* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download here
Survey
Document related concepts
Information society wikipedia , lookup
Frankfurt School wikipedia , lookup
Sociology of gender wikipedia , lookup
Social constructionism wikipedia , lookup
Social exclusion wikipedia , lookup
Social group wikipedia , lookup
Development theory wikipedia , lookup
Sociology of culture wikipedia , lookup
Network society wikipedia , lookup
Differentiation (sociology) wikipedia , lookup
Sociological theory wikipedia , lookup
Structural functionalism wikipedia , lookup
Sociology of knowledge wikipedia , lookup
Social development theory wikipedia , lookup
Postdevelopment theory wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
The Modernity/Postmodernity debate Key assumptions Postmodernists claim that contemporary western societies have moved from the modern (which replaced traditional societies) to the postmodern. To understand this shift requires an understanding of modernity first. Some leading sociologists question the claim that we have moved as far as postmodernity, although they accept major social change has occurred in the developed world. Modernity 18th - 1970s Postmodernity 1970s onwards (fragmentation of societies) Applications of postmodernism Evaluation ‘Enlightenment Project’ - the idea that society can In pomo society, we define ourselves by what we consume. Education progress through the use of human reason, where It Is not a continuation of modernity, but a fundamental break with it. 1. Due to the economy shifting towards rationality and science will enable us to discover true For postmodernists, this new kind of society requires a new kind of theory – modernist ‘flexible specialisation’ education needs knowledge about the world. With this knowledge we theories no longer apply. to produce a skilled, adaptable can progress to a future of freedom and prosperity. Lyotard claims that there is no such thing as the truth (scientific or otherwise) and that all workforce that is transferable. Postmodernists have raised new and important questions about cultural change, Modernist theories therefore set out to explain the knowledge is uncertain. Education must encourage selfworkings of modern society and to identify the particularly in the areas of the media, culture and identity, and the significance of direction it should take if it is to progress. E.g. Is suicide dependent on the society you are in, or is it a product of social actors (coroners)? motivation and creativity. these. Postmodernism should be seen as a completely separate from Modernism 2. Eduation has become more diverse. The nation-state – key political unit in modern society Baudrillard: Simulacra Fragmentation and choice has been Postmodernists provide insight into most contemporary social changes, such as – a bounded territory ruled by a powerful centralised Like Lyotard, Jean Baudrillard (1983) argues that knowledge is central to postmodern society. created: specialist schools, CTCs and ‘uncertainty’, globalisation and the growing power of the media. state, whose population usually shares the same He argues that society is no longer based on the production of material goods, but rather on Grammar schools (again movements language and culture. We think of the modern world buying and selling knowledge in the form of images and signs. However, unlike signs in past made by the new government) as made up of a series of separate societies, each with Postmodern theories highlight how modernist theories are out of date. For its own state. societies, those today bear no relation to physical reality. example, many of the founders of sociology (Durkheim & Marx) focused on social The state is the focal point of modern society, Instead, signs are simply just themselves. They are not a symbol of some other real thing. Family class to the neglect of gender and ethnicity. Postmodernism offers us a theory organising social life on a national basis. Modern Baudrillard called these signs simulacra (or simulacrum for singular). E.g. tabloid newspaper 1. There is no longer one family type which recognises the complexity of contemporary societies. states have creative large administrative articles about fictitious soap opera characters are ‘signs about signs’ rather than about an that is dominant. Family structures are bureaucracies and educational, welfare and legal underlying reality. fragmented and individuals have far Postmodernists are right to suggest that knowledge and many aspects of social life institutions to regulate their citizen’s lives. The He describes this situation as hyper-reality: where the signs appear more real than reality itself more choice in lifestyle and the type of nation-state is also an important source of identity for are socially constructed/relative. For example, what counts as the truth, crime or citizens who identify with its symbols such as the flag. and substitute themselves for reality i.e. we don’t know the difference between reality and relationships they choose. E.g. Women health does vary from time to time and place to place. fiction. However, because the signs do not represent anything real, they are literally as ‘breadwinners’, same sex couples. Capitalism – the economy of modern societies is meaningless. In this respect, he is very critical of TV, which he sees as the main source of capitalist – based on private ownership of the means simulacra and of our inability to distinguish between image and reality. Religion of production and the use of wage labourers. Other views: 1. Religion has become consumerist and Capitalism brought about the industrialisation of 1. Decline of the metanarratives – Lyotard concludes that we are left with individuals are choosing different beliefs modern society, with huge increases in wealth. Marxists have made several of their own criticisms of postmodernism: However, wealth distribution is unequal, resulting in competing metanarratives, each as equally as valid as the other. We should and shaping them into personal It ignores power and inequality e.g. the idea that images are class conflict. The nation-state becomes important in celebrate these differences, not try to impose one on the other. philosophies. E.g. the rise in unconnected with reality ignores the ruling class’ use of the media as a regulating capitalism and maintaining the conditions 2. Post industrialisation – Rapid introduction of new goods and services with much Scientology. tool of domination under which it operates. This is described as wider consumer choice. Manual work replaced by the service economy e.g. ‘organised capitalism’ (Lash and Urry, 1987; 1994). Similarly, the claim that we freely construct our identities through finance, telecommunication. Flexible work practices are common (part-time, Crime In modern industry, production is organised on consumption overlooks the effects of poverty in restricting such temporary contracts, job sharing etc.), jobs for life have disappeared. 1. Growing underclass who commits Fordist principles (after the Ford motor company’s opportunities system): the mass production of standardised 3. Death of social class - postmodernists claim that social class is no longer a major crime due to feelings of resentment and Postmodernists are simply wrong to claim that people cannot products in large factories, using low skilled labour. factor shaping social life. They claim life chances and cultural identities are now revenge. distinguish between reality and media image Cheap, mass produced consumer goods lead to a also shaped by other structures such as ethnicity, gender, age. Heaton claims we 2. Postmodern feminists account for the rising standard of living. By assuming all views are equally true, it becomes just as valid to deny now lead “fragmentary lives”. growth in female crime in terms of that the Nazis murdered millions as it does to affirm it. This is a morally 4. Globalisation - postmodernists claim we now live in a global world where the shifting gender roles and the poverty Rationality, science and technology – Rational, indefensible position. world is strongly interconnected. Thus production is carried out in multinational experienced by women. secular, scientific ways of thinking dominate the influence of magico-religious explanations of the plants, nation states have become less powerful, and communication transcends 3. Control of crime has become Postmodernists contradict themselves They claim there is no such thing as the truth, world declines. Technically efficient forms of space and time, e.g. the internet, satellite tv, e-mail. invasive. Postmodernists claim we now yet they make their own truth claims e.g. Lyotard. Why should we accept their own organisation e.g. bureaucracies and factories 5. Pick and mix culture - traditional cultural boundaries have become blurred and live in a surveillance society - e.g. CCTV, metanarrative over other grand theories? dominate the social and economic life. Science people form their identity from a range of structures class, ethnicity, sexuality, electronic tagging. becomes increasingly important in industry, medicine age, gender. Cultural forms such as conceptual art and many new music genres and communications. Postmodernism perhaps exaggerates the amount of social change that has are based on mixing the old with the new. Cultural diversity and pluralism exists happened. For example, nation states are still strong, mass production still takes Individualism - Tradition, custom and ascribed status in a range of social contexts, religion, family, youth culture. place, and social class remains a major determinant of life chances, culture and become less important as the basis for our actions. 6. Enlightenment – We cannot accept any theory (metanarrative) that claims how to consumption. We experience greater professional freedom and can create a better society because we cannot know it to be true. increasingly choose our own course in life and define 7. Consumption consumption of goods and services increasing becomes important: our own identity. However, structural inequalities Postmodernist are criticised for their pessimistic view of the enlightenment project consumption is global, emphasises style and is conspicuous, is influenced by such as class remain important in shaping people’s – David Harvey (1989) rejects this pessimism and argues that political decisions do popular culture, defines individual identity. identity and restricting their choices. make a real difference to people’s lives and that knowledge can be used to solve human problems. Even if the theories cannot provide absolute truth, they are at least an approximation to it. While Postmodernism has identified some important features of today’s society, it is poorly equipped to explain them. By contrast, recent sociological theories have offered more satisfactory explanations of the changes society is undergoing. Links to methods – The debate between positivism and interpretivism is generally dismissed by postmodernists as a pointless waste of time. They take the view that: 1. Sociological Research is a social construction created by sociological researchers. Concepts like gender and ethnicity are just frameworks imposed on the world by sociologists and have no meanings to separate them. 2. 3. It is pointless to try and find causes of behaviour through Social Research. There is no longer ‘a society’ or any social structure; there is only a mass of individuals making separate choices about their lifestyles. There is no point in carrying out research unless you specifically target every single individual as their behaviour and construction of their meanings will be totally different. Postmodernists say little on specific research methods as they theorise about society rather than study it empirically. Critical Views of Postmodernism These can be used to criticise Postmodernity (compare and contrast). 1. Giddens: late modernity Giddens (2006) Agrees with the postmodernist view that changes in society have occurred and that we live in a modern society (society in a stage of late or high modernity) characterised by growing diversity, risk and uncertainty. However the problem is that they have exaggerated the amount and nature of social change. He believes we have moved some where in between modern and postmodern societies, namely late modernity. He believes the defining changes in late modernity are: globalisation; cosmopolitanism (diversity of cultures, ethnic groups and social movements); reflexivity (individuals and institutions think and reflect on their actions); and individual freedom. 2. Beck - risk society Beck also questions the shift to postmodernity. He claims we live in a new phase called ‘the second modernity’ where we face risk and uncertainty. For example, jobs are no longer permanent; marriage often ends up in divorce; ecological risks exist due to the greenhouse effect, GM crops etc. A new sub-based politics emerges (which is not class based) including the green movement, anti-globalisation protestors, animal right activists etc. Beck believes that individuals and societies are capable of reflexivity so that they can learn, assess and question the risks faced by modern technological societies. Beck also believes contemporary societies are characterised by individualisation (people seeing themselves as individuals). He believes this is because of the declining structural influences of social class and gender. 3. Marxist Theories of Postmodernity (Harvey) Marxists believe in the Enlightenmen project of achieving objective knowledge and using it to improve society. E.g. Marx claimed that his theory showed how a working class revolution could overthrow capitalism and bring an end to exploitation. Some Marxists such as Harvey (1989) believe that we have moved from a modern to a post modern society with much more emphasis on the media, diversity and instability. However, instead of seeing postmodernism as completely separate, Harvey (1989) sees it as the product of the most recent stage of capitalism. Harvey (1989) argues this by highlighting the fact that Postmodernism was borne out of the capitalist crisis of the 1970s, which saw the end of a long economic boom that had lasted since 1945. Harvey describes the era after the capitalist crisis of 1970, as ‘flexible accumulation’; this brought about a new way to achieve profits. Flexible accumulation involved the use of ICT, expanding the service and finance sector and job insecurity. It allows the markets to be more flexible in order to create profits. This change brought about many cultural characteristics of post-modernity (diversity, choice and instability). E.g.: Production of customised products for niche markets promotes cultural diversity. Easy switching of production from one product to another encourages constant shifts in fashion. Critical points Postmodernists have highlighted many important changes in contemporary western societies, for example globalisation and the potential dangers it creates, e.g. wars. However, postmodernist thinking has serious weaknesses. For example, choice is not equal in society, as social class, ethnicity etc determine the extent to which choices can be made (e.g. in health care, schooling etc). The central question contemporary social theorists seem to be engaged in is the degree to which developed societies have shifted from the modern. However, perhaps debates as to whether we are postmodern or late modern is merely a language/concept game played out by sociologists to enhance their career prospects. There is after all much common ground in the thinking of postmodernists and Giddens about contemporary societies.