last German attack. By autumn, 1944, Germany’s cause seemed hopeless.
Germany was under heavy Allied bombing.
a.
December, 1944-the Battle of the Bulge: German troops and tanks
attacked in the hilly forests near Germany’s border with Belgium &
Luxembourg. Americans were outnumbered 5 to 1. Despite this, the
German offensive was halted by the Allies. The weather did not help
and Germany was short of gasoline.
b.
The Allies could now advance from both the east and the west.
c.
April 21, 1945-Marshal Zhukov’s Soviet troops reached Berlin.
d.
April 30, 1945-With Soviet troops so close, Hitler apparently
committed suicide. At the last moment, he married long-time mistress
Eva Braun. The day before he died, he wrote a farewell & his last
testament. Eva took poison; he shot her just to be sure, then probably
shot himself, but may have taken poison, however, his body was never
found.
e.
Germany surrendered-the end of the war in Europe announced on May
8, 1945: V-E Day.
4.
The U.S. takes the offensive in the Pacific-After the Battle of Midway. The
battle plan was island-hopping, seizing only those islands that were in strategic
positions on the sea route to Japan.
a.
August, 1942-Japanese base at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands was
attacked by Americans.
b.
August, 1942-Australians & other Allied troops fought in New Guinea.
c.
Allied victory came to these islands-the Gilbert Islands.
d.
The Marshall Islands.
e.
The Mariana Islands.
f.
Americans reclaimed the Philippine Islands. Casualties ran high in the
Pacific due to the fact that the Japanese felt that surrender meant
dishonor. They would rather fight until they died, rather than be taken
prisoner. “Kamikaze” attacks were common because pilots in planes
with bombs would crash into American ships on purpose.
g.
Americans took Iwo Jima in early 1945. Taking the island from the
Japanese cost the lives of 6,800 and wounded 18,000. It took a month
to take the island. It took 4 days after the initial landing to plant the
American flag atop Mount Suribachi, where photographer Joe
Rosenthal caught the moment.
h.
Americans then took Okinawa, where casualties were even higher:
12,500 Americans (35,500 were wounded), & 120,000 Japanese.
i.
The Potsdam Conference took place in July, 1945, after Germany’s
surrender. Stalin, Clement Atlee, the new prime minister, and Harry
Truman, who succeeded FDR, met to discuss Japan. At this
conference, they demanded Japan’s surrender. A few days later,
President Truman decided to drop the first atomic bomb. This was
done to bring a quick end to the war and avoid further casualties. (The
war was also fought in the scientific laboratories; Germany was also
experimenting with an atomic bomb in 1939.)
j.
August 6, 1945-Hiroshima was bombed, bringing horrible destruction:
more than 80,000 were killed; 37,000 suffered severe injuries. Others
later died from the effects of the radiation released by the explosion.
The bomb weighed 9,000 pounds and was as powerful as 12,500 tons
of TNT. It exploded within 100 feet of the target and was dropped
from the plane, “Enola Gay.” It sent a fireball 18,000 feet across the
sky. The temperature at the center of the fireball was as hot as the
surface of the sun. People became nothing. Within the first nine
seconds of the drop, many disintegrated into ash. Half of the doctors
were killed. Devastation covered a 4 square mile area. The light from
the bomb created permanent shadows on wood & stone of flowers &
men. They disappeared but their shadows remained. Those who
survived had patterns on their skin; later, they lost their hair. Robert
Oppenheimer, the scientist who had worked on the bomb, came to
regret his work.
k.
August 8, 1945-the Soviet Union declared war on Japan & invaded
Manchuria.
l.
August 9, 1945-because Japan had not surrenderred, a second atomic
bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Shortly after this, peace came.
m.
August 15, 1945-Emperor Hirohito announced the Japanese surrender:
V-J Day.
n.
September 2, 1945-officials of Japan and U.S. General Douglas
MacArthur signed the document of Japanese surrender aboard the USS
Missouri in Tokyo Bay.
B.
Results of World War II-57 nations had become engaged in this struggle that created an
armed forces exceeding 90 million. There is an old saying: “In peace, sons bury their
fathers; in war, fathers bury their sons.” World War II destroyed 3 times as many lives
and 10 times as much wealth, and was longer than World War I.
1.
The Allies take control in both Germany & Japan.
a.
The U.S. occupied Japan, however, the Japanese Imperial government
was allowed to run the country.
b.
In Germany, the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union established
zones of occupation.
2.
Destruction left by the war.
a.
Around 50 million people died. (U.S.-407,000 deaths)
b.
Civilians suffered; many became homeless. This war that had been
orchestrated by a few was paid for by many.
c.
10 million died in the Nazi concentration camps, including 6 million
Jewish people.
d.
There were vast areas of destruction. Cities, farms (livestock),
factories, bridges, railway systems, waterways, harbors, coal mines, etc.
were destroyed. The world had to rebuild.
e.
Military expenditures and property damage totaled 1500 billion dollars.
3.
War trials-The Nazi leaders and the Japanese commanders responsible for the
destruction were arrested and tried for “crimes against humanity.” The most
famous trial was in Nurembourg, Germany (November, 1945) where the world
learned of the horrors of the Holocaust-the genocidal destruction of Jews by
Nazi Germany.
World War II had been the longest war yet, from September 1939 through August 1945. Even before the
war ended, leaders of the Allied nations began to make plans for the postwar world. One of their goals was
the creation of a peacekeeping organization. By 1945, the United Nations would be established. The
United States and The Soviet Union emerged as the world’s most powerful nations. Rivalries between
these two superpowers created an atmosphere of tension that became known as the Cold War. The
U.S.S.R. established several Soviet-backed Communist governments in Eastern Europe. In response, the
U.S. developed policies designed to control the spread of communism in the world. Each formed defensive
alliances and began to built up weapons. At the same time, both desired ways to cut down the risk of actual
war.