Download Introduction to plant life in New Zealand

Introduction to
plant life in New Zealand
Introduction to
plant life in New Zealand
Plant Conservation Training Module 1
by Iain Reid, John Sawyer and Jeremy Rolfe
Photography by Jeremy Rolfe
Published by the New Zealand Plant Conservation Network in association with NorthTec.
P.O. Box 16-102
Wellington 6242
New Zealand
Email: [email protected]
www.nzpcn.org.nz
Text © 2009 New Zealand Plant Conservation Network
Photographs © Jeremy Rolfe and named photographers
ISBN: 978-0-473-15252-9
Cover photograph: The sporangia of the primitive fern para (Ptisana salicina) are fused into groups called synangia. Para was once
common in the north of New Zealand but it is now declining.
Contents
1. Introduction
1
2. Why New Zealand plants?
5
3.
Plant names – which name do you use?
11
4.
Where plants grow and why
13
5.
Plant communities in New Zealand
17
6.
Life cycle and growth form
20
7.
Flower power
23
8.
Spores, seed and fruit
29
9.
Leaf it up to me
35
10. Stem and bark
51
11.Roots
53
12. Plant identification
55
13. Collecting plant specimens for identification
63
iii
1. Introduction
This introduction to plant identification in New Zealand is the first in a series
of training resources to be developed by the New Zealand Plant Conservation
Network. It was initially prepared after the Network was funded by the New
Zealand Government’s Biodiversity Condition and Advice Fund in 2005 to
develop plant conservation training for iwi. The book was modelled on a
range of material including NorthTec’s plant courses and the Department of
Conservation’s training programme.
The New Zealand Plant Conservation Network is involved in a variety of
programmes to implement the New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy and Global
Strategy for Plant Conservation. Those programmes include education and
advocacy, developing plant conservation strategies, prioritising conservation
effort and gaining resources, providing technical expertise and disseminating
information about native plants.
A key area of work is education to raise awareness of the plight of New Zealand’s
indigenous plants and fungi, and to inform people about the native plant life of
New Zealand (through publications, website, meetings and training courses and
workshops). To this end, the Network is developing other training resources,
including covenant management—techniques for managing and restoring
Nga Whenua Rahui kawenata and conservation covenants; and wetland and
stream side management—techniques for restoring and protecting stream side
vegetation and wetlands.
What is the New Zealand Plant Conservation Network?
The New Zealand Plant Conservation Network was established in April 2003
and now has over 600 members worldwide. The Network’s mission is:
•
To educate people about New Zealand’s native plant life (including
fungi) and promote indigenous plant conservation in New Zealand and
throughout Oceania.
•
To collaborate to protect and restore New Zealand’s indigenous plant life,
their natural habitats and associated species.
•
To disseminate information about the taxonomy, biology, ecology, and
status of indigenous plant species and communities in New Zealand, and
•
To promote activities to protect them throughout their natural range.
The Network has a vision that “no indigenous species of plant will become extinct
nor be placed at risk of extinction as a result of human action or indifference, and
that the rich, diverse and unique plant life of New Zealand will be recognised,
cherished and restored.”
To achieve that vision the Network works with many people and organisations
throughout New Zealand.
1
The importance of plant conservation in New Zealand
Plant diversity is a key component of nature’s life-support systems. The quality
of our life, the quality of the water we drink, the quality of the air we breathe
and the quality of the soil all depend on maintaining natural plant communities.
Most of New Zealand’s indigenous plants and fungi, the communities they are
part of and the animal communities they support are endemic. That means they
do not occur in the wild anywhere else in the world. Our responsibility is to
protect these natural resources not only because of the ecosystem services that
they deliver or because of the many uses to which they can be put but because of
their intrinsic right to exist. New Zealand is world renowned for its flora, fauna
and fungi and is regarded internationally as a global biodiversity “hot spot”. The
continued survival of New Zealand’s native plant life is threatened.
The 2008 revision of threatened and uncommon plants in
New Zealand, identified 180 indigenous vascular plant taxa as
Nationally Threatened (91 Nationally Critical, 45 Nationally
Endangered, 44 Nationally Vulnerable) and a further 651
taxa as At Risk. In addition, a further 171 plants were listed
as taxonomically indeterminate and may warrant further
conservation attention once their taxonomic staus is clarified.
Overall, this represents a decline in the conservation staus of
the New Zealand flora since the previous listing in 2004 (de
Lange et al. 2009: Threatened and uncommon plants of New
Zealand (2008 revision) New Zealand Journal of Botany 47:
61–96).
Many native plant communities in New Zealand are also
threatened, such as wetlands, coastal dunes and lowland forest.
Other, non-vascular, plant species and over 50 species of fungi
are also known to be at risk of extinction in the wild.
Myrsine umbricola, a Nationally Critical shrub known
from only a few locations in the Tararua Range.
Among the most significant threats are land development
(such as subdivision, wetland drainage and forest clearance),
invasion of exotic plant, animal and fungal species and global
environmental changes (such as a changing climate). Plant
conservation, in response to those threats, will halt and reverse
the current decline of native plant life in New Zealand.
More information about the Network
More information about New Zealand’s native plant life (including all native
plants mentioned in this module) and the New Zealand Plant Conservation
Network maybe obtained by visiting the Network website at www.nzpcn.org.nz.
This website includes information about how to become a Network member to
gain full access to the website and to receive the monthly Network newsletter.
The contact address for the Network is as follows:
New Zealand Plant Conservation Network
P.O. Box 16-102
WELLINGTON
NEW ZEALAND
Email: [email protected]
2
Involvement of NorthTec
This book was written for the New Zealand Plant Conservation Network by Iain
Reid of NorthTec and John Sawyer and Jeremy Rolfe of the Network. NorthTec
has been involved in plant training programmes for many years, running a range
of courses including innovative Horticulture and Sustainable Rural Development
Level 2 programmes that are delivered at many marae and small rural areas
throughout Northland. It also has a strong Level 4 programme which is rapidly
upgrading to more advanced levels and a wide range of disciplines.
For more information about the courses run by NorthTec contact:
John Finlayson,
Programme Manager, Primary Industries
DDI: (09) 459 5254
Mobile: 021 2299 844
E-mail: [email protected]
3
2. Why New Zealand plants?
Native plants
New Zealand has a unique assemblage of indigenous (native) plants—some
2360 vascular plants (ferns, conifers and flowering plants) all told. Eighty
percent of these native plants are not found anywhere else—these are the
endemics.
Plants are important for New Zealand’s ecosystems as the primary producers
feeding a multitude of native animals (insects, birds, reptiles) and fungi directly
or indirectly via a food chain—as the saying goes, “all flesh is grass”. The native
plants have also been important resources for the Māori—providing food,
shelter and materials for everyday use.
New Zealand’s geological past gives a clue to the origins of New Zealand’s flora.
New Zealand was once attached to a great southern continent named
Gondwanaland. That included Africa, South America, Madagascar, India,
Australia and Antarctica. Plate tectonics, or continental drift, saw these land
masses drift apart and oceans begin to separate them preventing animals and
plants from directly crossing to the next land mass (see Figures 1 and 2). Once
separated only plants and animals able to disperse across seas where able to
reach other lands.
Evidence points to New Zealand separating from Australia some 60–80 million
years ago—prior to the demise of the dinosaurs. Although closer to the South
Pole at the time it retained an assemblage of ancient rafters—tuatara, kauri,
kahikatea, rimu, beech trees, probably ratites (moa and kiwi ancestors). In
isolation these plants and animals and plants evolved and were joined by
“drifters”—plants and animals able to cross the Tasman Sea through wind or
bird dispersal. These too continued to evolve in the New Zealand environment.
Box 1 shows how the flora has changed since the original castaways colonised
New Zealand 80 million years ago.
Over time many plant
extinctions have taken
place, although of our
recent flora, only six
species are now believed
to be globally extinct.
Even today we still receive
new natural immigrants
from Australia, such as the
orchid Pterostylis alveatua
that has established in
the Nelson area in recent
years. In 2006, a single
plant of P. alveata was
found growing in the
Hutt Valley, north of
Wellington.
Pterostylis alveata.
5
Box 1: Colonisation of New Zealand by plants
Original castaways (colonised NZ at least 80 million years ago: Jurassic–Cretaceous–dinosaur
age):
Ferns (some)
Gymnosperms ➔ Araucarian pines including Agathis and podocarps, Libocedrus, Sequoiadendron
spp. (extinct now).
Angiosperms ➔ Southern beech (Nothofagus brassii group), tawa, rewarewa, fuchsias
Early colonisers (Paleocene–Eocene): 65–35 million years ago
Metrosideros; Nothofagus fusca group; Dicksonia
Early west wind drifters (Oligocene–Miocene): 35–5 million years ago
Nïkau palm, coprosmas, köwhai
Coconut palm—now extinct
Gum trees (Eucalyptus)—now extinct
Wattles (Rycosperma)—now extinct
Later west wind drifters (Pliocene–Pleistocene): 5–0.01 million years ago
Native orchids and hebes (koromiko)
Recent west wind drifters (Holocene): 0.11 million years ago to present
Native orchids
Pomaderris apetala (tainui)
20th century arrivals
Natural dispersal: Myrmechila trapeziformis
Human-assisted dispersal: Exotic plants introduced deliberately or accidentally by humans include
cultivated plants (some arrived with Polynesian settlers) some of which are part of the weed flora—
naturalised exotic (non-native) plants.
Today’s New Zealand flora is a mix of indigenous and exotic species, with the number of exotic
species escaping into the wild increasing each year. By 2006 there were approximately 2500 exotic
plant species growing wild in New Zealand.
Figure 1: The rifting of Gondwanaland (source: Stevens 1980).Timing in millions of years of
splitting apart of the Gondwana land masses
6
Figure 2: From: Philip Simpson’s Pohutakawa and Rātā – New Zealand’s iron hearted trees,
Te Papa Press. Published with permission.
Exotic plants
Exotic plants have been brought to New Zealand over many centuries and for
many reasons. Some species were brought accidentally; some were deliberately
introduced as garden ornamentals (such as Tradescantia fluminensis / wandering
willie) or as food crops (such as Solanum tuberosum / potato and Actinidia
deliciosa / kiwifruit). Other exotic plants, such as Pinus radiata and Cupressus
macrocarpa, have been planted in New Zealand for use in forestry. There are
now more than 35,000 exotic plant species in New Zealand but not all of these
occur in the wild—the majority of exotics are still confined to gardens and urban
landscapes. But of these exotic plant species, by 2007, 2440 had naturalised into
the wild. That means exotic plant species now outnumber indigenous species in
New Zealand and exotics are establishing in the wild at a rate of approximately
12 species per year. Whether a plant becomes a weed depends on the species and
the location.
Weeds are by definition plants that are not wanted in a particular place. Weeds
are exotic plants that are capable of persisting and reproducing by seeds, spores
or vegetative means to form populations where they are not wanted. Some
weeds only persist in cultivated lands—horticultural and agricultural weeds that
compete with cultivated plants. Other weeds are capable of growing in areas
of native vegetation, particularly after disturbance—these are environmental
weeds which pose the greatest threat to native vegetation and habitats.
Some exotic plants are so thoroughly naturalised that many consider them to
be native. Some weeds are closely related to native plants. For example, pampas
grasses from South America and species of native toetoe belong to closely related
7
genera—Austroderia and Cortaderia—and can be confused (see exercise page
9). Sometimes the news is not all bad: gorse for instance, can sometimes act as a
nurse crop for native bush regeneration.
Environmental weeds can harm native plants by:
• Smothering them—particularly climbers such as old man’s beard and moth
plant
• Competing with native plants for living space, resources, pollinators, seed
disseminators
• Preventing / suppressing natural regeneration by smothering seedlings,
biochemical warfare (allelopathy)
• Increasing fire risk e.g., gorse
• Harbouring pests
• Altering successional processes
Exotic plants can also play a role in changing the character of a landscape.
More information about weeds
There are many sources of information about exotic plants and weeds in New
Zealand. A very useful resource is the website of the New Zealand Plant
Conservation Network—www.nzpcn.org.nz. It contains fact sheets for all
environmental weeds in New Zealand including photos for most species and
also has a checklist of the naturalised plants in New Zealand.
An “Illustrated Guide to common Weeds of
New Zealand” Bruce Roy, Ian Popay, Paul
Chapman, Trevor James, second edition by the
New Zealand Plant Protection Society covers a
wide range of weeds.
Some volumes of the Flora of New Zealand also
include exotic species.
Many regional councils and the Department of
Conservation have weed publications and offer
advice on their management.
Examples of additional website resources
include:
www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/weeds/
Purple Loosestrife; Christchurch City Council: www.ccc.govt.nz/guides/
PurpleLoosestrife/
Fact sheets and other information about many weed species; Environment Bay
of Plenty: www.envbop.govt.nz/land/plants/pest-plants.asp
8
Toetoe (Austroderia) or pampas (Cortaderia)?
Tall white seed heads on a giant grass plant are a feature in New Zealand.
Some are native species, collectively known as toetoe, but others are
introduced species called pampas which have naturalised throughout New
Zealand and are now considered weeds. Find a specimen of one of these
grasses and use the following test to see whether or not it is native:
• Hold a leaf with two hands and give a sharp sideways tug. If it snaps
cleanly it is pampas. Toetoe has more main veins and the leaves are
tougher.
Once you have tried this test a few times, see what other differences you
can find. The following key will help to identify all Austroderia and Cortaderia
species in New Zealand:
1 Leaf-blade with prominent midrib and several
conspicuous lateral ribs; leaf-sheath evidently
glaucous, remaining entire and strict. Flowers Spring to
mid-Summer. (Austroderia; endemic spp.)
Leaf-blade with prominent midrib only; leaf-sheath
not glaucous, later curling up and fracturing into short
segments. Flowers Autumn. (Cortaderia; naturalised
spp.)
2
3
4
Leaf-sheath with long hairs; all flowers . Chatham
Island species.
6
6
7. A. turbaria
Leaf-sheath glabrous; flowers on separate plants all
, or all ♀.
3
Leaf-blade margins very slightly scabrid.
4
Leaf-blade margins very strongly scabrid and cutting
at mid-point.
5
Leaf-blade glabrous above ligule; ligule 1 mm; contraligule absent; caespitose.
Leaf-blade densely hairy above ligule; ligule 3 mm;
contra-ligule present; rhizomatous. North Island
species.
5
2
Leaf-sheath ivory under waxy coating; culm
internodes ivory. North Island species.
1. A. fulvida
5. A. splendens
6. A. toetoe
Leaf-sheath green under waxy coating; culm
internodes green.
3. A. richardii
Leaf-blade blue-green above, dark green below;
rachis finely silky hairy; plants ♀ and ; lemma hairs
of ♀ floret arising throughout.
4. C. selloana
Leaf-blade dark green on both surfaces; rachis
minutely scabrid; all plants ♀; lemma hairs mostly
arising above palea height.
Leaf sheaths of naturalised
Cortaderia species (pampas)
curl and fracture when old.
Long hairs on leaf-sheath of
Austroderia turbaria.
2. C. jubata
Adapted from: http://floraseries.landcareresearch.co.nz/pages/Taxon.aspx?id=_15a3308fcd4b-4b76-9aa3-51888203dcad&fileName=Flora%205.xml
Waxy coating on leaf-sheath of
Austroderia toetoe.
9
3. Plant names – which name do you
use?
There are three types of name used for most plant species in New Zealand: the
Māori name, the common name and the latinised botanical name. Although,
you may think it easier to use Māori or common names for plants there are
several advantages of using the full latinised botanical name.
What are the advantages of using botanical names?
1. THEY AVOID CONFUSION
Common names can cause confusion as one name may apply to several
species not necessarily related. For example, in New Zealand tea tree applies to
Leptospermum scoparium agg. and Kunzea ericoides agg. and the exotic plant
Camellia sinensis. Pōhuehue is a Māori name used for a range of Muehlenbeckia
species including Muehlenbeckia complexa, Muehlenbeckia ephedroides,
Muehlenbeckia axillaris and Muehlenbeckia australis. Mingimingi is used
for many small-leaved shrubs, such as Coprosma propinqua, Leptecophylla
juniperina, and Leucopogon fasciculatus.
Leptospermum scoparium (top)
and Muehlenbeckia australis.
2. THEY HELP TO SHOW REL ATIONSHIPS BET WEEN
PL ANTS
Botanical names may sound complicated but they help show how different
species are related to each other. For example, the common names ‘potato’, ‘black
nightshade’ and ‘poroporo’ do not indicate any relationship between these three
species, but the botanical names (Solanum tuberosum, Solanum nigrum and
Solanum aviculare and Solanum laciniatum) show that they are all related to each
other and in the same genus.
3. THEY FACILITATE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION
(UNIVERSALIT Y)
The binomial (two name) system is an international system for naming species.
Botanists have adopted, by international agreement, a single language to be used
on a world wide basis. A botanical name in India refers to the same plant as a
botanical name in Iceland.
Some Māori names for plants have been adopted as part of the scientific names
of plants. For example, Corokia for korokio, Austroderia toetoe for toetoe,
Manoao colensoi for manoao or silver pine, Phyllocladus toatoa for toatoa,
Podocarpus tōtara for tōtara and Raukaua anomalus for raukawa.
The genus Solanum includes
the indigenous porporo (S.
aviculare) and introduced
potato (S. tuberosum).
From left: Korokio (Corokia cotoneaster), tōtara (Podocarpus tōtara), raukawa (Raukaua anomalus).
11
4. THEY CAN HELP DESCRIBE THE PL ANT
Some botanical names describe a significant feature of the species. For example,
a native jasmine is named Parsonsia capsularis var. rosea, because the seeds
of this species are borne in long capsules (capsularis) and the flowers are pink
(rosea). The genus name Coprosma translates to dung because many species in
the genus have an unpleaseant smell. One species of coprosma smells so strongly
that it is named Coprosma foetidissima (very fetid). Another coprosma has large
leaves and is named C. grandifolia (big leaf). Please note that some apparently
descriptive names can be misleading. For example, the leaves of Helichrysum
lanceolatum (lance-shaped), are mostly rounded.
5. THEY HONOUR A PERSON
Parsonsia capsularis var. rosea.
Some plants are named in honour of a particular person. For example, the
orchid Corybas cheesemanii is named in honour of Thomas Cheeseman, an early
New Zealand botanist.
How to write botanical names
1. GENUS AND SPECIES NAMES
The convention for writing the genus and species name is as follows:
Capital letter
lowercase letter (even if named after a place or person)
Agathis australis kauri — common name lowercase
Both names are underlined (when handwritten or typed) or set in italics in print.
Corybas cheesemanii.
Agathis australis, kauri.
12
Agathis australis kauri
4. Where plants grow and why
Plants grow in a range of environmental conditions that vary from site to site
depending on the geology and the climate.
Autecology is the study of an organism and how it relates to its environment.
It focuses on why a plant is distributed in a certain way and on phenological
(timing of flowering and fruiting) morphological and physiological adaptations,
population dynamics, genetics and evolution.
Environment Evolution
Genetic change
Adaptation
• water availability
• morphological (structures)
• seasonality
• phenological (timing of events)
• altitudinal distribution
• reproductive strategies
• ecosystem
• physiological (biochemical)
• soil type
Environmental adaptation
Plants become adapted to the conditions they evolve in. The more extreme
the conditions the more extreme the adaptation. Environmental adaptation in
plants can be described in terms of adaptation to water and seasonality (usually
temperature).
Three terms describe plants’ adaptation to water:
Xerophyte (arid): adapted to
extremely dry conditions or
physiological drought (such ice
or salt).
Mesophyte: adapted to
moderate conditions of dry or
moisture; most plants.
Hydrophyte (aquatic): wholly or
partly submerged in water.
e.g., Myosotis albosericea.
e.g., cabbage tree (Cordyline
australis)
e.g., mangrove (Avicennia marina
subsp. australasica).
Photo: John Barkla.
13
Seasonality
An interesting aspect of the New Zealand floras response to seasons is that most
native plants are evergreen, meaning they bear foliage throughout the year.
Deciduous plants have leaves that fall off or are shed seasonally to avoid adverse
weather conditions such as cold or drought. Some examples of deciduous
trees in New Zealand include tree fuchsia, shrubby tororaro, and lowland
ribbonwood.
Altitudinal distribution
Different plants are found in different altitudinal zones. This altitudinal
zonation can be very distinct (e.g., the tree line on mountains) and is usually an
indication of changing temperatures. Altitudinal distribution of plants is usually
described as five zones:
Coastal: On or near the sea
coast, e.g., pïngao, karo.
Lowland: Altitude of less than 500 m, e.g., maire, kohuhu, black
beech.
Montane: Between approx 500 m
and the tree line, e.g., mountain
beech.
Subalpine: Above the tree line to
the snow zone, e.g., leatherwood,
tussock grasses.
Alpine: The snow zone, e.g.,
lichens, algae and herbaceous
plants; no tussock grasses.
Photo: Les Molloy.
Zones change with latitude. For example, in the sub-antarctic islands, subalpine
type plants may grow on the coast.
Some books specialise in plants of particular zones (e.g., Andrew Crowe’s
“Which Coastal Plant”) or have separate sections on zones (e.g., Salmon’s “New
Zealand Flowering Plants in Colour”). For the purposes of plant identification
you can narrow down your search by knowing which zone/habitat you are in.
14
Ecosystem distribution
An ecosystem is a living community which interacts with its environment.
Ecosystems are often less clear cut and ‘tidy’ than altitudinal zonations and
ecosystems can exist within other ecosystems e.g., freshwater streams within a
forest. Ecosystems were originally thought of as closed systems, but they are now
regarded as continuous interacting mosaics up to landscape scale. Examples of
ecosystem descriptions are shown below:
Some plant identification
books specialise in
ecosystem types, such
as Wetland Plants in New
Zealand by Peter Johnson
& Pat Brooke and Flowering
Plants of New Zealand
by John Salmon which
is organised by habitat/
ecosystem.
Marine: Saltwater, offshore.
Saltwater Estuarine: Tidal, on the margin of
ocean, river and coast.
Riparian/Freshwater: flowing water bodies with
vegetation mainly on banks.
Duneland: Sandy, coastal margin, lightly
vegetated.
Shrubland: Low canopy, small tree or shrub
dominated.
Freshwater Wetland: Low lying, highly saturated,
fertile areas with still waters.
15
Peat bog: Low lying, highly saturated with deep
peat layers. Very acid and low fertility.
Lacustrine (lake): Large, still water bodies. Can
be highly nutrient enriched (eutrophic) e.g., Lake
Wairarapa; medium enriched (mesotrophic) e.g.,
Lake Taupo; or low nutrient (oligotrophic) e.g., Lake
Wakatipu.
Photo: Barbara Mitcalfe.
Grassland: Tussock dominated, generally drier.
Herbfield: No canopy, herb dominated. Often wet,
cold, boggy or higher altitude.
Photo: Vivienne McGlynn.
Fellfield / scree: Rocky areas. Dominated by small
herbs. Usually higher altitude.
Alpine / nival: High altitude; dominated by lichen
and algae.
Photo: Les Molloy.
Forest: Tall canopy of trees. Often wetter, more
fertile and sheltered areas.
There are many other types of ecosystem, such as
sandy desert, stony desert, volcanic, tundra, etc.
However, those shown here are the most common
in New Zealand.
16
5. Plant communities in New Zealand
Plants do not occur alone. They form communities and interact with one
another and other organisms. There are a range of plant communities that occur
in the New Zealand botanical region that may be observed as you travel through
and across New Zealand (see box below).
Climate especially rainfall and temperature gradients are the main determinants
of what grows where, but soils, relief and disturbance factors are also important.
The main plant community types in New Zealand*
Forests
• Kauri/podocarp/broad-leaf forest (northern) + hard beech in places
• Podocarp/broad-leaf forest
• Broad-leaf forest
• Kauri forest (northern)
• Podocarp forest
• Coastal forest and offshore islands (Composition changes with latitude,
climate)
• Kermadec islands , Chatham islands, Subantartic islands—unique flora
• Tawhai/beech forest (cooler and drier locations)—really a type of
broadleaf forest dominated by Nothofagus sp.
• Mixed beech/podocarp/broadleaf forest
• River/alluvial forest (köwhai, ribbonwood, matai, tötara feature)
• Duneland forest (well drained)
• Plantation
Scrub/shrublands (induced, natural, and seral or successional)
Kauri (Agathis australis).
Coastal, montane, subalpine, zones/belts and boundary of wetlands,
heathland
Tea tree /manuka/kanuka shrubland—often successional following
disturbance
Fernland (Bracken-dominated community)—as above
Herbfields and fellfields (alpine subalpine and subantarctic, areas)
• Scree
• Megaherbs feature of subantarctic islands
Tussock grasslands
• Tall Tussock/Snow tussock grasslands (colder, drier but not to dry areas)
• Red tussock grassland (often boggy sites)
• Short tussock grassland ( cold dry eastern sites generally)
Wetlands
• Saline(saltwater) wetlands and mangrove swamps.
• Freshwater wetlands (running/ stationary , fertile / infertle)
–– swamps
–– rivers
–– bogs
–– lakes and ponds
• Seepages
Dunelands
• Fore-dunes—spinifex, pingao and exotic marram grass
• Back-dunes—shrubs (e.g., Ozothamnus, coprosma) flax, herbs and
grasses
* Exotic plants occur in all of these plant communities.
17
A plant’s place in the forest—is it an epiphyte, a parasite or a
saprophyte?
Sometimes plants grow on each other as epiphytes (perching plants) (see box
below). In other cases they take nutrients from their host. This select group
of plants that depend on their host plants for nutrition is called parasites.
Some parasitic plants also photosynthesise themselves—these are called hemiparasites. In New Zealand several species of hemi-parasitic plant (such as the
red and scarlet mistletoe—Peraxilla tetrapetala and Peraxilla colensoi) are
under threat from forest clearance and browsing by possums and, as a result,
are becoming increasingly rare. One species of mistletoe—Adams’s mistletoe
(Trilepidea adamsii)—that used to occur near Auckland is already extinct.
Peraxilla tetrapetala, red
mistletoe.
Epiphytes, parasites and hemi-parasites
Epiphyte: a plant that perches
on another plant without harming
it.
Parasite: an organism that
derives its food from the living
body of another.
Hemi-parasite: a plant that
derives water and nutrients from
a host but also photosynthesises.
e.g., Dactylanthus taylorii.
Photo: Avi Holzapfel.
e.g., Tmesipteris lanceolata
18
e.g., green mistletoe (Ileostylus
micranthus).
Photo: Peter de Lange.
Plants that feed off dead rotting vegetation are known as saprophytes.
Examples include thismia (Thismia rodwayi) and the cryptic orchid, Molloybas
cryptanthus.
Vegetation strata
A forest can be viewed as a layered structure. Plants when mature will occupy a
distinct layer (stratum). The description of layers in a forest is generally like this:
Molloybas cryptanthus, a
saprophytic orchid.
Photo: Ian St. George.
Strata in a forest ecosystem
Emergent e.g., rimu, rätä.
Canopy
e.g., kämahi, tawa.
Subcanopy
e.g., putaputäwëtä,
coprosma.
Understorey
e.g., kawakawa,
smaller tree ferns.
Floor
e.g., ferns, herbs.
Photo: Les Molloy.
Often the climbers, epiphytes, parasites and hemi-parasites occupy intermediate
layers. A young canopy tree species may temporarily occupy the shrub and sub
canopy layers as it grows before maturing into a canopy tree. Most vegetation
types including shrublands, wetlands, grasslands are also layered. Knowing
where in a forest a plant grows can be useful for identification purposes.
Guide books such as Andrew Crowe’s series Which Native Tree, Which Forest
Plant and Which Native Fern relate the plants to a particular place in the strata of
a forest.
19
6. Life cycle and growth form
Three terms are used to describe the life cycles of plants from germination of a
seed to flowering, and production of new seed:
• Annual – The entire life cycle occurs within one year, and the plant dies, e.g.,
Atriplex species.
• Biennial – A plant flowers and produces seed in the second year after it
germinated, e.g., New Zealand gentians.
• Perennial – Continue from one year to the next. Includes most New Zealand
species from the smallest herbs to the largest trees. Many exotic plants are
also perennial.
There are a variety of different habits or growth forms for native plants. They
include divaricating, erect, prostrate, scrambling, matted and rhizomatous:
Divaricating/ filiramulate: branching at a very
wide angle with stiff intertwined stems.
Prostrate / procumbent (if not rooting): stems
lying flat on the ground.
e.g., Corokia cotoneaster
e.g., Coprosma acerosa
Photo: Lisa Forester.
Erect: stem perpendicular to the
ground.
Scrambling / climbing: multiple
thin stems adhering to and
entwining its host.
Matted / cushion: cushioned,
low, closely packed leaves.
e.g., rimu (Dacrydium
cupressinum)
e.g., mangemange (Lygodium
articulatum)
e.g., Raoulia aff. australis.
20
Heteroblastic: different forms in juvenile and adult
phases of the plant.
Fastigiate (like Lombardy poplar): branches erect
and close to central axis.
e.g., lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolius), juvenile
(left) and adult.
e.g., young rewarewa (Knightia excelsa).
Tufted
Sprouting from a single base portion.
Rhizomatous
Creeping on rooted rhizomes below the surface.
e.g., Poa billardierei.
e.g., Dianella nigra.
21
Floating: lying flat on open water.
e.g., duckweed (Lemna minor).
Duckweed (large green leaves) growing with Wolffia australiana (small green leaves) and Azolla
filiculoides.
Rosette: leaves arising in a circle from the base.
e.g., Celmisia semicordata.
Photo: John Sawyer.
22
7. Flower power
Flowers are one of the most important features used to identify plants.
Kōwhai (Sophora fulvida) and
kakabeak (Clianthus puniceus).
Flower types
The parts of a flower vary greatly
from plant to plant. However, all
tend to follow a basic pattern of:
• Calyx—sepals
• Corolla—petals
• Stamens—filaments and anthers
• Pistils—ovary, style, stigma
A complete flower has all the
flower parts—sepals, petals,
stamens, pistil.
An incomplete flower lacks one or
more of these parts. Some flowers,
e.g., Clematis spp. lack petals but
have petal-like sepals. In these
cases, the sepals are known as
tepals.
Flower parts may be free
(completely separate from each
other) or fused (partly to wholly
united). Fused parts may be:
• Connate—like parts, such as
petals, fused to each other, e.g.,
the petals of fuchsia flowers are
partly fused to form a tube
• Adnate—unlike parts, such as
stamens fused to petals
Kōtukutuku (Fuchsia excorticata) petals are
partly connate.
23
Flowers can also be described as ‘perfect’ or ‘imperfect’.
➊ Perfect (hermaphrodite) flowers: have
both sexual parts on one flower—functional
stamens (male) and pistils (female).
e.g., horokaka
(Disphyma australe).
➋ Imperfect flowers: functional stamens and pistils on different flowers, either on the same plant—
monoecious, or on different plants—dioecious.
Monoecious: Male flowers and female
flowers on the same plant.
Dioecious: Separate male and female plants.
e.g., shrubby tororaro (Muehlenbeckia
astonii). ♀ left, ♂ right. M. astonii plants may
also be dioecious.
e.g., Coprosma spathulata, male (left) and female.
Some species, e.g., kötukutuku/tree fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata), may have perfect and imperfect flowers
on the same plant.
Plants can also be split into two groups based on the symmetry of their flowers:
➌ Regular: actinomorphic (radially symmetrical). ➍ Irregular: zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetrical).
e.g., mänuka
(Leptospermum
scoparium).
e.g., bamboo orchid
(Earina mucronata).
Thus, flowers can be:
➊ and ➌ Perfect and regular
➊ and ➍ Perfect and irregular
➋ and ➌ Imperfect and regular
A male single-sex flower of
dioecious Coprosma rugosa.
24
➋ and ➍ Imperfect and irregular
A perfect, regular flower: Tararua gentian
(Gentianella montana subsp. ionostigma).
Can plants count?
All flowering plants fall into one of two groups: monocotyledons or
dicotyledons. When the seed of a monocotyledonous plant germinates, a single
seed leaf appears, whereas dicotyledonous plants produce two seed leaves.
Monocotyledonous plants: Approximately 30 percent of New Zealand’s
flowering plants, including cabbage tree, orchids, nīkau, rengarenga, grasses, flax
have flower parts in threes or multiples thereof e.g., six, nine.
Libertia grandifolia, a
monocotyledon, has flower
parts in groups of three,
Dicotyledonous plants: Approximately 70 percent of New Zealand’s flowering
plants. They usually have flower parts in fours or fives. For example, the
Pittosporum family has 5 petals, 5 sepals, and 5 stamens and 1 ovary.
Kōhūhū (Pittosporum
tenuifolium), a dicotyledon, has
flower parts in groups of five.
25
Inflorescences
Flowers are either solitary (single) or have a few to many on a special flower
branch called an inflorescence. This gives another clue to plant identity (see
diagram below). Seven types of inflorescence are described here:
Composite head/capitulum:
many small flowers tightly
packed together, e.g., plants
in the daisy family.
Corymb: modified raceme
where stalks of lower flowers
are elongated to same level
as the upper flowers.
Cyme: each branch
terminated by a flower, new
flowering branches emerge
laterally below the flower.
e.g., Galinsoga quadriradiata.
e.g., elderberry
(Sambucus nigra).
e.g., willowherb (Epilobium
nummularifolium).
Panicle: highly branched
(multiple raceme).
Raceme: flowers attached to
main stem by short stalks.
Spike: flowers attached to
main stem without stalks.
e.g., bush lawyer
(Rubus cissoides).
e.g., Hebe perbella.
e.g., selfheal
(Prunella vulgaris).
Umbel: “umbrella like”; the flower stalks arise from one point at the stem. Simple or compound.
e.g., carrot (Daucus carota).
26
Forms of inflorescences (from The Native Trees of New Zealand by J.T. Salmon).
From left: hinau (raceme), makomako (panicle), tarata (compound umbel).
ODD FACT
The tendril of kohia (Passiflora tetrandra) is thought to be a modified inflorescence.
27
Flower size and colour
The size and colour of flowers are important for plant identification. Flower size
is usually measured across the petals at the longest dimension. Flower colour is
the colour of the petal arrangement or inflorescence including petals and sepals.
Pollination
Pollination is the sexual reproduction process in seed-producing plants
whereby pollen (male gamete, equivalent to sperm in animals) is transferred
from staminate cone (male or pollen cone in conifers) or stamens (in flowers)
to a stigma (in flowers) or ovulate cone (female cone in conifers). There are a
number of agents used to transfer pollen, including the wind, birds and bats and
other animals such as insects. If pollination is successful, fertilisation occurs and
a seed develops.
Left: A tui pollinating Peraxilla colensoi. Photo: © University of Canterbury. Right: Short-tailed
bat—a pollinator of Dactylanthus taylorii (Pue o te Reinga). Photo: J.L. Kendrick; © Department of
Conservation.
Essentially there are two types of pollination:
Self pollination
Pollen transferred from anther to stigma on same plant. This is common in
legumes and orchids.
Cross pollination
Pollen is transferred from an anther of one plant to a stigma of another. This is
the most common form of pollination and occurs in several ways. Some New
Zealand examples include:
•
•
•
•
•
Birds—mainly red flowers
Bees—mainly blue flowers
Moths—small white flowers, evening scented
Flies—white flowers
Wind—grasses, rushes, conifers, coprosmas, beeches
8. Spores, seed and fruit
Plant reproduction
“Plants are great travellers in space and time” as David Attenborough says in the
TV programme ‘The Private Life of Plants’:
They do this as spores and seeds as individual plants are of course pretty much
stationary. This is how plants leave descendants and disperse to new sites. Plants
can also reproduce by vegetative means (asexual reproduction). In New Zealand
we have plants that sexually reproduce in the following ways:
SPORE BEARING
There are three groups of plant that reproduce by spores:.
1.Bryophytes (liverworts, mosses, hornworts)
These are non-vascular plants that bear spores and were the first land plant
group to evolve. These are not covered in this module.
2.Lycophytes (clubmosses, quillworts)
3.Ferns
Lycophytes have in the past been known as fern allies, but DNA research has
shown that ferns are more closely related to flowering plants than they are to
lycophytes.
Lycopodium fastigiatum, a
clubmoss.
Life cycle of spore bearing plant. Illustration by Tim Galloway. (taken from New Zealand Ferns and
Allied Plants by P.J. Brownsey & John Smith–Dodsworth).
29
SEED BEARING (SPERMATOPHYTES)
Two groups of plants reproduce with seeds: gymnosperms (conifers) and
angiosperms (flowering plants).
1. Conifers “cone bearers” (gymnosperm) kauri, kaiwaka, podocarps, celery
pines
Kauri. Photo: John Smith-Dodsworth
podocarp = “foot seed”
The cone is obvious in kauri and kaiwaka although small in the latter. It is
reduced to a single scale in podocarps though surrounded by, or borne on, a
fleshy stalk—the seed (fruit) is at foot of fruit hence the name podocarp = foot
seed. The life cycle is shown below:
Life cycle of a cone bearing plants. Note the two dispersal units—pollen and seed.
2. Flowering Plants (angiosperms)
This is the largest group of plants in New Zealand. See the following life cycle:
30
Gymnosperms produce
cones instead of flowers.
There are usually separate
male and female cones.
Flowering Stage
Flowers are the sex organs of
the plant and produce sperm
(pollen) and ova.
Fertilisation Stage
Pollen comes in contact
with the ova by various
agents (wind, insects,
birds, etc.)
Growth Stage
The plant grows into
an adult capable of
flowering.
Fruiting/Seeding Stage
The fertilised flower or cone
produces fertile seed, usually
encased in or attached to a fruit of
some sort or on the original cone.
Germination Stage
If the new location is
favourable, the seed
germinates into a
seedling.
Dispersal Stage
The seed is dispersed
by various agents (wind,
water, animal, etc.) and
lodges in a different place.
Life cycle of a flowering plant
Life stage for seed bearing plants
Life stages are the different forms the plant takes during its life span. This can be
important for identification and for such things as cultivation and translocation.
There are six common life stages for canopy trees from seed to adult plant:
Seed
The matured
ovule without
accessory parts,
contained in a
fruit or cone.
Common to all
flowering and
cone bearing
plants.
Juvenile
A plant of
non-reproducing
size. May be
heteroblastic
(having different
leaf shapes from
the adult).
Seedling
A newly
germinated plant.
Pole
A subcanopy size individual, with
long thin trunk and foliage tuft, of
a potential canopy tree.
Sapling
A juvenile tree
which has
reached the
stage of 1 or 2
main stems. Still
in the shrub
layer.
Adult
A mature plant of
maximum stature
and form,
capable of
reproducing.
Life stages of kahikatea, Dacrycarpus dacrydioides.
31
Types of fruit
Fruits are another useful identification clue. Fruit are matured ovaries and are
often attractive to birds and mammals to aid seed dispersal, but essentially
they form a case to transport or protect the seed. Fruits are either succulent/
fleshy (i.e., juicy or watery) or dry (no flesh or juice). Seed ID is a more
specialised field and is not covered in this module. Refer to Seeds of New Zealand
gymnosperms & dicotyledons by Colin J. Webb & Margaret J.A. Simpson. Below
are some different types of fleshy and dry fruit.
Berry: simple, fleshy, multi-
Drupe: simple, fleshy, oneseeded
Dehiscent/pod: bursts
spontaneously when opening.
e.g., Alseuosmia pusilla.
e.g., karaka (Corynocarpus
laevigatus).
e.g., willowherb (Epilobium
nummulariifolium).
Nut: hard, one-seeded.
Achene: small, dry, oneseeded, thin pericarp.
Capsule: dry, dehiscent,
formed from two or more
carpels.
seeded.
e.g., Gahnia setifolia.
e.g., Brachyglottis compacta.
e.g., mänuka
(Leptospermum
scoparium).
32
Dispersal mechanisms for plants
Dispersal is crucial to plants to ensure they spread out and form expanded or
new populations. To achieve this, plants use five basic methods of dispersal:
Animal: edible, catching.
Wind: lightness, parachutes, wings.
e.g., bidibidi (Acaena anserinifolia).
e.g., fireweed (Senecio diaschides).
Water: flotation.
Ballistic dehiscent: capsule splits
open explosively to expel seeds.
e.g., mangrove (Avicennia marina
subsp. australasica).
e.g., broom (Carmichaelia australis).
Gravity: seed fall.
e.g., rengarenga (Arthropodium
cirratum).
33
Leaves, simple and compound, margins and lobing. From Flora of New Zealand Vol. 1, by H.H.
Allan (illustration by Nancy M. Adams). © Landcare Research NZ Ltd..
9. Leaf it up to me
Every plant species has its own combination of leaf
characters that make it recognisable—shape, size,
texture, form and arrangement.
Parts of a leaf
There are three principal parts to a leaf:
1. The leaf blade or lamina.
2. The leaf stalk or petiole (if absent, leaf is
said to be sessile). Most monocot leaves are
sessile. (Leaflet stalk = petiolule).
3. The leaf base. The leaf tip is the apex.
Leaf types
There are a number of different leaf types including
the simple or compound leaf or different types of
compound leaf and plants with flattened stem leaves.
1.Simple = single leaf
e.g., karamu Coprosma lucida
2.Compound = more than one leaf blade compose the leaf and may be either
Palmately compound: shaped
like a hand.
Digitately compound: finger-like
variation of palmately compound.
Pinnately compound: feather
pattern.
e.g., fivefinger (Pseudopanax
arboreus).
e.g., patë (Schefflera digitata).
e.g., köwhai (Sophora species).
35
Each separate leaf division of a compound leaf is called a leaflet but how do you
know if it is a leaflet or a leaf? In a simple leaf the leaf stem, or petiole, swells
where it attaches to the twig, and the new bud is usually found there. The base of
a leaflet on a compound leaf will neither swell nor have a bud present.
A leaf that is divided into leaflets is termed foliolate: two leaflets = bifoliolate,
three leaflets = trifoliolate, etc.
3. Cladodes /phylloclades or “flattened stem leaves”
Some plants have flattened stem leaves instead of what are typically thought of as
leaves.
e.g., tänekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides).
e.g., NZ broom (Carmichaelia williamsii).
Photo: Andrea Brandon.
4. Blade or tiller
Grasses.
e.g., red tussock (Chionochloa rubra).
36
5.Frond
Leaf of a palm or fern.
e.g., nikau (Rhopalostylis sapida).
e.g., Blechnum filiforme.
Leaf arrangement (Phyllotaxis)
Examining the leaf arrangement can be useful for distinguishing plants with
similar leaves. Leaves can be alternate, opposite, whorled, imbricate or a rosette.
Alternate: singly along the stem.
Opposite: in pairs along the stem.
e.g., Streblus heterophyllus.
e.g., hangehange (Geniostoma
ligustrifolium).
Imbricate: overlapping.
Whorled: Arranged in a
ring around the stem.
Rosulate / rosette: a dense radiating
cluster of leaves
e.g., cleavers
(Galium aparine).
e.g., rimu (Dacridium cupressinum).
e.g., Celmisia semicordata.
Photo: John Sawyer.
37
Leaf shape
Leaves maybe described in basic plane shapes. Some of the terms used to
describe leaf shapes are listed below with examples of plants which have these
leaf shapes.
Linear: very narrow, margins ±
parallel.
Oblong: rectangular.
Orbicular: almost round.
e.g., (Lilium formosanum).
e.g., firethorn
(Pyracantha angustifolia).
e.g., red pondweed
(Potamogeton cheesemanii).
Elliptic: tapering, widest at
middle.
Lanceolate: tapering, widest
toward base.
Oblanceolate: tapering, widest
toward apex.
e.g., northern rätä
(Metrosideros robusta).
e.g., tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa).
e.g., maire taike
(Mida salicifolia).
Ovate: egg shaped, widest near
base.
Obovate: reverse egg shaped,
widest near apex.
Cordate: heart shaped, notch at
base.
e.g., red beech (Nothofagus
fusca).
e.g., Coprosma rigida.
e.g., kawakawa
(Piper excelsum).
Obcordate: heart shaped, notch
at apex.
Reniform: kidney shaped.
Spathulate / spatulate: spatula
shaped.
e.g., Myrsine umbricola.
38
e.g., kidney fern (Cardiomanes
reniforme).
e.g., Selliera rdicans.
Ensiform: sword shaped.
Hastate: spear like.
Flabellate: fan shaped.
e.g., montbretia
(Crocosmia × crocosmiiflora).
e.g., climbing dock
(Rumex sagittatus).
e.g., Asplenium flabellifolium.
Deltoid: broadly triangular.
Rhomboid: ± diamond shaped.
Filiform: thread like.
e.g., Canadian poplar
(Populus ×canadensis).
e.g., Peperomia tetraphylla.
e.g., hook sedge
(Uncinia filiformis).
Acicular: needle like.
Acerose: narrow, with a sharp,
stiff point.
Lyrate: pinnatifid or pinnatisect,
terminal lobe much larger than
lower lobes.
e.g., Pinus contorta.
e.g., Leptecophylla juniperina.
e.g., türepo
(Streblus heterophyllus).
Because leaves vary in shape, even on individual plants, these terms may be
qualified with words such as ‘narrowly’ or ‘broadly’, or combined with other
terms to fully describe the range of leaf shapes present on a plant. For example,
pōhuehue (Muehlenbeckia complexa) is described in the book Trees and Shrubs
of New Zealand as having leaves “oblong, obovate or orbicular”.
Pōhuehue leaves vary from
oblong through obovate to
orbicular.
39
Leaf shapes From Flora of New Zealand Vol. 1, by H.H. Allan (illustration by Nancy M. Adams). ©
Landcare Research NZ Ltd..
40
Muehlenbeckia astonii—obcordate leaves.
Well that’s about the size of it
Big/large and small/little are relative terms, so measurements are much more
useful when describing a plant, for example, 5 cm long by 2.5 cm at the widest. It
is important not to include the leaf stalk when taking a measurement of a leaf. A
leaf is regarded as broad if its width is more than half the length:
Length:
Narrow e.g., tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa, left) and broad leaves, e.g., kawakawa (Piper excelsum).
41
Leaf vein pattern (venation/veination)
Leaves usually have some pattern on them in the form of a venation. This
may be parallel or like a net (see below). Venation can also affect the surface
appearance or texture—whether veins are raised or sunk for instance. The
main central vein or midrib maybe distinct as in the koromiko Hebe ligustrifolia
where it is orange compared to Hebe stricta. Hebe acutiflora has orange-yellow
mid-ribs.
Most monocots have parallel venation, although there are exceptions such as
supplejack (Ripogonum scandens).
Parallel venation: most monocots.
Hebe ligustrifolia (top, orange
mid-rib) and Hebe stricta
var. stricta. Illustrations from
Eagle’s Trees and Shrubs of New
Zealand (two volumes), ©
Audrey Eagle.
42
e.g., turutu (Dianella nigra).
Net venation (reticulate)—pinnate:
feather-like.
Net venation (reticulate)—palmate:
hand-like.
e.g., karamü (Coprosma lucida).
e.g., Hibiscus diversifolius.
Leaf margins (edges)
Leaf margins exhibit a wide range of forms. Some of the common types of leaf
margin are shown here:
Entire: smooth.
Crisped: margin tightly
wavy, crinkled.
Serrate: teeth directed
toward apex.
Biserrate: doubly
serrate.
e.g., filmy fern
(Hymenophyllum
flexuosum).
e.g., pukatea (Laurelia
novae-zelandiae).
e.g., blackberry (Rubus
fruticosus agg.).
Dentate: teeth directed
outward.
Erose: irregularly
toothed.
Crenate: bluntly
toothed.
Undulate: wavy.
e.g., lacebark (Hoheria
sexstylosa).
e.g., makomako
(Aristotelia serrata).
e.g., türepo (Streblus
banksii).
e.g., mäpou (Myrsine
australis).
Pinnatifid: cleft more
than halfway to midrib.
Pinnatisect: deeply
cleft to midrib.
Lobed: cut less than
half way to midrib.
Cleft: irregularly,
coarsely lobed.
e.g., Microsorum
novae-zealandiae.
e.g., poniu (Rorippa
palustris).
e.g., Hydrocotyle
elongata.
e.g., Alseuosmia
quercifolia.
e.g., hangehange
(Geniostoma
ligustrifolium).
The irregular leaf serrations of Aristotelia serrata are reminiscent of shark teeth,
giving rise to the Maori name ‘makomako’.
43
Leaf tips and bases. From Flora of New Zealand Vol. 1, by H.H. Allan (illustration by Nancy M.
Adams). © Landcare Research NZ Ltd..
44
Leaf tips and bases
Leaf tips and bases can be characteristic and may help to identify plants.
Terms used to describe the tips of leaves include:
Acuminate: tapering to
a long fine point.
Acute: sharply pointed.
Apiculate: a short
slender ± flexible point.
Emarginate: shallow
notch at the apex.
e.g., grass-leaved orchid
(Pterostylis graminea
agg.).
e.g., Pittosporum
cornifolium.
e.g., spider orchid
(Corybas rivularis agg.).
e.g., röhutu
(Lophomyrtus
obcordata).
Mucronate: with a
short sharp tip.
Obtuse: blunt.
Retuse: apex rounded
with a small notch.
Rounded
e.g., Tmesipteris
tannensis.
e.g., pygmy orchid
(Bulbophyllum
pygmaeum).
e.g., northern rätä
(Metrosideros robusta).
e.g., Coprosma
pedicellata.
Terms used to describe the bases of leaves include:
Cordate: Heart shaped
with a notch at base.
Cuneate: wedge
shaped, tapering to
base.
Hastate: arrowhead
shape, basal lobes
pointed or narrow.
Oblique: with unequal
sides.
e.g., kawakawa
(Piper excelsum).
e.g., hard beech
(Nothofagus truncata).
e.g., climbing dock
(Rumex saggitatus).
e.g., akapuka (Griselinia
lucida).
Peltate: shield-like,
with stalk attached well
inside margin.
Saggitate: arrowhead
shape, basal lobes at
narrow angle to stalk.
Truncate: cut squarely
across the base.
Attenuate: Tapering
gradually to base.
e.g., nasturtium
(Tropaeolum majus).
e.g., pink bindweed
(Calystegia sepium
subsp. roseata).
e.g., round-leaved
coprosma (Coprosma
rotundifolia).
e.g., Plantago raoulii.
45
Leaf surfaces
The upper (adaxial) and lower (abaxial) leaf surfaces also have distinctive
features which help identify leaves. They also provide texture and colour. Some
of the main terms used are shown below.
Glabrous: smooth, lacking hairs.
Hispid: rough with short, stiff
hairs.
Stellate: star-shaped hairs with
branches radiating from the base.
e.g., koromiko (Hebe stricta).
e.g., fireweed (Senecio
hispidulus).
e.g., filmy fern (Hymenophyllum
frankliniae).
Pubescent: covered in short, soft
hairs.
Hirsute: bearing coarse hairs.
Strigose: hairs appressed
against the surface.
e.g., Hydrocotyle moschata var.
moschata.
e.g., Hydrocotyle moschata var.
parviflora.
Pilose: bearing long, soft,
straight hairs.
Villous: bearing long, soft,
shaggy hairs.
Tomentose: “woolly”.
e.g., adaxial margins of toetoe
(Austroderia fulvida).
e.g., Nertera villosa.
e.g., Hebe amplexicaulis f. hirta.
46
e.g., Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum.
Glandular: with glands—hairs
with secretory function.
Stinging
Domatia: small pits in the leaf
surface.
e.g., ongaonga (Urtica ferox).
e.g., sundew (Drosera
auriculata).
e.g., karamü (Coprosma lucida).
Coriaceous: rough leathery
texture.
Scabrid (scabrous): rough.
Glaucous – distinctly bluish grey
due to waxy surface (bloom).
e.g., akiraho (Olearia paniculata).
e.g., margin of hook sedge
(Uncinia silvestris).
e.g., shore spurge (Euphorbia
glauca). Photo: John Sawyer.
Specific leaf patterns
In addition to hairs and glands, plants may have specific patterns. This may
include blotching or wrinkly appearance.
Blotching/marbleing
Bullate: blistered appearance.
e.g., marbleleaf / putaputäwëtä
(Carpodetus serratus).
e.g., ramarama
(Lophomyrtus bullata).
47
Gland dots
Rugose: wrinkly.
e.g., ngaio (Myoporum laetum).
e.g., Pomaderris apetala.
Stipule
One of a pair of scale-like or leaf-like appendages at the base of the petiole. This
is present in some plants, such as Coprosma species:
Stipules from (left) Coprosma macrocarpa, C. microcarpa, C. rhamnoides, C. robusta, C. tenuifolia.
The difference with ferns
Fern fronds have four basic shapes. They are:
48
Simple/single
Simple/lobed
e.g., Notogrammitis billardierei.
e.g., köwaowao (Microsorum
pustulatum).
Pinnate (once divided)
Multipinnate (divided 2, 3 or 4
times)
e.g., button fern
(Pellaea rotundifolia).
e.g., pig fern (Paesia scaberula).
The shape of the pinnae of fern fronds is described in three ways:
Untoothed (Entire)
Toothed
Lobed
e.g., jointed fern
(Arthropteris tenella).
e.g., shining spleenwort
(Asplenium oblongifolium).
e.g., Lindsaea trichomanoides.
The way in which ferns grow is another way of distinguishing them:
Tufted
Creeping
e.g., kiwakiwa (Blechnum fluviatile).
e.g., kidney fern (Cardiomanes reniforme).
49
Climbing
Perching
e.g., thread fern (Blechnum filiforme).
e.g., hanging spleenwort (Asplenium flaccidum).
Tree
Floating
e.g., kätote (Cyathea smithii).
e.g., Azolla filiculoides.
50
10.Stem and bark
The stem or trunk of a plant can be in various forms such as square, round or
hollow. The mint family and related puriri family also have square or 4-angled
stems. In some species only the young shoots are square, e.g., Neomyrtus
pedunculata. Below are some stem shapes:
Square
Ribbed
Flattened
e.g., Teucridium parvifolium.
e.g., old man’s beard (Clematis
vitalba).
e.g., mistletoe (Ileostylus
micranthus).
Circular
Hollow
e.g., arrow bamboo (Pseudosasa
japonica).
e.g., Himalayan honeysuckle
(Leycesteria formosa).
51
The surfaces of stems or trunks, including the bark of woody plants, also have
many forms including fibrous, hammer marked, hairy or stringy. Stem and bark
surfaces are shown below:
Smooth (glabrous)
Succulent
Rough
Papery
Smooth exposed
epidermis.
Soft, mucilaginous.
Coarse and scratchy to
touch.
Thin, dry and flaking.
e.g., fennel (Foeniculum
vulgare).
e.g., Crassula
sieberiana.
e.g., black maire
(Nestegis cunninghamii).
e.g., kötukutuku
(Fuchsia excorticata).
Prickly/thorny
Hairy (hirsute)
Grooved
Stringy
Fine or soft hairs.
Generally vertical or
spiralled striations.
Long, stringy serrations
on the bark or stem.
e.g., fireweed (Senecio
scaberulus).
e.g., lancewood
(Pseudopanax
crassifolius).
e.g., old man’s beard
(Clematis vitalba).
e.g., matagouri (Discaria
toumatou).
It is interesting to compare the trunk and bark features of the “big five”
podocarps: rimu, kahikatea, tōtara, mataī, miro (see the pictures below).
Bark of the five podocarps, from left: rimu, kahikatea, tōtara, mataī, miro.
52
11.Roots
While roots are very useful for the plants to draw
up nutrients and water from the soil they are not
much used for identification purposes. This is
because you usually cannot see them. Usually
only the descending roots of the tree epiphytes
rātā and puka (Griselinia lucida) or the succulent
roots of tree orchids are visible.
Aerial roots are produced by pohutakawa and
pneumatophore are produced by manawa and
swamp maire. The attaching roots of parasites
called haustoria are another distinctive root
structure. Pukatea and kahikatea produce
buttress roots in swampy conditions when
mature.
Some different types of plant root are shown
here.
Right: Root types.
From Wild Plants of Auckland by Alan Esler.
Below: Pukatea (Laurelia novae-zelandiae), an example of
buttress roots.
53
12.Plant identification
There are many sources of information to help identify plants:
1. Written and pictorial descriptions of plants, which you can compare with your unknown specimen to
aid in its identification. Good descriptions direct you to crucial diagnostic features for the relevant taxon,
explain the range variability found and point out botanical and ecological characteristics of importance.
A good source of information about native plants is the website of the New Zealand Plant Conservation
Network – see www.nzpcn.org.nz. This site has information (including photos) about all New Zealand’s
indigenous and naturalised exotic plants.
Please note—to use an identification guide properly, you need to know enough of the vocabulary to
understand the choices presented to you. All good identification guides provide a glossary and a list of
abbreviations to help with this.
2. Ask an expert. Many people around the country, including professional botanists and members of
botanical societies, may be able to assist with identification. Providing fresh samples will help accurate
identification, but may not always be possible. Ensure that you have the appropriate permission before
collecting specimens (see page 59). Alternatively, photographs that show significant features can be used.
A desktop scanner is a useful way to make an image of the specimen if you don’t have a good camera.
3. Keys help you find the likely
description of your specimen rapidly
and simply. Most keys are arranged
to present you with a series of
choices (decision points), usually
dichotomous (dividing in two). The
paired statements of each ‘couplet’
are framed to be contrasting and
mutually exclusive. Each choice you
make narrows down the possibilities
for your specimen until you find the
appropriate description. Terminology
is precise and brief.
Keys can vary in complexity. An easy
one to use is Which Native Tree? by
Andrew Crowe.
55
Advice for using keys
•
Note down the route taken—to trace path in case you need to back track
•
Read full description of both choices for each step
•
Do not guess—consult glossary if precise meaning of term unknown. Where measurements are required,
use a ruler
•
If features are very small, use an appropriate lens to inspect them clearly.
•
If key is multi-part one, look carefully at the descriptions for higher levels of taxa before progressing to
species key.
•
If both pairs of choices seem reasonable, try each route-one will usually prove to be unsuitable at a later
stage.
You may like to try out the following key on a kōwhai Sophora sp. specimen:
A selection of Sophora: Clockwise from above: S. chathamica
(photo: Geoff Walls), S. fulvida, S. molloyi, S. prostrata.
56
Sophora (FABACEAE) in New Zealand: taxonomy, distribution, and biogeography
P. B. Heenan, P.J. de Lange and A.D. Wilton
Key to the New Zealand köwhai species (adapted from NZ Journal Of Botany 2001, Volume 39)
This key is only for New Zealand species of Sophora, and does not include hybrid material. If the key does
not work, the plant material should be checked to see if it is hybrid origin.
1
2
3
4
5.
6
7
8
Shrub, branches at or near ground level and usually slender�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
Tree, branches well above ground level and usually thick......................................................................................5
Branchlets not interlaced, usually grey to grey-brown, glabrous to sparsely hairy.................................................3
Branchlets interlaced, usually yellow-brown to orange-brown, sparsely to moderately hairy.................................4
Shrub usually wider than high; main branches spreading to decumbent, sometimes prostrate,
underground branches and rhizomes absent; leaves 23-37 leaflets; Leaflets 5.0-12.0 x 2.0-6.0 mm
elliptic, elliptic oblong, to broadly elliptic, sparsely hairy; Kapiti island, islands in Cook Strait,
southern headlands of North Island, dry and exposed windy bluffs........................................................ S. molloyi
Shrub usually of similar width and height; main branches upright to spreading, underground
branches and rhizomes usually present, often with numerous branches near the base; leaves
with 35-52 leaflets; leaflets 3.3-5.8 x 2.5 -3.1 mm, orbicular, obovate, to oblong obovate , usually
more or less glabrous; northern Nelson, western Marlborough, marble and limestone outcrops
....................................................................................................................................................... S. longicarinata
Branchlets interlaced on juvenile and adult; leaves <3 cm long, leaflet pairs 1-5, usually
glabrous; standard petal orange; pods lacking wings; seeds dark brown; eastern South Island,
dry grey scrub communities..................................................................................................................S. prostrata
Branchlets interlaced in juvenile only; leaves> 3cm,leaflet pairs>sparsely to moderately hairy;
Flowers usually absent, if present standard petal yellow; pods usually absent, if present
winged; seeds yellow or yellow brown; North and South Islands, terraces and hillslopes.............. S. microphylla
Ovary and leaves with hairs spreading, curved and/or twisted; leaflets densely hairy...........................................6
Ovary and leaves with hairs appressed, straight, leaflets not densely hairy, or if densely
hairy greater than 15 mm long................................................................................................................................7
Leaves with 61-91 leaflets; leaflets elliptic to elliptic oblong, occasionally narrowly obovate
usually sessile; leaflet hairs appressed, decumbent, or spreading, predominantly straight
and sometimes twisted; northern North Island, andesitic and volcanic rock outcrops..............................S. fulvida
Leaves with 47-75 leaflets; leaflets ovate, broadly elliptic, to sometimes more or less
orbicular, with a more or less petiolule; leaflet hairs appressed, decumbent, spreading or
patent, predominantly curly, curved, or twisted, central North Island, siltsone, sandstone
and mudstone (papa)...............................................................................................................................S. godleyi
Leaves with less than 23 leaflets; leaflets more than 18 mm long, three times longer than
wide narrowly elliptic to elliptic-oblong, densely hairy; eastern North Island, terraces and
hillslopes..............................................................................................................................................S. tetraptera
Leaves with more than 24 leaflets; leaflets less than 16 mm long, length usually less than
twice their width, elliptic, broadly elliptic, obovate, broadly obovate, ovate, broadly ovate,
oblong to more or less orbicular, glabrous or moderately hairy..............................................................................8
Juvenile growth present, leaflets 4.5-12.5 x 2.3 -5.7 mm, distal and proximal leaflets
usually similar in size, distant, not crowded or overlapping , elliptic, broadly elliptic,
obovate to ovate, sometimes more or less orbicular, usually moderately hairy; North
and South Islands, terraces and hill country.................................................................................... S. microphylla
Juvenile growth habit absent, leaflets 6.0-16.0 x 4.0-8.0 mm, distal leaflets usually
smaller than proximal leaflets, crowded and overlapping, broadly elliptic, broadly
obovate, obovate to more or less orbicular, moderately hairy; North Island and Chatham
Islands, coastal and lowland hill country...........................................................................................S. chathamica
Juvenile growth absent; leaflets 3.3-5.8 x 2.5-3.1 mm, distal and proximal leaflets
similar in size, overlapping to distant, orbicular, obovate, to oblong-obovate, more or
less glabrous; Northern Nelson, western Marlborough, marble and Limestone rock
outcrops......................................................................................................................................... S. longicarinata
57
Key to the New Zealand gymnosperms (conifers) 21 species
3 = kauri/kawaka group—dry cone group
5 = celery pine group
9 = tötara group—needle-leaved podocarp group
10 = matai/miro—plum-fruited podocarp group
11 / 12 (and 2 (b)0 = rimu-like group for convenience—scale leaved podocarp group
1. (a) Trees or shrubs with part of the cone or seed fleshy.
................................2
(b) Trees, with dry winged seeds, some reaching 35–(60) metres or more
when mature.
................................3
2. (a) Trees or upright shrubs.
(b) Prostrate or sprawling herb-like shrub to 30 cm.
................................4
. . . . . . . . . . . Lepidothamnus laxifolius
pigmy pine (0.3 m)
PODOCARPACEAE
3. (a) Large, paddle shaped leaves up to 4 cm long (juveniles larger) with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agathis australis
parallel veins. Large spherical cones with numerous seeds.
kauri (60 m)
ARAUCARIACEAE
(b) Small flattened scale like leaves in 4 rows in opposite pairs; juvenile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Libocedrus plumosa
foliage frond-like. Mature branchlets compressed. Small cones of 4-6
kawaka, NZ cedar (25 m)
scales.
CUPRESSACEAE
(c) Small cones of 4-6 scales, mature branchlets compressed. Bark very . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Libocedrus bidwillii
thick, pyramidal growth form.
mountain cedar (20 m)
CUPRESSACEAE
4. (a) Trees or shrubs with rhomboid leaf-like flattened stems (cladodes or
phylloclades) resembling celery leaf (hence common name celery pine).
No true leaves.
................................5
(b) True leaves present.
................................6
5. (a) Leaves larger than for tanekaha, phylloclades pinnately arranged on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phyllocladus toatoa
rachis which is 10–30 cm long thick leathery, bluish green—often bronze
toatoa (20 m)
coloured. Bark greyish & warty with short horizontal ridges running
PHYLLOCLADACEAE
around it. Northern North Island only.
(ex PODOCARPACEAE)
(b) Green phylloclades 1.2 – 2.5 cm long, 9–15 on rachis 2.5 – 7.5 cm long. . . . . . . . . Phyllocladus trichomanoides
Bark smooth & lightish grey.
tänekaha, celery pine (30 m)
PHYLLOCLADACEAE
(ex PODOCARPACEAE)
(c)
. . . “Phyllocladus aff. trichomanoides”
Surville cliffs tänekaha
PHYLLOCLADACEAE
(ex PODOCARPACEAE)
(d) Small tree or shrub, phylloclades smaller than for tanekaha.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phyllocladus alpinus
mountain toatoa (9 m)
PHYLLOCLADACEAE
(ex PODOCARPACEAE)
6. (a) Mature and juvenile leaves similar.
................................7
(b) Mature leaves small and scale-like, juvenile leaves larger, gradual or
abrupt transition from leafy juvenile shoots bearing linear leaves to
narrow adult shoots with appressed scale leaves.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7. (a) All leaves usually linear, at least 10 mm long
................................8
(b) Small scale or awl-like leaves and exposed seeds on a fleshy base. Tall
trees reaching over 35 m tall.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8. (a) Conifers with linear leaves and exposed seeds on a fleshy base. Leaves
stiff and hard, straight, bark thick and stringy (hybrids in this group
known).
................................9
58
(b) Conifers with linear leaves and seeds wrapped in a fleshy layer, stalk
not fleshy. Leaves softer in texture, sometimes curved.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9. (a) Bark very thick and stringy. Large forest tree. Seed ovoid.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Podocarpus totara
tötara ( 40 m)
PODOCARPACEAE
(b) Bark thinner more papery and flaky. Leaves often larger than true tötara . . . . . . . . . . Podocarpus cunninghamii
esp. juvenile. Seed long narrow and often pointed.
(formerly known as P. hallii), thinbarked tötara, Hall’s tötara (20 m)
PODOCARPACEAE
(c) Bark thin and stringy, mature leaves greater than 10 mm long, needle- . . . . . . . . . . . . . Podocarpus acutifolius
leaved shrub or small tree.
prickly tötara (9 m)
PODOCARPACEAE
(d) Prostrate to low growing alpine shrub, branches wide-spreading, leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Podocarpus nivalis
up to 15mm long.
snow tötara (5 m)
PODOCARPACEAE
10. (a) Seeds with black flesh (like little plum). Leaves bluish green above and
whitish below. in two irregular rows on branchlets. Leaf tips are rounded
with a small sharp point. Bark bluish, almost black, shiny, hammer
marked; loose flakes leave red marks on trunk when shed. Juvenile has . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Prumnopitys taxifolia
untidy interlacing slender branchlets with a mixture of scale like leaves
mataï, black pine (40 m)
and larger linear leaves, bronze-green.
PODOCARPACEAE
(b) Seeds with red flesh (like little plum). Spirally arranged leaves are
distinctly flattened into 2 rows, narrowed to a point and green underneath.
Juvenile and adolescent leaves 1–3 cm long. Bark dark grey to grey . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prumnopitys ferruginea
brown, rough also hammer marked but not leaving red marks as in
miro, brown pine (25 m)
matai.
PODOCARPACEAE
11. (a) Trees with black spherical seed on fleshy orange stalks. Juvenile with
leaves in two rows, and branches not weeping, adult leaves are 2–3
mm long, awl-like closely appressed to the branchlets. Branchlets are . . . . . . . . . . Dacrycarpus dacrydioides
characteristically upturned at their tips. Bark grey and “hammer marked”.
kahikatea/ white pine (65 m)
Buttress roots.
PODOCARPACEAE
(b) Trees with black pear-shaped seeds projecting from red fleshy cups. . . . . . . . . . . . Dacrydium cupressineum
Juvenile leaves not in distinct row, branches weeping, bark dark brown
rimu, red pine (60 m)
and coming off in large flakes.
PODOCARPACEAE
12. (a) Trees with ribbed seeds seated on orange fleshy cushions. Juvenile
foliage large 15–40 mm long linear leaves. Abrupt transition to adult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Halocarpus kirkii
foliage consisting of 2–3 mm long, overlapping scale leaves, weakly
manoao, Kirk’s rimu (25 m)
keeled on back. Northern North island only.
PODOCARPACEAE
(b) Shrub showing abrupt transition from leafy juvenile shoots bearing linear
leaves to narrow adult shoots with appressed scale leaves Juvenile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Halocarpus bidwillii
leaves 5–10 mm long, 1–1.5 mm wide; fleshy outgrowth at base of
bog pine (5 m)
ribbed seed white-yellow.
PODOCARPACEAE
(c) Erect small tree, bark scaling off in small flakes, reddish silver beneath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Halocarpus biformis
Juvenile leaves 1–20 mm long; adult leaves with prominent keel on
pink pine (9 m)
back. Fleshy outgrowth at base of ribbed seed orange (as for H. kirkii).
PODOCARPACEAE
(d) Rounded bush or small tree with seeds half hidden in surrounding
greenish fleshy scales. Bark thin grey to reddish brown not flaking,
unfissured. Juvenile foliage on erect or spreading shoots. Adult leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Manoao colensoi
strongly keeled, shoot tips erect, seed subtended and half hidden by
manoao, silver pine (15 m)
green to whitish green fleshy scale.
PODOCARPACEAE
(e) Small tree, bark thin, grey, Juvenile foliage on drooping shoots; leaves
of semi-adult stage bristling all round the shoot; adult scale leaves . . . . . . . . . Lepidothamnus intermedius
weakly keeled; shoot tips curving over and down. 2–3 yellow fleshy
yellow-silver pine (15 m)
scale leaves subtending seed.
PODOCARPACEAE
59
Kauri
(Agathis australis)
Kawaka
(Libocedrus plumosa)
Kaikawaka
(Libocedrus bidwillii)
Tänekaha
(Phyllocladus trichomanoides)
Toatoa
(Phyllocladus toatoa)
Alpine toatoa
(Phyllocladus alpinus)
Prickly tötara
(Podocarpus acutifolius)
Tötara
(Podocarpus totara)
Snow tötara
(Podocarpus nivalis)
60
Thin-barked tötara
(Podocarpus
cunninghamii)
Mataï
(Prumnopitys taxifolia)
Miro
(Prumnopitys ferruginea)
Kahikatea
(Dacrycarpus dacrydioides)
Rimu
(Dacrydium cupressinum)
Manoao
(Halocarpus kirkii)
Bog pine
(Halocarpus bidwillii)
Manoao / silver pine
(Manoao colensoi)
Yellow silver pine
(Lepidothamnus
intermedius)
Pigmy pine
(Lepidothamnus
laxifolius)
Pink pine
(Halocarpus biformis)
Gymnosperm illustrations from Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand by AL Poole and Nancy M Adams, © Landcare Research New
Zealand 1994.
61
13.Collecting plant specimens for
identification
For a conservation ecologist, an ability to identify the major and/or common
native plants is very important. In some cases it is not possible to identify species
in the field. In these instances, you may need to collect a small specimen (or take
good photographs).
A herbarium specimen is a permanent record of a plant observation at a
particular site, and may be useful to verify the identity of a plant. If you intend to
collect plant material, you should follow the guidelines below.
Collecting
A collecting permit is required by law if you want to collect plant
material from certain areas (e.g., national parks, forest / conservation
parks, and scientific, scenic, nature, wildlife and special purpose
reserves). Permission must also be sought in order to collect from
places such as public gardens, council plantings, exotic plantation
forest, private land etc. Permits/permission can be obtained from the
appropriate administering authority (e.g., Department of Conservation,
district or regional councils, forestry companies, private owners etc.)
Look around and familiarise yourself with the species that occur at a site. How
abundant is each species?
Before taking any plant material, ask yourself whether it is appropriate to collect
specimens:
•
•
•
•
•
Do you have permission to collect specimens?
How common is the plant at the site?
Would taking a specimen destroy the plant?
Do you think the plant may be a threatened species?
Would photos be adequate?
If you do not have permission to collect at the site, you must gather information
about the plant in other ways.
If you do have permission to collect, you may still decide it is inappropriate to
take a specimen, depending on the answers to the questions above.
An ideal herbarium specimen must be as representative as possible of the
population it comes from, it must have accurate collecting data recorded, and it
must be well preserved.
A specimen can be one plant, a portion of one plant, or several small plants of
the same species collected from a single site at the same time. Material collected
from a plant at different times of the year must not be mounted on one sheet.
Each herbarium sheet must display one species only.
Do not over-collect or deplete populations of native plants by taking more
material than is necessary. If a plant is scarce in an area, collect only small
representative portions. Take care not to damage the surrounding vegetation or
habitats in the process of collecting.
63
Choosing a plant specimen
Don’t be tempted to collect more material than you really need. Keep in mind
the size of your herbarium sheet. If a specimen is particularly large (e.g., a tree
fern frond), it can be either folded to fit, or spread over two or more sheets.
Look at the plant and decide carefully which portions would most accurately
represent it overall. Bear in mind such characters as:
• Characteristic vegetative features (leaf forms, stipules, ligules etc.)
• Reproductive structures (flowers, fruit etc.).
• Reproductive structures are often the most important characters used in
plant identification.
Field notes
Every herbarium sheet should have an information sheet attached to it. It is
important to gather additional information about the plant specimen at the time
of collection. Colours, shapes, sizes and odours can change during the drying
process, so it is important to note these features while the specimen (and your
memory) is still fresh. The following basic details should be noted:
Name: Name of the collector.
Date: Date when the specimen was collected.
Locality: Be precise; use the following format: 1. Country, 2. Ecological region
(e.g., Northland), 3. Closest city/town, 4. Name of property and/or area, 5. actual
location (e.g., off edge of milking shed near pond). If you can, obtain a grid
reference and altitude of the position (from a GPS unit or topographical map).
Habitat: Include details of the site where the plant was found e.g., physical
conditions (wet? dry? exposed?), soil type (sandy? peaty?), aspect (north facing?
south facing?) type of vegetation cover (tall forest? open pasture? scrub?),
associated plant species.
Habit: Include details of form (e.g., tree, shrub, climber), height and/or breadth,
abundance.
Stems: For tree species, “guesstimate” of height, note bark colour and texture, do
buttresses occur, are there thorns? For herbaceous plants, note the presence of
hairs and the smoothness, the shape of the stem in cross-section etc.
Leaves: How are the leaves arranged (e.g., alternate, opposite, simple,
compound), what is their colour, is it the same on both sides, shape, texture, and
sheen. Is the plant evergreen or deciduous? Does it show heterophylly (different
shaped leaves on the same plant, different adult/juvenile leaves)?
Flower and/or inflorescence (group of flowers): Note their size, shape and
colour if they are present. Also note their position e.g., terminal, axillary. Is the
plant monoecious (male and female flowers on the same plant) or dioecious
(male and female flowers on separate plants).
Fruit / seeds: Note colour, shape, size, dispersal mechanism etc.
Other information: Anything not covered above that will help to identify the
specimen.
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What to do with fresh plant material
To minimise damage to specimens, fragile plant material should be placed
immediately into a temporary plant press at the collecting site. Use an old
telephone book or something with a hard cover and absorbent pages. Arrange
the specimen on one page of the book, folding it over to the next page if it is too
large. Close the book on the specimen and keep everything in place by securing
the covers together with a couple of large rubber bands (cut-up car inner tubes
are ideal).
More robust material can be placed into a large plastic bag with a moistened
paper towel inside, and transferred to a plant press later.
Ideally, all specimens should be transferred to a plant press within 24 hours. If
necessary, plant material can be kept in the fridge for a few days, but delicate
objects are likely to deteriorate.
Specimens may then be deposited at one of the main herbaria in Auckland
(Auckland Museum, AK), Wellington (Te Papa, WELT), or Lincoln (Landcare
Research, CHR). If you are preparing the specimen for your own herbarium,
follow the guidelines below for pressing and drying specimens. It is advisable to
check with the curators of the herbaria before submitting material to them.
Pressing and drying plant material
When dry, plant material is brittle and difficult to manipulate. In order to finish
up with a collection of useful herbarium specimens, you will need to be careful
about arranging the fresh plant material in the drying paper and plant press.
Once the drying process is finished, any mistakes are difficult to reverse.
1. In order to avoid mix-ups, a small temporary label indicating what the
sample is, where it was collected from, or to which set of collecting notes it
belongs, should be attached to each specimen before placing it in the plant
press.
2. Place the fresh specimen on an open fold of newspaper (one thickness is
sufficient). Take care to arrange the specimen so all features can be seen.
3. Place the single fold of newspaper containing the specimen between several
more layers of drying paper (newspaper) or absorbent material.
4. Place a corrugated cardboard ventilator sheet (from a cardboard box)
between the layers of drying paper to ensure an adequate flow of air within
the press (Figure 1, overleaf). Several specimens in such an arrangement can
be stacked on top of one an another to form the press.
5. Place the stack on top of a piece of 5-ply (or other wood) of sufficient size,
and place another piece of 5-ply on the top.
6. A weight (heavy books, etc.) should then be placed on top of the stack so that
a “reasonable” pressure is being applied to the plant material. Another good
option is to “squeeze” the stack using ratchet tie-downs.
7. The drying process occurs most effectively in an area of warm circulating
air. Good results can be obtained using a hot water cupboard, a radiator
heater, or even the sun. However, it is imperative to change the drying papers
regularly (i.e. change the papers twice a day for the first three days, then at
least once a day until all the moisture has been removed from the specimens.
Most plant material will dry within 1–3 weeks. However, drying times will
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vary greatly, depending on specimen bulk, resins, succulence etc. Use of a
microwave oven is not recommended as material tends to cook or catch fire.
Seed viability may also be destroyed.
8. A useful test to use to ascertain when specimens are properly dry is to press
the plant material to your lips. If it feels cold to the touch, or is limp and
flexible, it will not be dry.
Mounting specimens
If you can, mount your specimens on card. This will display the specimen and
data in a way that allows observation and detailed study, and also it will preserve
the specimen. If you cannot get hold of card, then paper will do.
Make sure all working surfaces and hands are clean before starting this
procedure to avoid making dirty marks on the herbarium sheet.
1. Remove all extraneous material from the specimen such as soil, mud, and any
other plant species that may be mixed up with the sample.
2. Before gluing, arrange the plant specimen, label, and any paper capsules on
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3.
4.
5.
6.
the sheet so everything fits without hanging over the edges (Figure 2). Bear in
mind the following possibilities: Display the best side of the specimen, it may
be necessary to remove some leaves to reveal obscured features. Turn some
leaves over to show both surfaces. Large specimens can either be cut and
mounted on more than one sheet, or bent to fit in a V, M, or N shape.
Once the arrangement is complete, apply PVA glue to selected areas on
the underside of the plant specimen and place it on the card. Avoid gluing
parts that may be useful in identification (e.g., nodes, floral parts). Instead
concentrate the glue at internodes, stems, and leaf midribs. Use only enough
glue to provide a firm attachment to the card or paper.
Affix the data label to the bottom right hand corner of the card or paper (see
labelling specimens). Position it approximately 5mm from the edge, and
attach by gluing along the top edge only. Note: Labels should be complete
before being glued on the sheet.
Affix a paper capsule to the card if required. Fold and glue capsules according
to instructions in Figure 3. Place small items, such as seeds, inside a small
plastic bag in the capsule. If flowers are plentiful, remove several from the
specimen and place them in the capsule for easy study.
Leave the specimen to dry on a clean flat surface. PVA glue takes about half
an hour to set. Specimens can be kept in place with small weighted objects
while drying.
Labelling specimens
It is essential that you include a label with every specimen. The data label is a
very important part of a herbarium specimen. It contains information that the
plant specimen cannot show by itself. Look carefully at the example below and
be sure to follow the same format.
Note: Labels must be clearly worded and legible. Correction fluids or masking
tapes should not be used on herbarium labels as they can deteriorate and peel off
over time. Labels should be filled out by the collector where possible.
EX AMPLE OF A SPECIMEN L ABEL
NTHLPOLY
NORTHLAND POLYTECHNIC, WHANGAREI, NEW ZEALAND
Family: Fabaceae
Scientific name: Sophora tetraptera
Common name: Kowhai
Place of collection: New Zealand, Northland, Whangarei, Pukenui bush, by
creek outside D.O.C. hut. Grid reference: NZMS 260 S14 123 456
Collector: David Attenborough
Determinator: David Attenborough
Date collected: 14 April 2006
Date of identification: 14 April 2006
General information and notes: A small spreading tree commonly found
throughout the country. Member of the nitrogen-fixing family Fabaceae,
found throughout the temperate regions of the world. Growing in macadamia
nut orchard under the shade of totara and matai trees. Often flooded area.
Flowers absent.
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Identification books
FERNS AND LYCOPHYTES
To make the most of identification keys in the books mentioned below, it is
useful if you have a fertile portion of your fern specimen to work with, and
if possible, a whole frond from base to tip. Some fern species have separate
vegetative and fertile parts, and there is often a range of variation in size, colours,
and shapes within a species.
Brownsey, P.J. and Smith-Dodsworth, J.C. 2000: New Zealand ferns and allied
plants. Bateman.
Crowe, A. 1994: Which native fern? Viking Press.
Heath, E. and Chinnock, R.J. 1974: Ferns and fern allies of New Zealand. A.H.
and A.W. Reed Publishers.
GYMNOSPERMS
To identify gymnosperms, it is useful to have samples of both adult and juvenile
leaves, male/female cones/fruit, and some idea of the appearance of the bark.
Salmon, J.T. 1980: The native trees of New Zealand. Reed Publishing (NZ).
Salmon, J.T. 1986: A field guide to the native trees of NZ. Reed Publishing (NZ).
Poole, A.L.; Adams, Niall M.; Adams, Nancy M. 1994: Trees and shrubs of New
Zealand. Government Printer, Wellington.
Smith-Dodsworth, J.C. 1991: New Zealand native shrubs and climbers. David
Bateman.
Wilson, H. and Galloway, T. 1993: Small-leaved shrubs of New Zealand.
Manuka Press.
ANGIOSPERMS
Some books contain perfectly workable keys based on vegetative characters.
Generally however, most identification keys for angiosperms are based on floral
or fruiting characters. This means it is to your advantage to collect examples of
both flowers/fruit and vegetative parts where possible. Use fresh plant material
during identification. Plant characters are often altered and manipulation is
difficult when plant material is dried and/or wilted.
Crowe, A. 1997: The life-size guide to native trees and other common plants of
New Zealand’s forest. Viking Press. (Good for angiosperms and gymnosperms).
Dawson, J. and Lucas, R. 2000: Nature guide to the New Zealand forest.
Godwit.
de Lange, P.; Rolfe, J.; St George, I.; Sawyer, J. 2007: Wild orchids of the lower
North Island. Department of Conservation, Wellington.
Salmon, J.T. 1980: The native trees of New Zealand. Reed Publishing (NZ).
Salmon, J.T. 1986: A field guide to the native trees of NZ. Reed Publishing (NZ).
Poole, A.L.; Adams, Niall M.; Adams, Nancy M. 1994: Trees and shrubs of New
Zealand. Government Printer, Wellington.
Johnson, P. ; Brooke, P. 1989: Wetland plants in New Zealand. DSIR Publishing,
Wellington.
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