Download The History of Artificial Intelligence The Dartmouth Conference

The History of
Artificial Intelligence
An Introduction
Part 2
Professor Max Bramer
University of Portsmouth
The Dartmouth Conference
The name Artificial Intelligence was coined
by John McCarthy, who organised a
celebrated and pioneering conference at
Dartmouth College in the summer of 1956
entitled 'The Dartmouth Summer Research
Project on Artificial Intelligence'.
The conference lasted two months and led to
the first ideas for a list processing language
which later became Lisp
The Strong View of AI
"The Brain is a Computer That Happens
To Be Made of Meat”
John McCarthy
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GPS
1957: Newell and Simon
The General Problem Solver (GPS)
Allen Newell, Cliff Shaw and Herbert
Simon on Chess-Playing Programs
(1958)
"Chess is the intellectual game par excellence. Without a chance
device to obscure the contest, it pits two intellects against one another
in a situation so complex that neither can hope to understand it
completely, but sufficiently amenable to analysis that each can hope
to outthink his opponent. The game is sufficiently deep and subtle in
its implications to have supported the rise of professional players, and
to have allowed a deepening analysis through 200 years of intensive
study and play without becoming exhausted or barren. Such
characteristics mark Chess as a natural area for attempts at
mechanisation. If one could devise a successful chess machine, one
would seem to have penetrated to the core of human intellectual
endeavor.”
Samuel’s Checkers Program
In 1958 Arthur Samuel
at IBM produced a very
strong program for
playing Checkers, using
rote learning techniques.
The program had an
evaluation function with
coefficients which were
adjusted upwards or
downwards after every
game.
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MENACE
Other important experiments on rote learning were
carried out in the late 1950s by Donald Michie,
formerly a colleague of Turing's at Bletchley Park,
using the game of noughts and crosses
Computers at that time were so primitive that Michie
instead constructed his learning system, which was
called the Matchbox Educable Noughts And Crosses
Engine (MENACE), from matchboxes and carried out
hundreds of trials in his machine learning experiments
by hand
MENACE: The Matchbox Educable
Noughts And Crosses Engine
Computers and Thought.
Edited by Ed Feigenbaum and
Julian Feldman (1963)
Topics included
• Game-playing Programs
• Mathematical Theorem Proving
• Symbolic Integration
• Question-answering Systems
• Pattern Recognition
• Simulation of Cognitive Processes
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Marvin Minsky
1963: Steps Towards Artificial Intelligence
In Computers and Thought
AISB
In 1964 AISB, The Society for the
Study of Artificial Intelligence and the
Simulation of Behaviour is formed in
Britain. It is the first national AI society
in Europe and possibly the world.
1965: Heuristic Dendral
Heuristic Dendral was developed by Bruce
Buchanan at Stanford University. It assisted
organic chemists in inferring the molecular
structure of complex organic compounds
from their chemical formulae and mass
spectrograms.
This was the first Expert System. It comprised
approximately 400 rules
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SHRDLU
Terry Winograd’s
SHRDLU (1968)
Natural language
understanding (a
‘robot’ operating in
the blocks world)
2001: A Space Odyssey
(Kubrick 1968)
The HAL 9000 Computer
Other AI Systems: Late 1960s
• STUDENT - solving algebra problems
• SIR - understanding English sentences
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Prolog
Prolog (Programming in Logic) was
invented c. 1970 by Alain Colmerauer and
others in Marseilles, Edinburgh and
London.
Newell And Simon (1973):
Human Problem Solving
On the basis of detailed studies of
human problem solving ‘protocols’,
argued for Production Systems as a
psychologically plausible
computational model.
Production Systems later served as the
basis for the first generation of Expert
Systems.
1973: The Lighthill Report
British AI suffered badly from a damning report to
the (then) Science Research Council in 1973 by Sir
James Lighthill, an Applied Mathematician. The
report showed little understanding of work in the
field.
The field did not start to recover until a report with
a very different emphasis was published in 1981
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1974: First World Computer
Chess Championship
1974: The Russian program
Kaissa won the first world
computer chess championship,
held in Stockholm, with a 4-0
score
1975: MYCIN
The second and archetypal Expert System, developed
by Edward Shortliffe at Stanford University. MYCIN
diagnosed bacterial infections, particularly in the
bloodstream, making use of properties of organisms
growing in cultures in a laboratory.
Subject knowledge was represented explicitly in
declarative form as several hundred rules.
Sample MYCIN Rule
IF
the stain of the organism is gramneg
AND
the morphology of the organism is rod
AND
the aerobicity of the organism is aerobic
THEN there is strongly suggestive evidence (0.8)
that the class of the organism is
enterobacteriaceae
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Chess Challenger
1977: The first microcomputer chess
playing machine, CHESS
CHALLENGER, was created.
The International Computer Chess
Association (ICCA) was formed.
1979: Formation of AAAI
The American Association for
Artificial Intelligence
1980: EMYCIN
A domain-independent version of
MYCIN, created by William van Melle.
EMYCIN, standing for 'empty MYCIN' or
'essential MYCIN' was the first expert
system shell and the inspiration for almost
all of those that followed.
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1980: SGES Founded
The British Computer
Society Specialist Group on
Expert Systems (SGES) was
founded by Prof. Donald
Michie in 1980. He
comments that at that time
the number of operational
expert systems in the world
‘could be counted on the
fingers of one mutilated
hand’.
1981: The JIPDEC Report
In the autumn of 1981 the Japanese Information
Processing Development Center (JIPDEC) announced a
ten-year research and development programme aimed at
developing 'fifth-generation' computer systems.
The Report stated that in Fifth-Generation systems
'intelligence will be greatly improved to approach that of
a human being'. The major aim of the programme was to
develop the infrastructure to support 'knowledge
information processing' systems (expert systems).
The FGCS Project
The Fifth Generation project envisaged a
collaboration of industry, academic institutions
and government departments in a nationally co ordinated programme.
If successful it could propel Japan into a worldwide lead in the field of Advanced Information
Technology.
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Basic Structure of a Fifth Generation
Computer System
1982: The Alvey Report
British AI Rehabilitated
The British response to the JIPDEC Report was the Alvey
Programme for Advanced Information Technology, funded at
350 million pounds over five years (approximately 200
million pounds from government, the rest from industry) for
'pre-competitive' collaborative research in four areas,
including logic programming and Intelligent KnowledgeBased Systems. IKBS was identified as a major area in need
of development.
The term Intelligent Knowledge-Based System was preferred
to the still discredited term AI.
1982: Formation of ECCAI
European Co-ordinating Committee on
Artificial Intelligence
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1980s: The Rise of the
Expert System
• 1965: Heuristic Dendral
• 1975: Mycin
• 1980: Emycin
• 1981: Xcon (Digital)
• 1985: around 50 worldwide
• 1992: Over 12,500 - wide range of applications
Vision Systems
1985: Over 100 companies selling
machine vision systems in the US
(total sales $80 million p.a.)
AI Problems
1986: US sales of AI-related hardware
and software reached $425 million
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Computers and Chess:
The Computer Victorious
In 1997 Deep Blue beats Gary Kasparov
convincingly in a six-game match.
Chess-playing machines which can
routinely outplay at least 99% of the
human race can now be bought for a few
pounds.
1991: Expert Systems Go to War
It was reported that number of expert systems
were used in support of 'Operation Desert
Storm' in the Gulf War, including PRIDE (Pulse
Radar Intelligent Diagnostic Environment),
SABRE (Single Army Battlefield Requirements
Evaluator),
TOPSS
(Tactical
Operation
Planning Support System), TACOS (The
Automated Container Offering System) and
AALPS (Automated Air Load Planning
System).
The Present Day
Current topics include
• neural nets
• genetic algorithms
• intelligent agents
• data mining
• knowledge management
• artificial life
But the ‘intelligent machine’ remains elusive
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