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Exam question
Resistance to social influence.
5. In a hospital, you are very likely to obey a
nurse. However, if you meet her outside the
hospital, for example in a shop, you are much
less likely to obey.
Using your knowledge of how people resist
pressures to obey, explain why you are less likely
to obey the nurse outside the hospital.
Exam Question: Locus of Control
• 6.
Three students, George, Petra and Dan, have just started in the
sixth form. Dan is a confident person who thinks that his fate lies
firmly in his hands. By the end of the first week, Dan has put
himself forward to be nominated as the class representative.
Petra has also put her name forward to be nominated. She
believes it is just luck whether or not she will be selected and
feels that there is not much she can do about it. George did not
put his name forward because his father told him not to.
(a)
(i)
What type of locus of control does Petra’s behaviour show?
(ii)
What type of locus of control does Dan’s behaviour show?
Application
Ada feels strongly about the safety of her children
and has always sent them to school in flourescent
clothing. At first, she was ridiculed, but she stuck to
it, though she compromised as the chlidren now
only wear the high-vis vests. Slowly, more and
more parents started to do it and eventually a
majority did so. It has become school policy.
10. Explain how social influence processes influence
social change. (6m)
Key words:
Multi-store Model
Sensory register
Short term memory
Long term memory
Coding
Capacity
Duration
ConformityWelcome to
memory
Lesson 1
• To Outline the Multi-Store
Model of Memory
• Compare sensory, short
term and long term memory
• To Evaluate the evidence
Memory and Forgetting: Starter 1
What does your memory look like?
2 mins to draw a picture of what you think your
memory looks like.
Amina to judge!
What does memory look like to you?
This is what memory looks like to me.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQb2AvLqJ
qM
Memory and Forgetting : Starter 2
What do you want to know about memory?
What questions do you want answered?
Write them on a post-it note to create a
curiosity wall.
What would life be like if you had
no short term memory?
What is memory?
Is it
remembering
the places you
have been?
What is memory?
Is it
remembering
how to ride
your bike?
What is memory?
Is it
recognising
faces of people
you know?
What is memory?
Is it learning
and recalling
information?
What is memory?
Is it recalling
past events?
How accurate is memory?
Can we rely on
it?
What’s motivated
forgetting?
Freud
Can your physical state
affect your recall
If you learn stuff
when happy, will
you recall better
when happy?
Do we recall items best
where we learnt them?
What ways can you
improve your memory?
Try using
colour...Can
you think of
any other
ways?
Specification
From the media...
•
•
•
•
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0vS0E9bBSL0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O3GcvRe9G_w
Can you think of others?
Is it only fiction?
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
• Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) proposed multistore model of memory which had two
distinct stores: a short term store and a long
term store
• In addition to these two stores, this model
proposed that stimuli from the environment
are held for a very brief time (less than one
second) in a sensory register
What are the main features of the
Multi – Store Model of Memory
Multi-store model
More info on the sensory store
• Sensory memory results from our
perceptions.
• This is the first port of call for
information.
• It gets its name from the fact that the
information it receives is sensual
(visual, auditory, smell, touch).
• It includes various sub-systems:
– iconic memory of visual
perceptions
– echoic memory of auditory
perceptions.
• By attending to certain aspects of
an experience, sensory
information can be brought
together into an event in short
term memory.
• The capacity is said to be vast but
the duration is only 0.25 to 3
seconds.
Multi-store model: Capacity of Iconic Memory
Sperling (1960)
• Aim: To investigate the capacity of iconic memory (visual sensory
memory).
• Method: A three by four grid of numbers was flashed for 0.05 seconds.
Followed by a high, medium or low pitched tone to indicate which row
was to be recalled.
• Results: On average, the participants were able to recall 80% of the letters
on the cued row.
• Conclusions: Since the participants didn't know which row was going to be
called beforehand but still managed to recall it well, you can assume that
at one time all of the information was held in the sensory memory. But it
decayed very rapidly.
• Evaluation: The work by Sperling is the basis of the view that sensory
memory stores are large but decay very rapidly. lasting 250 to 500
milliseconds.
Multi-store model
Sperling (1960)
• Aim: To investigate the capacity of iconic
memory (visual sensory memory).
• Method: A three by four grid of numbers was
flashed for 0.05 seconds. Followed by a high,
medium or low pitched tone to indicate which
row was to be recalled.
Iconic store
Prepare yourself with a piece of paper and a pen.
Do not write anything down until you are told.
Look at the letters that will appear briefly on the
screen.
- If the letters are followed by ‘full’ write down all the
letters you can remember.
- If the letters are followed by a high tone, write down
all the letters you can remember from the top row.
- If the letters are followed by a low tone, write down all
the letters you can remember from the bottom row.
Listen to a high and low tone now:
High tone =
Low tone =
Watch for the first letters.
Click mouse to move on.
F
A
J
Q
M
H
G
I
N
U
Y
Z
Click mouse to move on.
Watch for the letters.
Click mouse to move on.
T
D
E
L
X
C
H
O
M
B
G
S
Click mouse to move on.
Watch for the letters.
Click mouse to move on.
D
K
P
M
V
E
S
L
A
C
W
R
Click mouse to move on.
Watch for the letters.
Click mouse to move on.
C
R
B
P
M
H
G
I
U
S
O
L
Click mouse to move on.
Check your letters against the original
matrices.
SHORT TERM MEMORY
•
•
•
•
•
How good is your short term memory?
What do you use it for?
How long does it last?
How much capacity does it have?
What evidence is there?
George Armitage Miller's 'Magical
Number Seven' (1956)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Findings:
The capacity of the short term memory is on average 7±2 items
Methods:
Various experiments involving asking participants to look at
information and then recall it shortly after.
Results:
Participants would remember between 5 and 9 items on average,
but this number would increase sometimes significantly if the
participant used the 'chunking' technique of memorisation.
Explanation:
Why our brains are on average only capable of holding seven items
is not a question that has been thoroughly answered (yet) - at the
moment, we know that it simply is the case.
CAPACITY of STM
George Miller (1956) The Magic Number Seven
How much information can we hold in short term memory?
How could you remember:
BB-CA-BC-IT-VC-DR-OM-EM-AS-ONY
BBC- ABC- ITV- CDROM- EMA- SONY
Miller suggests it is between 5 and 9 items.
(7 plus or minus 2) this is called CHUNKING.
Capacity experiment 2.
Digit-span Technique (Jacobs, 1887)
Complete the digit-span experiment. (separate PPT)
How many numbers could you remember?
Forwards?
Backwards?
Further evidence of the limited capacity of the STM.
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
Findings:
The average duration of information staying in the STM is 18 seconds
Method:
Participants were given trigrams - mixtures of 3 different letters e.g.
AQP - and asked to recall them after varying amounts of time (0-18+
seconds).
Results:
Only 10% of participants could remember trigrams after 18 seconds
Explanation:
Without rehearsal, the STM can only hold information for around 18
seconds
Extra
With rehearsal, the duration of information that is held in the STM can
be increased and according to the Peterson and Peterson model of
memory it is through this rehearsal that information is transferred to
the LTM from the STM
This suggests that there is not LTM transfer unless there is rehearsal
(this was proven to be incorrect by other models).
Duration of STM
Peterson & Peterson (1959)
•
Aim: To investigate the duration of short-term memory, and provide empirical evidence for the multi-store
model.
•
Procedure: A lab experiment was conducted. Participants had to recall trigrams (three letters, eg. TGH). To
prevent rehersal participants were asked to count backwards in threes from a specified number. This is
known as the brown peterson technique.
•
Participants were asked to recall the trigram after intervals of either 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
•
Findings: The longer the interval delay the less trigrams were recalled. Participants were able to recall 80%
of trigrams after a 3 seconds delay. However, after 18 seconds less than 5% of trigrams were recalled
correctly.
•
Conclusion: Short-term memory has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented. It is thought that this
information is lost from short-term memory from trace decay. The results of the study also show the shortterm memory is different from long-term memory in terms of duration. Thus supporting the multi-store
model of memory.
•
Criticisms: This experiment has low ecological validity as people do not try to recall trigrams in real life.
Student
Exercise
Peterson &
Peterson (1959)
Counting
backwards prevents
rehearsal
Instructions:- Read the consonants that appear below
then count backwards in three’s from the number
given. Write down the letters you recall when asked.
L Z M , P V Q, X F D
763
STOP! WRITE NOW!
B F Y , G Z J, P D L
435
STOP! WRITE NOW!
K M R , H G Y, J T Z
917
STOP! WRITE NOW!
M Q L , T L Y, F R N
329
STOP! WRITE NOW!
Peterson & Peterson showed that the duration of S.T.M. is between 18 – 30 secs.
Duration of STM
• Peterson & Peterson (1959)
• Limited
• 18 – 30 seconds.
What is a trigram
• What is at Trigram, and why use it?
• 1) The trigram has little or no meaning, unlike asking a
person to remember a word which they may associate
with something and be able to remember better.
• 2) There are no vowels in the trigram, preventing any
easy pronunciation of the trigram as a word, which
makes it more difficult to remember on any other basis
than as a trigram.
• 3) Unlike words, the trigrams are equal in length,
making the experiment less biased in terms of the
information it requires participants to remember.
Coding: Baddeley 1966
Aim: Investigate coding in STM and LTM.
CONCLUSIONS: STM uses an ACOUSTIC code and
LTM uses a SEMANTIC code. STM and LTM
code information differently which suggests
they are different stores.
Alan Baddeley (1966)
Findings:
LTM stores information semantically and STM stores information acoustically.
Method:
Three independent groups were asked to memorise a list of words: one group had
semantically similar words, the other acoustically similar words and the third was
a control group with unrelated words.
Results:
Immediately after recalling words, it was the acoustically similar ones that
suffered most and semantically similar ones that were remembered best
When asked to recall the words after 20 minutes, it was semantically similar words
that were remembered worst.
Explanation:
Although seemingly counter-intuitive, the results show that the STM uses an
acoustic code because more erros were made when recalling acoustic words - this
is because the memories clash with each other and make it difficult to recall the
correct words. The same logic is applied to the LTM and semantically similar words
leading us to believe that the LTM functions using a semantic code.
Joke
The psychologists tried to figure out how the
LTM and STM stored information - it went
Baddeley.
Coding in LTM
Baddeley (1966) mostly ‘Semantic’
Frost (1972) Visual as well?
Nelson & Rothbart (1972) Acoustic?
Capacity in LTM
Unlimited.
Wagenaar (1986) diary study of 2,400 events
over 6 years. Tested himself on recall of events
– excellent recall.
Duration in LTM
Lifetime.
Bahrick (1975) showed 400 ppts aged between
17 – 74 photos from school-days. Those who
had left 48 years previously could remember
80% names.
Clinical studies of amnesiacs
Case Study: HM (1957)
Epileptic patient who underwent
surgery to stop seizures. Left
with ANTEROGRADE amnesia.
STM was normal but was unable to
keep new information in his LTM.
They have removed his ability to
make long term memories.
STM and LTM are separate stores!
Henry Gustav Molaison.
HM lost approximately two-thirds of
his hippocampus,
parahippocampal gyrus, and
amygdala.
Clinical studies: Clive Wearing
• A musician who
contracted a rare form
of encephalitis, leaving
him with severe
anterograde amnesia the inability to form
new memories.
• Welcome Trust have an
exhibition about him.
http://www.wellcomecollection.org/whats-on/exhibitions/identity/video-manwithout-memory.aspx
His biography is called
‘Forever Today’
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDNDRDJy-vo
Korsakov Syndrome
Alcohol abuse may cause loss of short term
memories and the ability to transfer
information from STM to LTM.
Case study evidence for STM & LTM
Both HM and Clive Wearing support the idea that
STM and LTM are different stores.
HOWEVER – LTM seems more complicated than one
simple store – different types of LTM.
What is wrong with using CASE STUDIES as
evidence?
Evaluate the MSM
Multi-store Model of Memory
Evaluation
• Evidence
– Jacobs, Peterson & Peterson, Sperling, Glanzer & Cunitz
– Brain Damaged Patients
• HM & Clive Wearing - Support theory different stores
• However - Also suggest different types of LTM
• Too simplistic
– Not just 1 STM store (compare with working memory model)
• Case study KF
– Not just 1 LTM store
• Brain damaged patients. Research of Tulving
– Not just rehearsal required for transfer of information to LTM
• Flashbulb memories
• Compare to levels of processing model.
• Influential
– Sparked research based on information processing
– Led to the development of further models
Task: Multi – Store Model of Memory
• In threes – read your information on your part
of the model
• You must be able to teach your part to the
other two members in your team.
Sensory Memory (SM)
• Memory is held in the same sense that it is registered
• In other words: A taste is held as a taste, a visual image is
held as a picture (coding)
• The capacity (how ‘big’ the memory store is) is large
• The duration (how long the memory trace lasts) is
brief…memory fades from this store very quickly
• The processing in this store is unconscious, so has to be
deduced by experiments
Short Term Memory (STM)
• Holds information coming from a Sensory Memory;
Visually and Acoustically. (Coding)
• The capacity of STM is bout five to seven items
• The capacity can be improved by CHUNKING
information together
• If information in STM is rehearsed, it can be transferred
into LTM if not 30 seconds (Duration)
Long Term Memory (LTM)
• This kind of memory lasts from minutes to up to a
lifetime. (Duration)
• Unlimited Capacity
• Can store memory in a number of forms (Coding)
• Code is largely abstract or semantic
• It is likely that meaningful information is stored
here..eg. Best friends name
What are the main features of the Multi-Store Model of Memory?
Type of Memory
Sensory Memory
STM
LTM
Capacity
Duration
Coding
Fill Me in!
Type of Memory
Capacity
Sensory Memory
Potentially large but Fractions of a
decays quickly
second
(Sperling, 1960)
Sperling (1960)
All senses
(Iconic and Echoic)
Crowder (1993)
STM
7 (+ or – 2)
(Miller, 1956)
(Jacobs, 1887)
18 - 30seconds
(Peterson &
Peterson, 1959)
Mostly Acoustic
(Baddeley, 1966)
LTM
Unlimited
Lifetime
Bahrick (1975)
Mostly Semantic
(Baddeley, 1966)
Wagenaar (1986)
Duration
Coding
Evaluation (strengths)
• MSM first cognitive explanation of memory which was
highly influential, leading to a greater understanding of
how memory works.
• Evidence for the existence of separate memory stores of
the SR, STM, LTM.
• Supported by amnesia cases. Patients either lose their
LTM or their STM abilities.
• The serial position effect Murdock (1962), supports the
MSM’s idea of there being separate STM and LTM.
Evaluation (weaknesses)
• MSM is that it is over-simplified
• Cohen (1990) believes memory capacity
cannot be measured purely in terms of
amount of information, but rather by the
nature of the information to be recalled.
• MSM describes memory in terms of structure,
namely the three memory stores and the
processes of attention and verbal rehearsal.
Ao1 Question types
Mark Scheme
AO1 = 3
• A Sensory memory
• B Long-term memory
• C Rehearsal loop
1 mark for each correct answer.
Ao1 Question types
1. Describe one way in which psychologists
have investigated the duration of short-term
memory. In your answer, you should include
details of stimulus materials used, what
participants were asked to do and how
duration was measured. (4 marks)
Mark Scheme
• AO1 = 4
• It is likely that candidates will refer to the experiment by Peterson and
Peterson (1959). They presented participants with a consonant trigram.
Although Peterson and Peterson is the most likely study, answers need not
refer to an identifiable study to receive credit. Rehearsal was prevented by
asking them to count backwards in threes from a specified number. After
intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds participants were asked to stop
counting and to repeat the trigram. The % of trigrams correctly recalled
was recorded for each time interval.
Duration has also been investigated in a similar way using single words or
sets of words.
Research relating to word length effect in the phonological loop would be
credit-worthy. Any acceptable way of investigating duration of STM should
be credited.
1 mark for a brief answer, eg reference to trigrams in a duration study.
3 further marks for elaboration.
For full marks all three elements should be covered.
Ao2 Type of questions
The multi-store model of memory proposes that there are separate short-term and long-term stores.
Explain two differences between short-term memory and long-term memory in this
mode
Difference 1...........................................................................................................
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Extra space.............................................................................................................
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(2)
Difference 2...........................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
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Extra space.............................................................................................................
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(2)
Mark Scheme
Candidates are likely to identify capacity, duration and
encoding as ways in which STM and LTM differ. Processes
are acceptable eg putting information into the stores or
keeping information in the stores. Any legitimate
difference(s) in multi-store model should be credited.
For each difference:
• 1 mark for identifying the difference eg STM holds less
than LTM or LTM lasts longer than STM.
• 2nd mark for accurate elaboration eg the capacity of
STM is limited to 7 + / - 2 items whereas the capacity of
LTM is unlimited or the duration of STM is up to 30
seconds whereas the duration of LTM is a lifetime.
• 0 marks for simply naming eg capacity, duration,
encoding of STM or LTM but no difference.
A01 & A03 type of questions
Describe and evaluate the multi-store model of
memory. Refer to evidence in your answer. (10
marks)
Mark Scheme
AO3
• Marks for analysis which might include discussion of the issue of rehearsal
as a requirement for transfer of information to LTM; criticisms of aspects
of the model by comparison with other models, such as arguments that
the STS and LTS are not unitary stores; explanation of primacy and recency
effects in serial position studies; coding confusion in STM; discussion of
the nature of deficits in case studies of neurological damage. Credit
evaluation of the methodology of studies only when made relevant to the
discussion of the model.
Credit use of evidence.
Likely studies include: Murdock (1962) Glanzer and Cunitz (1966),
Peterson and Peterson (1959), Craik and Watkins (1973), Conrad (1963 /
4), Baddeley (1966), Milner et al (1978), Blakemore (1988), Craik and
Tulving (1975), Hyde and Jenkins (1973), and Working Memory studies
such as Baddeley, Thomson and Buchanan (1975), Hoosain and Salili
(1988).
Home learning
• Jamie wanted to contact his doctor. He looked up
the number in his telephone directory. Before he
dialled the number, he had a short conversation
with his friend. Jamie was about to phone his
doctor, but he had forgotten the number.
-Use your knowledge of the multi-store model to
explain why Jamie would not remember
the doctor’s number. (4 marks)
• Read up on the working model of memory
• Revise, Revise, Revise