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Transcript
Goal of Anthropology • Describe, analyze, and explain different cultures to show how groups live in different physical, economic, and social environments, and to show how members give meaning to their lives. SUB-FIELDS OF ANTHROPOLOGY • • • • Physical (aka Biological) Anthropology Linguistic Anthropology Archaeology Cultural (aka Socio-Cultural) Anthropology Ethnography • Ethnography is the description of society or culture. – An emic ethnography attempts to capture what ideas and practices mean to members of a culture. – An etic ethnography describes and analyzes culture according to principles and theories drawn from the Western scientific tradition such as ecology, economy, or psychology. Ethnology • Ethnology is the attempt to find general principles or laws that govern cultural phenomena. Subsistence Patterns • The ways societies transform the material resources of the environment into food, clothing, and shelter. • They develop in response to: – seasonal variation in the environment – environmental variations such as drought, flood, or animal diseases Subsistence Patterns Factors: • Population density: The number of people inhabiting an area of land. • Productivity: The yield per person per unit of land. • Efficiency: The yield per person per hour of labor invested. Subsistence Patterns FORAGING • Relies on food naturally available in the environment. • Strategy for 99% of the time humans have been on earth. • Limits population growth and complexity of social organization. Subsistence Patterns PASTORALISM • Caring for domesticated animals which produce meat and milk. • Involves a complex interaction among animals, land, and people. • Found along with cultivation or trading relations with food cultivators. Transhumant Pastoralism • Found mostly in East Africa • Men and boys move the animals throughout the year as pastures become available at different altitudes or in different climatic zones. • Women and children and some men remain at a permanent village site. Nomadic Pastoralism • The whole population moves with the herds throughout the year. • There are no permanent villages. Horticultural • Production of plants using non-mechanized technology. • Typically a tropical forest adaptation that requires cutting and burning the jungle to clear fields. • Swidden (slash and burn): Clearing fields by felling trees and burning the brush. Agriculture • Production of plants using plows, animals and soil and water control. • Associated with: – Sedentary villages – Occupational diversity – Social stratification Transitions to Industrial Economy Had an effect on many aspects of society: • Population growth • Expanded consumption of resources • International expansion • Occupational specialization • Shift from subsistence strategies to wage la Political Organization • Bands are foragers, usually egalitarian, and exchange goods through generalized reciprocity. • Tribes are horticulturalists or herders and generally egalitarian and balanced reciprocity is their major means of exchange. Political Organization • Chiefdoms are rank societies, characterized by the political office of the chief. • State societies are usually based on agriculture, industry, or in the contemporary world, a post industrial service economy. Social Structure (Organization) The relative access individuals and groups have to basic material resources, wealth, power, and prestige. Egalitarian Societies • No individual or group has more access to resources, power, or prestige than any other. • No fixed number of social positions for which individuals must compete. • Associated with bands and tribes. Rank Society • Institutionalized differences in prestige but no restrictions on access to basic resources. • Individuals obtain what they need to survive through their kinship group. • Associated with horticulture or pastoral societies with a surplus of food. • Associated with chiefdoms. Stratified Society • Formal, permanent, social and economic inequality. • Some people are denied access to basic resources. • Characterized by differences in standard of living, security, prestige and political power. • Economically organized by market systems. • Based on intensive cultivation (agriculture) and industrialism. • Associated with form of political organization called the state. Descent Groups and Systems