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AsianTheatre
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Traditional theatre in the 20th
century
c a t i o n s i r u u l t a n e o u s lw
y i t h p r o f e s s i o n atlr a i n i n g .
An arnbitioussyllabuswas taught by specialtutors.
Profbssionalswere in chargeofthcatrical training.
Although only one classgraduated, it set the pat
teili that today's training metl]ods fbllow. In 1934
a Schoolfbr lxperimcntal Drana was founded by
W a n g B o z h e n ga t J i n a n i n S h a n d o n g I. t a i n i e dt o
devclop a new national theatre fomr basedon trad i t i o n a l m e t h o d s w h i l c d l a w i n g s c i e n t i f i c a l l yo n
Westeln methods whcn requirecl. A fbur-year
coLrrsewas sct up wlth one ycar devotcd to empirical expcrimeDt. In 1937 all of these scl]oolswere
c l o s e db y t h e W a r o f R e s i s t a n c a
c g a i n s tJ a p a n .
Thc.professionallisc of the actressin the 1920s
and 30s ovcl'cane long{tanding pr.ejudices.
Women were all but exclr-rdedfiom the theatre
both as performers and spectatorsduring the 19th
centr.rry.In the eally 1900sone or two all-wonren
troupes were activc ir) Beijing and Shanghai.They
perfblmed at privatc gatherings ancl were not
allowed into thcatles. By 1920 women wcre per.
folming at sevcralBeijing theatresbut neveralongside acto|s. Durir-rg thc 1920s Wang yaoqing
( 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 5 4 )a, t e a c h e ro f M c i L a n f a n g ,a n d M e i
Beijing-stylc theatre colttinuccl to doninatc the
traditional stagc thlough the first halfof the 20th
centr-lry.It retained au unequallcd appeal on a
national scale and had an enormous following
among the ordinary public. This successfultransition in an agc of cultural iconoclasmwas possible
becauseof a particularly talented body of actors.
They bore the artistic integrity ofthc old theatr.ical
tradition forward while adjusting to socialchange.
A towering figure was Beijing-born Mlr L,wr,eivc.
His artistry and bleadth of perception helped the
old theatrc attain a new pinnacle of public csteenr.
Not thc lcast of Mei's achievententswas his success
in international cultural rclations resrilting frolr]
h i s t o u l s t o A n t e r i c aa n d R u s s i ai n t h e 1 9 3 0 s H
. r.
stirred Western thinking to new aestheticinsights
on theatre.Bertolt Brechtand V. E. Meyer.holdwere
a n o n g t h o s ew h o a d m i r e d ,a n d w e r e d c e p l yi n f l u e n c e db y s e c i n gM e i ' sp e l f b r m a n c e s .
Two major rcfblms were accontplishcd in thc
p r o f e s s i o n aw
l o r l d o f ' M e i L a n f a n ga n c l h i s p e e r s
during the 1920sand 30s.An impr-ovedsystem of'
training and education fbr theatrc appr.enticcswas himself ignored old prejr.rdicesand took female
introduced and actressesbcgaDto achieveprofes- p t t p i J sa. h i l h e f l o r r n L l o w nl ) l r ( r i c c .
l n 1 9 2 8t h e a c t r e s s LX
. su e Y a n c l i n( 1 9 0 6 8 6 )a n d
s i o n a l c n a n c i p a t i o n .A f i r s t a t t c n p t a t i n p r . o v c d
t r a i n i n g c o n d i t i o n sw a s t h c f o u n d i n g i n 1 9 0 3 o f X r n Y a n q i u ( 1 9 11 - ) a p p c a r e col n t h e s t a g co f t h e
t h e X i l i a n c h e n g( l a t e r r c n a u t e dt h e F u l i a n c h e n g ) Cleat Thc.atrc(Da Xiyuan) in Shanghaiwith male
S c h o o li n t s e i j i n gS
. o m e ' o f C h i n a ' sg r e a t e s tB t i j i n g actors. Froln the age of e.ight Xue had studied
gracluated
actors
flom this instrtution. Boys only w o m c n ' s r o l e s ,c o m b a t t e c h n i q u e sa n d k u n q l i n
werc.acceptcd;admittcd at the age of seventhey tseijing under Jin Gr.roruiand latcr Zhang Cailin.
were taken on contract for a seven-ycarperiod. From 1930 thror.rgh a long acting career Xue
T h e y l i v e d i n . a n d t u i t i o n , b o a r d a n d l o d g i n gw e r c appearcdregr.rlarlywith mixed casts,doing rnuch
free.In return, thc schooldclnandcd conplcte pro- to erhancc the theatrical prcstigr.of the actress.In
d t c a c h i n gp o s rw i t h t h e B c i j i n g
f c s s i o n a lc o n t r o l , i n c l u d i n g a n o b l i g a t i o n t o p e r - 1 9 6 0s h ea s s u m e ' a
form in public to fill the school'scoflers. It was a School of Drarlatic Alt. Xin Yanqiu studied with
h a r d l i f c d e m a n d i n q n e t i c r . r l o u ss t a n d a r d sa n d Mei Lanfang and Wang Yaoqing.When she began
i n t e n s i v e a p p l i c a t i o n b u t i t r e p r e s c n t e da c l e a r perfbnning with Cheng Yancliu, she took that
advanceon older nethods when boyscould be vic- famous actor's plof'cssional narne. Xue and Xin
were thc vanguard of a galaxy of accomplished
t i m i z e d b y u n s c r u p n l o u si n d i v i d u a l s .
A r e v o l u t i o n a r y s t c p c a t n e i n 1 9 3 0 w h c n L i won-teu artists who rose to prominence in the
Yuying fbr-rndeda co-educationalconservatoryfbr p r e w a r y e a r sa n d b r o u g h t n e w l u s t r et o t r a d i t i o n a l
drarnatic training in Beijing.l'he actor CHTiNG tneatre.
YlNqru was appointed principal. Chengwas highly
regardeclboth fol his stage talents and personal The rise of the modern theatre
intesrity. In 1932 Cheng was sent to Europe for a The 20th century bellanwith a movenent to create
y e a r o n b e h a l f o f t h c s c h o o lt o s t u d y d r a m a a n d a ncw theatrc inspired by Westent exaruple.
The
opera. fhe first of its kind to adnit both sexeson old thcatre bccame a target fbr change. The
a n e q u a l b a s i s .t h e s c h o o lp r o v i d c da g c n e r a le d u - W e s t e r ni m p a c t o n 1 g t h - c e u t u r yC h i n a r c s u l t e di n
50
many young intellectuals b
study. Thousands went to Jap
modernization had followed
of 1868. Japan was geograp
c l o s e rt o C h i n a t h a n t h e W e s
dition with modernity they fi
tural adjustment easier
returned from Japanbecame
the early development of mor
I n 1 9 0 7 a C h i n e s eg r o u p i
Spring Wiliow Dramatic So
Japaneseactor Fujisawafuaji
th
school (seeJapan. SHTNPA)
Camille (Chahua nri) by Alex
February 1907. The play app
b e c a u s et h e h e r o i n es p l i g h t
of their own marital convt
echoed their own social prote
+ A five-act adaptation of I
lowed in June. Entitled TheBlt
(Heinuyutian lil) it was staged
in Tokyo where shinpa, a
Japanesegenre, was featured
expanded with extraneous
Chinese tastes.A curtain an
elry of effect. Harriet Beec
well received for it offered a r
for protest against racial
which the Chinese too sufferr
Both productions used tra
in
who first put Shakespeare
performed by all-male casts
theless offered a substitut
declamation form and the
genre, eventually to be n;
drama.
S h a n g h a i b e c a m et h e c e
ments in the new Western I
Society under Wang Zhong
had studied in Japan,staged
Heavenin 1907. Lu Jingn
returned fiom Japan, organ
A s s o c i a t i o ni n 1 9 1 2 .I n 1 9 1 4
Willow Dramatic Societywh
among other productions
theatre. Stage expertisewas
and old theatre convention
female impersonation.
'Ihe
years 1915-19 mark€
Westerneducated generatio
#*'
ith professionaltraining.
s taught by specialtutors.
rgeof theatrical training.
graduated,it set the patI methodsfollow. ln 1934
rl Drama was founded by
in Shandong.It ained to
heatreform basedon tradrawing scientifically on
n required. A four-year
re yeardevotcdto ernpiriall of these scltoolswere
s t a n c ea g a i n sJt a p a n .
r f t h e a c t r c s si n t h e 1 9 2 0 s
rngstanding prejudices.
:cludedfrom the theatre
pectatorsduring the 19th
)0sone or two all-women
:ijing and Shanghai.They
;atheringsand were not
y 1920 women wcre pergtheatresbr,ltnever along.e 1920s Wang Yaoqing
of Mei Lanfang, and Mei
judices and took female
wn practlce.
X u eY a n q i n{ 1 9 0 6 - 8 6 )a n d
rearedon the stage of the
n) in Shanghaiwith male
f eight Xue had studied
techniquesand kunqr in
ri and later Zhang Cailin.
long acting career Xue
mixed casts,doing much
I prestigeof the actress.In
hing post',viththe Beijing
Xin Yanqiu studied with
Yaoqing.\Vhen she began
g YanqiLr,she took that
onal name. Xue and Xin
a galaxy of acconplished
se to prominence in the
rt new lustre to traditional
dern theatre
with a novement to create
by Western exanple. The
'lhe
target for change.
LrenturyChina resulted in
many young intellcctuals being seut abroad to
study.Thousandswent to Japanwhere progressive
modernizationhad followed the Meiji Restoration
0f 1868.Japan was geographically and culturally
closerto China than the West. lhe synthesisof tradition with n-rodcrnitythey found tht'rc made cultural adjustment easier. lntellectuals who
returnedfron-rJapanbccane a major influence on
theearlydevelopmentof nrodern Chinesetheatre.
ln 1907a Chinesegroup rn Tokyo founded the
SpringWillow Dramatic Society.Assistedby the
actor FujisawaAsajiro,who ran an acting
Japanese
school(seeJapan,sHlNpA),they stageda version of'
CamiIIe
\Chahuanri) by Alexandre Dr-rnasJils in
February1907.The play appealed to the Chinese
the heroine's plight rnirlored thc rigidify
because
of their own narital conventions and suitably
echoed
their own social protest.
* A five-actadaptation of UnclcTom'.sCobin folCD,to Ileaven
lowedinJune. Entitled lhc BlackSlave's
yutianil) it was stagedat the Hongo Theatre
\Heinu
in Tokyo where shinpo, an carly westernized
genle,was fcatured.The play'sacttottwas
Japanese
expandedwith extraneous interludes to please
tastes.A curtain and scenery added novChinese
elty of effect. Harrict Beecher Stowc's stoly was
wellreceivedfbr it offer-eda melodramatic vehicle
for protest against racial discrinination from
whichthe Chinesetoo suflered.
Bothplodnctions used translations by Lin Shu,
whofirst put Shakespeareinto Chinese,and were
performedby all-male casts.Hybrids, they nevert h e l e s so f f e r c d a s u b s t i t t t t c I b r t h e o l d s o n g declamationforn and the begilning of a uew
genre,eventually to be named aua1u, spokcn
drama.
Shanghaibecame the centre tbr early experi
mentsin the new Western folm. The Spring Sutt
S o c i e tuyn d e r W a n g Z h o n g s h c n g( d . 1 9 1 1 ) ,w h o
Cry to
hadstudiedin Japan,stagedthe BlackSlcve's
H e a v ernn 1 9 0 7 . L u J i n g r u o ( 1 8 8 5 - 1 9 1 5 ) ,a l s o
returnedfrom Japan, organized the New Drana
f u s o c i a t i oinn 1 9 1 2 .l n 1 9 1 4L u r e v i v e dt h e S p l i n g
WillowDramatic Sociefywhich produced Cunilie,
among other productions, in a comtneLcial
theatre.Stageexpertisewas slight in thesc years,
andold theatrc conventious lenained, inclltding
femaleimpersonation.
Theyears 1915-19 narked a tr.rrning point. A
generationwas agitating fbr cul'
Westerneducated
k
tural change. lD 1916 the Aurerican-educated
a rnoves c h o l a r ,H u S h i 1 1 8 9 1 - 1 9 6 2s)p, e a r h e a d c d
nlent to rcplace classicallanguage understood
only by an educatedelite with a standardizedvernacnlar intelligible to all. Newjoulnals stlpportlllg
thc New Culturc Movenent prolifcrated. Dranta
ignored by the old literati becamerecognizedas a
mouthpiece for social reform. Neu' Ytruth, a
nlnonthly cdited by Chen Duxiu \1879-1.942),
d e v o t e da n i s s u e i n 1 9 1 8 t o H e n r i k I b s e n w h o s e
workwas discussedas an examplc to fbllow. In May
1919 students protestedin Beijing against the surrendel ofChinese sovereigntythat was proposcdat
the Palis PeaceConference,and whert the Treaty of
V e l s a i l l e s f b r m a l i z e d t h e p r o p o s a l st o C h i n a ' s
detriment, national outrage fbrced the Chinese
government to refisc' to sigll. The new intclligentsia closedranks in affirming an era ofdcfinitive cultural changecalled the Mly 4th Movement.
Succeeding events broltght new impetns to
c h a n g ei n t h e t h e a t r c .l n 1 9 2 1G u J i a c h e nf b r - r n d c d
the ShanghaiDranatic Associationwhich became
a fbrceful sponsor of new dratna. Two of its otttstanding memberswerc Ouv,tNcYuqr,lrl and Hong
Shen (1892 1955), stage director-playwrightteacher-film director. The latter studied in
A m e r i c a f i o m 1 9 1 6 t o 1 9 2 2 a n d a r o u s c dc o n t r o versy ou his t'cturn by lefilsing to cotlntenance
rnen playing women's roles.Endorsedby consewative public opinion, this convention remained a
barrier to developing a naturalistic actilig style.
Hong Shen defied lolg-standing prejudice by
lecruiting actressesfiom the mole open-ninded
women of the universities and the Shanghai film
world.
In 1921 Ouyang and Hong joined fbrces with
TIAN HAN to fbund the Creatiol Society itt
Shanghai. The first issue of its journal Creotton
Qudrlerlvin 1922,containedTian Han's playA Nighr
at a Coffcehouse
liuJei dian zhiyiye)which becamean
inrnrediate theatrical cuusecilibre. The Society
touled productions throughout thc countty uDtil,
in 1923, it was drssolvedby government order.
Although it was short-lived,the Socictywas inflltcntial in introdr.rcingbroad audiencesto modern
theatre.
In the 1930s,the Japanest'military threat conlpounded by the Nationalist Communist political
feud overshadowedintellectual life. Pcoplein literature and the arts lesponded to a new political
l--
awareness. In 1931 the League of Left Wing
Dlamatists was fomred. Tian Han and Hong Shen
bccane active mcmbers. Plays wlitten and produced to portray current political socialproblems
were vigorously promoted in schoolsand factories.
The Japancseattack on Shanghaiin 1932 intensificd theatrical protest, to which the Nationalist
government respondedwith a campaign ofrepression, forcing leftist theatre underglound. Tian Han
and other League nembers were arrested as a
deterrent.
The ChineseCommunist Party (CCP)began organizing theatre for political action soon after the
p a r t y ' se s t a b l i s h m e nitn 1 9 2 1 .I n 1 9 3 1t h e C h i n e s e
Soviet Republic was declared with its capital at
Ruijin. Perfolners werc recruited locally and provided with dramatic training, political education,
their food, clothing and a subsistencepittance.
Troupes trained at the CCPschool in Rr,rijinwere
then attachedto army units fbr servicein rural terlitory and the front line. This work culminated in
the organization of a Workcrs and Peasants
Dramatic Society. Song, dance and mime were
indispensableto appeal to audienceswhose solc
concept of theatre was provided by traditional
opera.An extensivedranatic network firnctioned
on this basisand contributed to establishinga pcrnanent theatre-training school at the CCP
w a r t i n e b a s ei n Y a n ' a n .
Advocacyof drama as a factol in social educatlon was also manifest on the National side. In
1932,Xiong Foxi (1900-65),a plapvright-tcacher'producer who had studied theatre in Aurerica,was
invited by the National Association for
Advancement of Mass Education to initiate a
theatre project in the lural district of Dingxian,
Hebei Province.Living among the peasantconlnunity provided him with authentic material fbr writing and producing plays with local people as
actors.Within three years the troupe was staging
self-supportingproductions which attracted considerable notice. The Japancse invasion fbrced
Xiong to lead his group to unoccupiedwest China.
There, as the FarmersResistanceDramatic Corps,
they performed to massaudiences.
P o l i t i c a l t e n s i o n s n o t w i t h s t a n d i l t g ,t h c 1 9 3 0 s
witnessed the rise of a socially conscionstheatre
given credibility by the con-rn-ritrnent
of its plactitroners.New drarnatistswere at work to capitalize
on this advauce,at tines workrng in filln with its
3B
emotive capacity fol evoking human values and
national sel)timent.Tian Han, OuyangYuqian and
Hong Shcn all turned to filn as advisers,directors
and scenario writers. A complernentary and continuing relationship was cstablishedbetween the
modcm stagemovement and the film studios.Xia
Yan (1900-95),Japan-returneddramatist and scenario writer, was representativeof this trend. His
nvo early stage plays Under a ShangharRooJ
(Shanghai
n,r,yonxia) and SaiJtnhuawere considered
major contributions to the nodern repertoire.The
first portrayedthe alienation and suffering oftenenent dwellers in a grcat city. The second concerned a celebrated Chinese courtesan, one of
whose alliances was with Count Alfiecl von
W a l d e r s e et,h e G e r m a n c o m m a n d e ro f t h e a l l i e d
forccs which occupied Beijing to relieve the Boxer
s i e g ei n 1 9 0 0 .
Arguably the most important playrv[ight of this
period was Cno Yu, a graduate in Western literaturc froln a Beijing universiry. His hrst play,
(i.ciyl), directed by Hong Shen and
Thuntlerstorm
Ouyang Yuqian in 1935 for the Fr.rdanUniversity
Dramatic Clnb, Shanghai,was an immediate success.CaoYu had studied Greekdrana and admired
EugeneO'Neill and Anton Chekhov,influencesdiscernible in this play with its dark commentary on
thc Chinesefarnily systen and the social degrada.
tion it cansed.Cledibility of characterizationand
rcalistic dialoguc, allied to an intuitive senseof
theatre, stanped this play as a breakthrough for
indigcnous dialogue drana. Cao Yr.r'ssecond play
Srndse(Richa)portrayed the corruptive power of
naterialisn and won him a literary prize.
W lrierness(Yaanye),M etomorphosis lShuibian),Peking,
Mon ltseijintren)and forniiy (/ia)followed, establishi n g h i m a sa d r a m a t i s to f s o c i a lc o n s c i e n c e .
Tnunderstornt
was taken throughout the country
by Thc China Travelling Dr-arnaticTroupe, founded
in Shanghaiin 1934by Tang Huaiqiu. His goal was
a modern repertory theatre on a financially viable
basis.A co-operativeunit, they achieveda homogeneous quality in their acting. Thtnderstormbroke
all box-officerecords for modern theatre and this
was followed by Hong Shen's equally successful
Lady Wind.ermere's
lan. The troupe's aim seemed
close to realization when in 1937 waf intervened.
Thcy moved their basc to Hong Kong fbr a brief
period, but that too fell to the Japaneseat the end
of 1941.
I n D e c e r n b e r1 9 3 7 r h e a u
T i a n H a n , m e r i n H a n k o ut o t
Dramatic Associrtionto R
umbrella fol all warrimeth
February 1938 Tian Han be
governtrrent'sCultural Work
of the PropagandaSection,a
ship was rpplied to all
Henceforward nrodern lheat
to national propagandaneed
united theatre peopleas neve
v o c a t i o n . t h e y r e s p o n d e dw i
to take propagandist theatre
Nationalists and Communis
concept ifwith divergentidec
T h e r a p i d a d v r n c eo f r h e i t
t h e N a t i o n a l i s rg o v e r n m e ntr
a t C h o n g q i n g .S i c h u a nP r o v
m a j o r c d u c a r i o n a lo r g a n i z a
together with thoseprominen
arts. Thc emorional cilmale
m a n i f e s r oo t X i o n g F o x if o r h i
west China: 'Cultivate mod
a r t i s l ' s p a s s i o na n d a s o l d i
China's spiritual regeneratio
Students of the co-educati
A c a d e n r y o f D r a m a t i cf u r , f r
evacuated to chongqing, ma
d e b u t s t a g i n gs t r e e rp l a y sa n d
A favoured techniqueentailed
entering teahousesand drat
seemingly spontaneous dia
a f f a i r s . L a c k o f p e r n r a n e n ts
equlpment in wartime territc
hundreds of itinerant troupe
e r a r y n r e n f r e q u e n r l yj o i n e d
sionals. Urban intellectualsa
tion shared a new direct relat
of dramatic activities.
Tian Han, official spokes
wartime, encouragedthesetre
tenl for lhe future. He adap
Beijing-opera favourites as Th
zhuan) for nodern productio
t i m e , h i s v e r s i o n b e c a n r es l a
Ouyang Yuqian worhed clos
during those years, leading a
p a t r i o t i c p l a y s .H o n g S h e nr a r
a n d t a u g h t f i l m l n d d r a m ai r
was a time of sharedskillsand
;'
evokinghuman values and
an Han,OuyangYuqian and
to film as advisers,directors
A complementaryand con,tasestablishedbenveen the
:nt and the hhn studios.Xia
'eturneddramatist and sceesentativeof this trend. His
ys Undcr a Shanghai RooJ
d SaiJinhua
were considered
r the modern repertoire.The
nationand suffering oftene[eat city. The second conChinesecourtesan, one of
with Count Alfred von
n conmander of the allied
Beijingto relieve the Boxer
mportant playwright of this
graduatein Western literauniversify. His first play,
irected by Hong Shen and
|5 for the Fudan University
hai, was an immediate sucd Greekdrama and admired
ton Chekhov,influencesdisith its dark connentary on
tem and the social degradality of characterizationand
ed to an intuitive sense of
play as a breakthrough for
rama. CaoYu's second play
rd the corruptive power of
rn him a literary prize.
tamuyhosis lShuibian), Peking
mily(Jia)followed, establishofsocialconscience.
(en throughout the country
g DramaticTroupe,founded
'Tang Huaiqiu. His goal was
eatreon a financially viable
rit, they achieveda homogeacting. Ihunderstormbroke
br modeln theatre and this
; Shen'seqr.rallysuccessful
The troupe's aim seemed
ren in 1937war intervened.
e to Hong Kong for a brief
ll to theJapaneseat the end
ln Decernber 1937 theatrc leaders, including
TianHan, tnet in Hankou to organize the National
Dramatic Association to Resist the Eneny, an
umbrella for all wartime theatrical activities. In
February1938 Tian Han became director of the
government'sCultural Work Committee and head
of the PropagandaSection,iind a zealous censorship was applied to all dramatic activify.
Henceforwardmodern theatre was subordinated
to nationalpropagandaneeds.A call fbr resistance
unitedtheatre people as never befbre.Itinerant by
vocation,they respondedwith travelling troupes
to take propagaDdisttheatre to the lulal masses.
Nationalistsand Communists shareclil conmon
c o n c e pirf w i t h d i v e l g e n ti d e o l o g i c ailn t e n t .
The rapid advanceof the invading fbrces drove
the Nationalistgovernment to set up their capital
at Chongqing,Sichuan Province.Universities and
major educational organizations followed then,
togetherwith thoseproninent in everyfield of the
arts.The emotional climate was typified by thc
manifestoofXiong Foxi for his theatre studentsin
'Cultivate
modern drama with an
west China:
artist's passion and a soldier's discipline to aid
China'sspiritual regeneration.
Studentsof the co-educationalNanjing National
Academyof Dramatic Art, founded in 1935 and
evacuatedto Chongqing, made their professional
debutstagingstleet plays and'living newspapers'.
A favouredtechniqueentailed actorsanonymously
enteringteahousesand drawing an audience by
seemingly spontaneous dialogues on current
affairs.Lack of pennanent stages and technical
equipmentin wartime territory did not deter the
hundredsof itinerant troupes.Academicsand literary nen frequently joined forces with professionals.Urban intellectuals and the rural population shareda new direct relationship as the result
of dramaticactivities.
Tian Han, official spokesman fbr theatre in
wartime,encouragedthesetrends as a healthy portent for the future. He adapted such traditional
Beijing-opera
favourites as The\4&iteSnake(Boishc
zhuan)for modern production. Criticized at the
time, his version became standard after the war.
Ouyang Yuqian worked closely with Tian Han
during those years, leading a troupe that toured
patrioticplays.Hong Shen ran a theatrical troupe
and taught hlm and drama in the universities.It
wasa time of sharedskills and commitnents.
Xia Yan's plays successfullycar.rghtthe public's
mood. Typical was CityoJSorrols(Chouchengji)
satirizing life in Japanese-occupicd
tclritory. Put down
YourWry (lang,xianidebtanzi)denouncedJapanese
aggressionand was outstanding among the mass
of propaganda piecesbeing produced. Cao Yu, in
contrast, wrote nothing after his adaptation in
1941 of Ba Jin's novel Fanrily.Xiong Foxi became
disillusioned with governmcnt ccnsorship policy
after serving as head of the Sichuan Provincial
Collegeof Dramatic Arts. He left for Guilin in the
southwestwhere he engagedin writing and editorial work until 1945.
Wartine Chongqing saw the germination of a
national dancemovement resulting fiom the wolk
o f D a i A i l i a n ( 1 9 1 6 ) , a T l i n i d a d - b o r nC h i n e s e
danseuse.Aftcr studying ballet in lngland, patriotic motives led hcr to wartime China.While teaching in Chongqingshebegan studying local folk and
minority nationality dances.With a team of pr.rpil
assistanlsshe travelled to outlying areasresearching and notating choreographictechniques,evcntually forming her owu conpany. Her pioneering
work then prepared the way fbr organized dance
educatior.rin China later.
The tangential ingredients of narrative, solrg
and descriptive gesture in folk dance embodied
primal elemcnts of Chinesctheatrical comnunication. They appealeddirectly to the uncomplicated
emotive responses of peasant audiences. Both
Nationalists and Cor.nnunists sought to profit
frorn this factor in their wartine sensitivityto fblk
tradition. The Communists were the more uncompromising. The artistic criteria of folk genreswere
subordinatedto theories ofproletarian drama cre'elitisrn'
ated to eliminate the aesthetic
of the old
theatre.
Following the Long March of 1934-5 the
Cornmunists set up their base in the loessiccaves
at Yan'an in northern Shaanxi Province.Thele in
'Talks
May 1942 Mao Zedonggavehis
at the Yan'an
Forum on Literature and Art'. In them he
expounded his Marxist manifesto destined to
become the bible of all Chinese cultural endeavour. He spoke at the Lri Xun Art lnstitute which
trained troupes to adapt old folk-perfornance
methods to new content.
One such ancient form nuch utilized by the
Comnunists was the l,anggerice-planting song.
referred to simple rhythmic steps
Originally-yangge
39
danced to a chant and percussionwhile planting
the rice helds. \Vhen Communist troops entered
the big cities in 1949they were precededby frles of
dancersperforming this simple work forn as a victory theme. In time yanggewas applied collectively
to various other types of performancesthat were
national genre naned cUU, song drama. Flexible
in subject matter and musical form it was contenpolary but adaptableto regional traditions. lt was
one solution to finding a middle way befweenpast
and present, a long-standing problem of Chinese
theatre.
rlpvolnrrarl
frnm
it
Re-establishrnentof the Nationalist capital at
During the 19th century the style of yongge Nanjing in May 1946 followed Japan's defeat in
prevalent in Dingxian, Hebei Province,gradually 1945.ln 1946 full-scalecivil war broke out as the
becameelaboratedasvillage perfbrnrance:20 to 30 CCPbegan its drive for ultirnate power. Crippling
dancersperfbrmed with a leader,male and female inflation Ied to economic chaosand social disintecharactersconfronted each other with a question gration. The plight of the universities was desper-responsenarrative followed by singing and dance ate, the mood ofintellectuals despair.
movements extended with representational gesIn 1946 Xiong Foxi becamehead of the Shanghai
ture. Elemental themes from village life and ethics Municipal Experimental School of Dranatic Art.
wele introduced. A cornic character fiequently Sharing the premises of a local rnuseurn and pri
added the necessary touch of earthy humour. rnary school.Xiong's faith in theatre was natched
Drum, gong, flute and rymbals plovided musical by that ofhis students and stafI. Conbining class,. ^ ^^ -,. - : -.- ^ - L
dLLUt
rI
L,
room study with working experience they susPdl lll llEll
Two scholars, Li Jinghuan and Zhang Shiwen, tained a continuing seriesofperfbrmances for the
conducted a governnent-sponsoredfreld project public in spite of neglible government support.
on the Dingxian style in 1932,afterwardspublish- Tian Han, Cao Yu and Hong Shen all taught there
ing an anthology of plays.It was this genre of per- after the war. Xia Yen had given up playrvriting for
formance the Communists for.rndso adaptableand filn wolk and Ouyang Yuqian was working fbr
were quick to develop for their needs. Yangge Hong Kong film studios. Dai Ailian, the dancer,
troupes proliferated. More than 30 ofthem staged another guest of the United States during this
performances at the 1944 Yan'an spring festival. period, returned to set up her own school in
Their repertoire included a play called TheWiteShanghai. ln 1949 when the Nationalist governHairedCirI lBaimaonii l.
nent left for Taiwan thesekey artists stayedon to
Reputedly of ballad-recitativeorigin and based work under the new governnent. It was a decision
on some actual facts, the play had undergone col- which was shared by a large proportion of people
lective revisionsprior to the 1944 presentation.In
prominent in both traditional and modern theatre
1945 a new five-act version was prepared with a circles.
script and lyrics by He Jingzhr 17924- ) and Ding Yi
(1,921,-). Music based on authentic folk sources T h e P e o p l e ' sR e p u b l i c1 9 4 9 - 9 1p
: olicy
was composed for it by Ma Ke (1918-76)and five and theory
colleagues.Being directed against abusive social On 1 October 1949 the ChineseComnunist Party
practiceslong familiar to village tenant farmers, it
(CCP)establishedthe People'sRepublic of China
becane a theatrical symbol of the revolutionaly {PRC)underits Chairman Mao Zedong.In 1966Mao
cause and was constantly performed in the late Iaunched his radical Cultural Revolution in an
1940sand 1950s.The fusion ofsong, music, chorus attempt to preserverevolutionary purify. With his
work and ordinary speechallied to a contemporary death in September1976and the fall ofthe radical
'gang
setting set TheV\htte-HaLrcd
Giri apart from either
olfour' the following month, economicmodtraditional Chineseor modern Western stageprac- ernization soon assumed top priority in China's
tices, though both had clearly offered son'reinspi- poliry, and in 1981 both the Cultural Revolution
ration. [t appealed to an audience fbr whom
and Mao's leadership from 1958 on were largely
theatre without song and music was inconceivable discredited.
and dialogue drama in the Western vcin meaningAttitudes towards theatre reflect overall CCP
lessin the context of their lifestyle.TheWtttHoired policy, which means that thefe have been substanGirl was the first full-length representativeofa new tial changesfrom period to period. However,at no
fut:"l
40
tine has rhe CCp believedit
cern with theatre activitiesal
the fact of censorshiphas br
though the extent has varied(
U n t i l 1 9 8 1 ,t h e b a s i cC C pI
theatre (and other arts)were
i n h i s ' T a l k s a t t h e y a n ' a nt o n
Art'. Mao declaredthere thar L
ety but also influenced it as
ganda, whether it intended t(
theatre as representingthe int
another and advocatedthat i
bourgeoisie and favour the
peasants and soldiers.Elsewh
the critical assimilation ofrra,
theatres.
In July 1950 the new gover
Culture set up a Drama Re
determine precisely how pra
should be brought into line I
traditional music dramasit re
emphasized Chinesepatriotis
or heroism, equality betwee
political prominence of womt
drarnas on historical themes
emphasize similar topics.On th
items considered 'feudal'and r
agalnst the poor were banned
isms, costunes and other aspe
actor's craft were retained,ref
abolition of some 'unhealthy,r
hero should be shownin a pos
ated him before a feudal pers
Kowtowing and the 'false foc
Changshengwere banned.Ther
of 1958 gave strong emphas
forms on contemporary them(
courage traditional themes.Th
and early 1960s, although
S t a n i s l a v s k iw e r e d o n r i n a n ti n
cles, those of Bertott Brecht als
led by Huang Zuoling ofthe Sh
Theatre.
At a meeting of headsof CC
held in April 1963,Mao'swifeJi
cular distributed calling for ,thr
performance of ghost plays',by
any traditional nusic drama r
historical item. ln mid 1964 a
Opera on Contemporary Then
ffi$#;lri
1
EJU,song drama. Flexible
rsicalform it was contem:egionaltraditions. It was
middle way betweenpast
ding problem of Chinese
he Nationalist capital at
,llowedJapan's defeat in
:ivil war broke out as the
rltimate power. Crippling
: chaosand social disintee universitieswas desperualsdespair.
ameheadofthe Shanghai
Schoolof Dramatic Art.
a local museum and pri
h in theatrewas matched
nd stafl Combining classLngexperience they susls of performancesfor the
ble government support.
lng Shenall taught there
l givenup plapvriting for
Yuqian was working for
. Dai Ailian, the dancer,
nited States during this
up her own school in
I the Nationalist governsekey artists stayedon to
rrnment.It was a decision
irge proportion of people
ional and modern theatre
r l i c 1 9 4 9 - 9 1p: o l i c y
lhinese
Conmunist
Party
rople'sRepublic of China
LMaoZedong.In 1966Mao
rltural Revolution in an
Iutionarypurity. With his
and the fall of the radical
ng month, economicmodd top prioriry in China's
r the Cultural Revolution
om 1958 on were largely
eatre reflect overall CCP
t therehavebeen substanto period.However,at no
: i
time has the CCPbelieved it should relax its concernwith theatre activities altogether.As a result,
the fact of censolship has been conslstent, even
thoughthe extent has varied enormously.
Until 1981, the basic CCPpolicy and theory of
theatre(and other arts) were those Mao advanced
in his'Talksat the Yan'an Forum on Literature and
Art'.Maodeclaredthere that theatre reflectedsociety but also influenced it as a means of propaganda,whether it intended to or not. He held all
theatreas representingthe interestsofone classor
anotherand advocatedthat it should oppose the
bourgeoisieand favour the masses of workers,
peasants
and soldiers.Elsewhere,Mao pusheclfor
thecritical assimilation oftraditional and foreign
theatres.
In July 1950 the new governmcnt's Ministry of
Culture set up a Drama Reform Committee to
determineprecisely how practice in the theatre
shouldbe brought into line with theory. Anong
traditionalmusic dramas it retained those which
emphasized
Chinesepatliotisrrl, peasantrebellion
or heroism, equality between the sexes,or the
politicalprominence of women. Newly arranged
dramason historical themes were expected to
emphasize
similar topics.On the other hand, many
'feudal'
itemsconsidered
and siding with the rich
againstthe poor were banned.\\hile the tnannerisms,costun-tes
and other aspectsofthe traditional
actor'scraft were retained, reform demanded the
a b o l i t i o no f s o n e ' u n h e a l t h y ' u s a g e sN
. o people's
heroshould be shown in a position which humiliatedhim before a feudal person such as a monk.
'false
Kowtowingand the
foot' devised by Wei
Changsheng
werc banned.lhe Great LeapForward
of 1958 gave strong emphasis to dranas of all
formson contemporary thernes,but did not disc0ufagetraditional themes.Throughout the 1950s
and early 1960s, although the theolies of
Stanislavski
were dominant in spoken-dramacircles,thoseof Bertolt Brecht also had a following,
ledby Huang Zuoling of the ShanghaiPeople'sfut
Theatre.
At a meeting of heads of CCPCultural Bureaux
heldin April 1963,Mao'swif'eJiang Qing had a circulardistributed calling for'the suspensionofthe
pertbrmanceof ghost plays', by which she meant
any traditional nusic drama or newly arranged
historicalitem. ln rnid 1964 a Festivalof tseijing
Operaon Contemporary Themes was held, sig-
&
nalling the near total disappearanceof all such
'ghost
plays' fi-on the stage for 13 years. In
February 1966 Jiang Qing hcld a forum on
'Literature
and Art in the Armed Forces'whichlaid
down the line on theatre demanded dr.rring the
Cultural Revolution 11966-76).It followed Mao's
i d e a s c l o s e l yi n i t s e n p h a s r s o n c l a s s a n d c l a s s
strugglc and the mass linc, but placcd an extrenle
i n t e r p l e t a t i o no n t h e l r r . ' l h u s ' c l i t i c a al s s i n - r i l a t i o n '
of tradition meant retention oi little nlore than the
name Beijing opera. All content mr.lst praise the
revolr.rtionand the CCPdirectly, almost all the tr.ad i t i o n a l c o n t e n t ,m a n n e r i s n s a n d c o s t u m e sw e r e
banncd as espousingfeudal ideas and class interests.The Forun alsopushed the notion ofa 'n-rodel'
drama, one which encapsulatedperfectly all the
Cultural Revolution's theory of theatrc. Over the
following ycars a small number of these 'n-rodels'
was devised, and professional drama companies
wele allowed to perform more or lessnothing else.
One of the main featurcs of the 'models' was their
characterization, which portrayed the heroes as
faultlcss, and the villains as without redeeming
teatures.
'gang
of four'
Jiang Qing was the leader of the
and it was not long after theil fall that thc Cultural
Rcvolrition'stheatre theorywas discredited.In May
1977 severalscenesofa newly arranged histolical
drama were restagcdin Beijing.Early the following
year the main power-holderol the new leadelship,
Deng Xiaoping, gave explicit approval for the
revival of traditional music dramas and these
beganto trickle baclt,very quickly becoming a vcritable torrent rvhich, as of the rnid-90s,shows no
signs of subsiding. Love-stories and patriotic
dramas, as well as those about peasant rebels,
again reccived encouragemcnt and the themc of
rightcd injustice sct in the dynastic pasr becantea
useful propaganda weapon on behalf of lcgal
reform. Hunour again becane a don-rinantpart of
the Chinese legional drama, and entertainment
was acceptedas a nain purposeoftheatre.
The main linchpin in the CCP'stheatre policy is
the need for variety.The range of forn and content
c o n t i n u c d t o b r o a d e n u n t i l 1 9 8 9 ,o n t h e w h o l e
with CCPapproval. Up till 1989 attempts to hold
back this trend towards liberalization, sucli as the
Campaign against Spilitual Pollution in 1983,
proved shortJived. In 1982 Mao's 'Talks at the
Y a n ' a n F o r u r n ' w e r e p a r t l y d i s c r e d i t e dl.n t h e o r y ,
4 l
theatre should still serve the interests of the
Form, performance
'people'but
t h e e m p h a s i so n i t s u s e a s a p r o p a - The main forrns of theatrc in China since 1949are
ganda we:ipon fbr socialismteuded increasinglyto tfaditional nusic drama, newly alranged historiweaken.As a result, modern dramas ignoring the cal drama lxrrrrarv ilsHr
lu), spokendrama (haojl),
role ofthe CCPin sociefy,and those advocatingno song drama (gciil),dance dlarra (wu7u)and ballet,
s o l u t i o nf o r i t s i l l s ,b e c a m ec o m m o n .P s y c h o l o g i c a l There are abour 350 r'egionalsfyles of traditional
drana becane popular aurong the urban intelli- music drama, as explained in thc sectionson impe
gentsia. Thc theories of acting and theatre of lial China.'flre content is always from the distant
Bertolt Brecht increased in influence especially past. As in the past, stage properties are simple,
among younger play"rvrights.Since 1979 valious thele is no sccnety,btlt costulnesand makeupare
forms of foreign theatrc have receivedCCPspon- elaborate, nannerisns, posture and body move
sorship, not only petfoltned by foreign companies ments stylized. An cvening's entertainnent will
in the original language,but also by local troupes normally feature three or four sholt items. Reform
and translated into Chinese.
and censorship have removed certain items and
The crisis of 1989,which clinaxed in the bloody passagcs,but this is the forn least affectedby the
Tiananmen Square incident in Beijing on 4 June, modern age. 'Newly arranged histolical dramas'
exerciseda highly detrinental effect on modern are traditional in nost aspcctsof style, but as the
forms of drama becauseit placed a clamp on new nane sugliests,arc created by contenporary writ.
experiments aDd ideas in theatre which conld be ers and perfbrmers.ln addition, scoresofamateul
construed as non-supportive of the CCP. In the and professionalpuppetry tror.rpesperpetuatevari.
period following the crisis, the man with chief ous resional traditions of puppet play (kuilei
ri),
responsibility for literature and thc arts was Li shadow play (piltng xt),and rod-puppet play
\zhang.
Ruihuan. ln a najor speechmade on 10 January tou kuilei)perform ance.
1990 he emphasizedthe magnificencc of Chincse
fulong Westernizcd forms, the trrostinportant
tradition and called for the critical absorption of is spokendran-ra(hlaju).Only ofthis forn can itbe
foreign cultures. He summalized the relationship s a i d ,i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s ,t h a t m o s t i t e m s a r e s e t i n t h e
between art and politics as follows: 'We do not presentor even srnce1949.The best representative
require literature and art to be directly subordi- writer before the Cultural Revolutionwas Lao SuE.
nate to temporary and specific political tasks.At
Spokendrama in thc 1980sshowed invcntiveness
the sane time, this does not mean that literature and innovation and the nost outside, nainly
and art can deviate flon sewing socialisur.' Western, influence. Social commentary remained
Certainly there would be no return to the policies strong, but arrlongavant-gardeplay.uvrights,
propa.
ofthe Cultural Revolntion,when literature and art ganda ofthe fype favouled by the CCPbecameless
were indeed directly subservientto political tasks. and less direct, more and mole subdued.
At the same time, Li's position implied a strol)g Individualism and feminisn are hallmarks of con.
t e n d e n c yt o g l o r i $ t h e C h i n e s e ' n a t i o n 't h r o u g h tenporary female playwrights snch as tsai Fengxi
theatre and other arts.
(1934- ). Directors have experintentedwith tech.
As a result government support for traditional nlques new to China, fbr example,variation in the
ntusic drama and plays set in the distant past grew colour and intensity of stageJightingto show emonoticeably at the expense of those dramas or tional or psychologicalatmospheresor qualities.
drama folns fbcused on modcrn history or Spokendramas of the PRCnormally use elaborate
contemporary society.In 1990, the 2001hanniver- sceneryand stagepropertiesand in urban theatres
sary of the entry of the Anhui companics into
the act curtain is dlawn to ntark beginning, end or
Beijing in 1790, a major stage along the parh intermission. Howcver, since 1982, a few plays
of dcveloprncnt of the Beijing opera, was cele- have adopted extremely sintple stage properties,
brated enthusiastically tluoughout China. By and abandonedscencryand the curtain altogether.
way of climax, a festival fbaturing traditional Body movements and postures are realistic, not
nusic dramas was held in Beijing attended stylizedas in traditional ntusic drama. But whereas
by Li Ruihuan and Jiang Zenin, CCP Secretary- the plays with hear,ypropaganda content tended
Ceneral.
to show ideal characters through rather stilted,
42
e\renstereoq?lcal,movem
ral stylebecamemore PoP
tray characterswho ther
imageslaid down asgood
ccP.
The introduction ofwe
pally to Sovietinfluence.I
mainly items of classic
especiallYSwanLake'The
Qlng included two ballets
The RedDetachmentoJWo
Since1976,theseitemsh:
and classicalworks hav
time, Chineseartists art
stepstowards creatingtl
including comPoslngnr
ballet dancers.However
to this form, and it is m
gxeat PoPularity in Chin
intellectual elite.
lllustrative Pieces
Of all newly arrangedh
more famous than The!
Originally a folk story a
turns into a beautifu
numerous adaPtationsi
by an anonYmousPlalw
Tian Han, one of the Pl
tists, adaptedit asa Beij
work in 1953.A monk i
characterwho succeed
the wicked snake,but T
characterizationto Pres
turned woman as Posi
ment of magic is Prese
catesa positiverolefor v
The theme of Patriot
of equalitYfor womenin
Family (Yangmenniijiang
operain 1960bYLii Ruin
Ming novel and a Yangz
TakesComm
Centenarian
otherson traditionalthe
during the Cultural Re
revivedin 1978.It is set
tenanan oowager
women of her familYto
from the north, and
victory.
Ince
reatrein China since 1949 are
ama, newly arranged historifsHl-/u),
spokendrama (huaju),
Lncedrama {wzlu) and ballet.
regionalstylesof traditional
ainedin the sectionson inpernt is alwaysfrom the distant
stageproperties are sinple,
,ut costumesand makeup ale
ms, posture and body move:vening'sentertainment will
:e or four short items. Reform
: removed certain items and
the fbrm least affectedby the
arrangedhistorical dramas'
)st aspectsof style, but as the
reatedby contemporarywritn addition,scoresof amateur
petry tloupesperpetuatevanrns of puppet play (kuilei xi),
i), and rod-puppetplay lzhongle.
:d forms, the most inportant
iil).Only of this form car-rit be
rat most items are set in the
i949.The best representative
tural Revolutionwas Lao SHl.
: 1980sshowedinventiveness
I the most outside, mainly
Socialconmentary remained
'ant-gardeplayr,vrights,propaouredby the CCPbecameless
more and more subdued.
minisn are hallmarks of conaywrightssuch as Bai Fengxi
ave experimentedwith tech, for example,variation in the
of stage{ightingto show emocal atmospheresor qualities.
e PRCnormally use elaborate
)pertiesand in urban theatres
wn to mark beginning, end or
rer, since 1982, a few plays
nely simple stage properties,
)ryand the curtain altogether.
Ldposturesare realistic, not
nal nusic drama.But whereas
r propagandacontent tended
cters through rather stilted,
evenstereotypical,movementsand postures,natural stylebecamemorc popular in the 1980sto portray characterswl.ro themselvesconfomt less to
imageslaid down as good, mediocre or bad by the
CCP.
Theintroduction ofWestern ballet is due principallyto Sovietinfluence. Before1966,ballet meant
m a i n l y i t e m s o l ' c l e s s i c u lE u r o p e r n r c p c r l o i l e ,
'model'
especiallySwanLake.The
dlamas of Jiang
included
nvo
ballets:
TheWhite-Haired
Girl and
Qng
TheRedDetachment0J Wlmen lllongsc niangzi jun).
Since1976,theseitems have disappearedas ballets
and classicalworks have returned. At the same
time, Chinese artists are rnaking vcry tentative
stepstowards creating their own national ballet,
including conposing new works and training
balletdancers.However,no high priority is given
to this foln, and it is most unlikely ever to gain
greatpopularity in China outside a small urban
intellectualelite.
Onc regional drana on a modern theme is The
SLoryof the RedLanternlHongdengji), which features
threc generationsof Comnunist heroesand their
stluggle againsta Japanesegeneralduring the War'
of Resistanceagainst.|apan.The replesentativesof
the two elder generatiousare killed by thc gener-al,
but the youngestlives to fight victoliously against
hin. The item was adapted into a Bcijing opela by
the play.rvlight-directorAiia (1907-95) and performcd at the 1964 Festival of Beijing Opera on
Contenporary Thcmes.It was taken over byJiang
Qing and recognizedas one of her model dramas
from 1970 on. The characterization was made
starker to enphasize the class struggle; Western
instrllnents were added to the acconpanying
orchcstra and the music made more staccato to
expressthe heroism of the ConlDunists better.The
item was revived in the festival ofDecernber 1990
and January 1991to mark the 200th anniversaryof
the entry of thc Anhui corlpanies into BeUing.
That this was not a sign ofa Cultural Revolutionary
pieces
lllustrative
revival was demonstratedby the fact that the fbrm
0f all newly arranged historical dranas, none is chosenwas Ajia's, withJiang Qing bcing accusedof
more famous than The\4ftite Sndke\Baishezhuan). having seizedthe item through an act ofrobbery.
0riginally a folk story about a white snake that
In the 1980sseveralspokcn dranas and newly
turns into a beautiful wolnan, it underwent arranged histolical music dramas appearedon the
numerousadaptations,including a kunquversion subjectofLi Shin-rin,one ofChina's greatcstcmperby an anonymousplaywright in the 18th century. o r s ( r . 6 2 6 - 4 9 )H
. e w a s t h e s e c o n dr u l e r o f t h e T a n g
Tian Han, one of the PRC'sn-rostfanous drama- dynasfyand held the imperial title ofTaizong, and
tists,adaptedit as a Beijing opera,completing the so is known also asTang Taizong.One of the music
work in 1953.A monk in the kunqu is a positive dranas is the Beijing opera Tant Tr:izcrn.g,
arranged
characterwho succeedsin curbing the power of by Li Lun. It deals with Li Shimin's successin winthe wicked snake, but Tian Han has changed the ning over a Turkish invader through mediation
characterizationto present him as evil, the snake and popular support, not fbrce, thus securing
tumed woman as positive. Even though an ele- national unity. The incident which fbrms the core
ment of magic is preserved,the iten thus advo- ofthe drama is historical, but the characterization
catesa positiverole for women.
and plot are adapted to advocatepolitical lessons
The theme of patliotism supplementsadvocacy appropriate to the prcsent. An item to be preof equality for women in WomenGeneralsoJtheYang nriered after the 1989 crisis was PaLntingDraglns
Family\Yangmennitjiang,),arranged as a Beijing and Filling in EyeslHudong dianling) by Sun Yuexia
operain 1960by Lti Ruiming on the basisof a late- and others. Set in 627 it portrays Li Shirnin as a
Mingnovel and a Yangzhonmusic drarna entitlcd kind of 'people'semperor' and an example for the
CentenarianTakes
Command(Baisuiguashuar).
Like all Chinese nation and concerns his search for good
otherson traditional themes,this itern was banned officials and suppression of cormption. In the
during the Cultural Revolution. However it was 1980sthe best writer of newly an-angedhistorical
revivedin 1978.lt is set in the 11th century. A cen- music drama was probablyWrr Mrrvcrun.
tenariandowager surnamed Yang persuadesthe
More modeln national heroesportrayed on the
w o m e no f h e r f a m i l y t o r e s i s tl r u e n e u r ya g g r c s s i n g stagesince the late 1970sare revolutionariessuch
from the north, and their forces win the final
a s M a o Z e d o n ga n d Z h o u E n l a i .I n 1 9 8 1 ,t h e 7 0 t h
victory.
anniversaryof the overthrow of the last dynastyby
43
t$e
Sun Yatsenand his followers was the occasion{br
several spoken drarnas about him. His wife Song
Qingling, who died in 1981,figures prominently in
them. The first of thc plays was SunYatsen's
London
Lnclunterwith Dtrnger
Lundunmengan
\SunZhongshan
ji). Its focus was Sun's arrest by thc Chineselegation in 1896and later releasethrough the ef'fortsof
his fbrner teacher, the British doctor Sir James
Cantlie. This enablesthe playwright, Li Peijian, to
emphasizenot only the courageand unselflshness
of Sun, but also thc power and wisdon of the
British people, representedby Cantlie and others,
a n d S u n ' sg o o d l e l a t i o n sw i t h h i s ' f o r e i g n f r i e n d s ' .
T h e p l a y i s u n u s u a li n C h i n a ,e v e ni n t h e 1 9 8 0 si,n
being set rn a foleign country.
Sitesof performance,audiences
Theatreperfbrmancescan take place in a variety of
s i t c si n C h i n a ,i n c l u d i n g w o r k e r s ' o l t - u r a lc l u b s ,a
The Changyin Ce lfoyful SoundsPagoda),a three
tiered stagein the In-rperialPalaceso{'Bcijing,
s r t co f t h e f o r m e r i n t p e r i a lc o u r t .
marketplace or any open space.Street theatfe is
comrron only on special occasionssuch as festivals. In the cities and towns, cinemas are readily
used as theatres for live perfbnnances.A major
theatre encyclopediapublished in Beijing in 1983
stated that there were 891 theatres in China in
1 9 4 9a n d 2 2 2 7i n 1 9 5 7. I t c l a i m e dt h a t ' a f t e r 1 9 5 8
[we] continued to build quite a few new the:rtres'
but gave no hgures. In the main cities there arc a
few large theatres, of special note being one
opened in Beijing in 1984which has a 600-squalen r c t r cs l a g ea b l et o h o l d 1 0 0 0p e r f o r m c r s .
Most theatres built since 1949 follow a somewhat stark Soviet architectural style, both internally and externally. In sharp contrast to the
teahouse-theatlesof the 19th century, the audienceis expectedto concentratefully on the perfbr,
nance, and sits in rows facing onc sideofthe stage.
In the caseof musical itcn-rs,the text is projected
beside the stage to facilitate comprehension.The
seats are rarely padded. The lalge 1984 Beijing
thcatre has a stage with rising and revolving
platforms, a stereosound system,lamps, spotlights
and curtains all controlled by computer, the first
ofirs kind in China.
Some companies own their own theatre. Those
not so fortunate negotiatewith a Iocal government
Bureau of Culture, which coordinates the timetables of the various troupes and theatres.Tours are
planned through an annual meeting organized by
the central Ministry of Culture. In a few parts of
China there are special theatres fbr balladeersor
storytellers.Here people sip tea and listen to stories sung out by one or severalperformers, acconlpanied by musical instrurrents. However,in most
casesstorytellers perfbrm by thernselvesin parks
or squares.
Performancesare advertisedpartly through the
Iocal press.Theatresannounce forthcoming items
and perfbrmancesthrough bills in the foycr. Most
important of all, advertisementsafe stuck on special billboar-ds,poles or any free spacealong the
streets or in the ll'rarkets.This is especiallynecessary in snall towns or villages which lack their
own newspaper. Tickets for professional perfbrrlances are cheapand ently to anateur oncs often
frec. Simple printed prograrnrres are very cheap.
Full housesare quite conlmoD,especiallyfbr good
and well performed pieces, br.rt companies frequcntly complain of low attendances,and nearly
empty theatres are distress
provincial centres.
Those involved with the tr
newly arranged historical n
becone very worried over the
people from their audiences.l
performance of over a decader
Revolution dealt a crippling bL
est in such theatre. It was exclu
cation and cultural life for solo
of its revival they simply did no
saw no reason why they should
the 1980s and 90s, audienc
mances of traditional music i
over 40 years of age, with n
women two or more to one
affects the countryside,but is
nounced there.
Young theatre-goersprefer
becausethey can understandil
say of relevanceto their own li
the mid 1980s even spokend
been finding it increasinglydil
meet and to attract large aud
entertainment which is more a
the largest audience is not the
The State Statistical Bureau's
on the previous year's eco
declared that there were 764
and 1123 television transn
stations. Television is availa
cities but to very large and inc
countrysidc. Ironically the scr
drama forns in the sensethat I
modern music-dramas and s
shown both on televisionand
the fact is of little comfort to thr
Audiences at traditional mr
be noisy, possibly in part a
incomplete understandingof
b u t l h o s e a t s p o k e nd r a m aa r
reserved n-rainlyfor noteshelc
of time or an excellent acro
very good troupes are lucky tr
patter at the conclusionofthe
The performer
The StateStatisticalBureaua
1996that the numberof full p
ing-artstroupesin Chinain
)pen space.Street theatre is
lcial occasionssuch as festiI towns, cinemas are readily
live perforrnances.A major
publishedin Beijing in 1983
re 891 theatres in China in
'after
7. It claimed that
1958
ld quite a few new theatres'
n the main cities there are a
of special note being one
1984which has a 600-squareld 1000performers.
t since 1949 follow a some:hitectural style, both inter. ln sharp contrast to the
the 19th centuly, the audincentratefully on the perfors facingone sideofthe stage.
I items, the text is projected
cilitate comprehension.The
led. The Iarge 1984 Beijing
with rising and revolving
rnd system,lamps, spotlights
:olledby computer, the first
,,rntheir own theatre. Those
.iatewith a local government
rich co-ordinatesthe timetaupesand theatres.Tours are
nnual meeting organized by
rf Culture. In a few parts of
al theatresfor balladeers or
rle sip tea and listen to storr severalperformers, accomtruments.However,in most
brm by themselvesin parks
dvertisedpartly thlough the
nnounceforthcoming items
ough bills in the foyer. Most
rtisementsare stuck on speor any free spacealong the
rets.This is especiallynecesrr villageswhich lack their
ets for professional perforentry to amateur ones often
)rogramnes are very cheap.
rommon,especiallyfor good
pieces,but companies freow attendances,and nearly
empty theatres are distressingly comnon
nrovincirl
in
centres
Thoseinvolved with the traditional and the
newly arranged historical music drana have
becomevery worried over the defection of young
peoplefrom their audiences.Possiblythe gap in
performance
ofover a decadeduring the Cultural
Revolutiondealt a crippling blow to youth's interestin suchtheatre.It was excludedfrom their educationand cultural life fbr so long that by the time
ofits revivalthey simply did not understand it and
sawno reasonwhy they should nake the effort. hi
the 1980s and 90s, audiences at urban performancesof traditional music dlamas are mainly
over 40 years of age, with men outnumbering
women fwo or more to one. The same problem
affectsthe countryside, but is not nearly so pronouncedthere.
Young theatre-gocrsprcfer the spoken drana
because
they can understand it and it has more to
sayofrelevanceto their own lives.However',since
the mid 1980s even spoken-dramatroupes have
beenfinding it increasinglydifhcult to make ends
meetand to attract large audiences.The form of
entertainmentwhich is more and nore attracting
thelargestaudienceis not theatre, but television.
The State Statistical Bureau's 1995 communiqr.ri
on the previous year's econony and society
declaredthat there were 764 television stations
and 1123 television transmitting and relay
stations.Television is available not only in the
citiesbut to very largc and incrcasingareasofthe
countryside.Ironically the screendoes support all
dramaforms in the sensethat both traditional and
modern music-dramas and spoken dramas are
shownboth on television and in the cinema, but
thefactis oflittle comfort to the averageperforner.
Audiencesat traditional nusic dranas tend to
be noisy, possibly in part a reflection of their
incompleteunderstanding of what is happening,
but thoseat spoken drama are quiet. Applause is
reservedmainly fbr notes held an nnusual length
of tine ol an excellent acrobatics display. Even
verygood troupes are lucky to elicit more than a
p r lt e r a t t h e c o n c lu s io u o f t h e p e r ' f o l u n n te .
Theperformer
TheState Statistical Bureau announced in March
1996that the number offull professionalperforming-artstloupes in China in 1995 was 2690. The
'lhe
rcnownecl llcijing Opera:rctor,Wang
Y a o q i n g1 1 8 8 1 - 1 9 5 4i n) , a m i l i t a r y d a n ( w u d o n )
l o l e i n Q i p a nM o r n r d i n( q i p d ns h d l l ) .
n u n b e r o f t r o u p e si n 1 9 5 0w a s 1 6 7 6a n d i n 1 9 6 5i t
w a s 3 4 5 8 ,b u t i t h a d f a l l e n t o 2 5 1 4 b y 1 9 7 1 a s a
r-esultof the policies of the Cultural Revolntion.
Thc ycar with the highest figure was 1980, with
3 5 3 3 t r o u p e s ,b n t t h e t r e n d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 0 sa n d
1 9 9 0 sw a s d o w n w a r d s ,
The nationalization of professional troupes
b e g a ni n t h e n i d 1 9 5 0 sa n d w a s c o r l p l e t e dd u l i n g
'gang
the Cultural Revolution.After the fall ofthe
of four'' the processwas reversedand in the early
1980s reform dirccted towards fiee cnterprise
b e g a r rt o b e i n t l o d u c e d e v r n i n r t a t e ( o n l p i l l l i e s .
Under the new system,state subsidiesto troupes
are reduced and the troupe keepsa larger portion
of its box-officeearnings.tsox-officeearnings thus
'break
assumefar greater importance.This aims to
thc iron rice bowl' ancl in theory inproves cp.rality
i pitch, therebycreatingthe mellifluous,sone: what plaintive,singingto flute accompaniment
: which characterizeskunqu drama. Wei was
: assistedin his researchby ZhangYetang,an
: authorityon the northernnodal repertoire.
, Weiwtinglun(ts+t- )
, Writer of Sichuan opera (cruarTu) who
achieveda greal reputationas an innovalive
: dranatist during the 1980s.His TheScholar
of
: Bashan(Bashanxiucai), set in 19th{entury
: Sichuan,concernsa scholarwho seeksand
i obtainsredressfor an unprovokedmassacre
of
: the peopleof Bashan,but dies poisonedby a
in the title as
: courtofficial.PcnJinlian,described
:'a Sichuanoperaof the absurd',recaststhe story
i of PanJinlian, traditionallyknown as a mur: dererof one of her husbandsand a nymphoma: niac.Wei'splay laysthe blamefor PanJinlian's
on the evilsofChina'spatri
: crimesandexcesses
: archalsocietyand on the oppression
ofwomen.
, Onestrandof the dramarelatesPan'sfall into
: vice,a secondshowsher trial setin the PRC.The
acters include such divergent women as
EmpressWu Zetian, a contemporaryChinese
femalejudge and Tolstoy'sAnna Karenina.Pon
linlian has been praised for its relevanceto
Chinesetheatreand to Chinesesocietyof the
1980s.
; action leaps acrosstime and cultures, and char-
Yu Zhenfei{1902-e2)
Actor in r<u,vquand Tnlcxr. He was born at
Suzhou, the son of Yu Zonghai - an erudite
kanql authority - under whom he had his firstlessonsat the age of six. After apprenticeship
under both kunqu and jingxi master actors,he
quicklybecameacclaimedfor the perfectionof
his interpretations of the young scholar-hero
(xiaoshengl
in jingxi, regxlarly partnering Mrr
Lulrauc. Througha long professionalcareerYu
hasalsoworkedindefatigablyto preservektnql,
training a new generationofperformers at the
ShanghaiMunicipal Academyof Dramatic Art
in the 1950suntil his work wasdisruptedby the
Cultural Revolution.He is an accomplished
flute (dizi)playeraswell assingerand actor,and
theauthorofa treatise
on krinqracting.
b e c a u s ci t i n t e n s i f i e rs' o l n p e l i l i o na n t o n ga ( t o t 5 .
Now the possibility of dismissalbecones quite real
for lazy or incompetent lnembers. Above all,
inequalities increase greatly becauseperfomers
with big roles in successfulplays can earn substantial suns from box-office returns, in addition to
their salary,and thus becomcrich by Chinesestandards quite quickly. Socialbenefitsfor ntenbers of
state profbssionaltroupes arc qr.ritegood.
Imnediately after coming to power, thc CCP
abolishedthe traiuing systemof thc past and instituted the principle that potential performcrs
should receivea general as well as theatrical cducation in order to wipe out illiteracy. The training
of almost all traditional music-clrantastudentswas
suspended duling the Cultural Revolution and
then revived after 1976.Most professionalcompanies run schools through which to recruit, train
and educatenew performers.For tladitional nusic
drama, especiallyBeijing opera,the main national
school is the Chinesc Mnsic Drama Institr.lte
(Zhonggno Xiqu Xueyuan),set up in .1950.It now
has five departments: Beijing-operaperformance,
mnsic, directing, dramaturgy and stagecraft.
Between 1956 and 1982 the institution produced
s o m e1 3 0 0g r a d u a t e s .
Entry into training schools at all levels is
through highly competitive examination: about 5
per cent ofapplicants gain admission.There is still
a strong bias in favour ofnales, the rationale being
that castsrequire more men.
CCPpolicy is to train women to sing female roles
and men to sing nale. ln 1951 Premier Zhor.rEnlai
'up
told the famous dan actor Zhang Chunqiu:
to
you the male dan, and that's the end'. If this policy
is continued. in tine wonen will perform all don
roles, but it appears that a handful of female
impersonators are being trained, so the art may
not die after all.
The social status ofperformers has risen greatly
under CCPlule. Among the reasonsfor this are the
elimination of the socialdiscrimination which previor.rslyafflicted them, a highly organized recruit.
lnent and training systen, an improved standard
50
of living, and the government's h
'art
workers' as a profession.Th
still strong gradations in the stat
stars may be among the most
respected members of society,wl
formers live in serious poverty
gard.
Since the earliest days of its e
has strongly encouraged amate
considered, could assist its p
among the nasses to an extent (
professionals. The slogan push
scale, ilch in variety' \xiaoxingd
that long or complicated piece
sive training or elaborate and ex
should be avoided. The spoke
songs and dances, or balladry itt
preferred to traditional musicdr:
Revolution gave greal priority t
propaganda troupes'and for se
late 1960sthey were more or less
China's theatrical life.
Since the late 1970s amate
declined markedly. To fill therr
sional troupes have arisen even
especially in the countryside w.
t
sional theatre is less accessible
Peasantsfornr troupes on their o
only the most talented and skille
are chosen. They spend most of
ants, and during the slack seas
performing, mainly traditiona
dramas. The reward is financial
performers do not receive salar
out ofbox{ffice returns accord
bution to the particular drama
form in the street and there is n
are quite likely to be thrown ti'
ence. In 1983 there were about
s i o n a lt r o u p e s i n t h c s i n g l ep r o v
the number was still rising.
Conclusion
Clearly the period since 1978 I
mous changes to the Chrne
respects.A major feal ure of soc
the theatre in particular is a dict
towards rnodernization on the o
ditionalist revival on the other.T
still socialist in that content ten
ffi+;:
divergent women as
l contemporaryChinese
toy'sAnna Karenina.Pan
;ed for its relevance to
o Chinesesocietyof the
trivcxr. He was born at
u Zonghai- an erudite
:r whom he had his first;ix. After apprenticeship
jingxi master actors,he
nedfor the perfectionof
the young scholar-hero
3g!1ar1y
partnering Mrr
rg professional
careerYu
tigablyto preservekunqu,
ion of performersat the
cademyof Dramatic Art
'orkwasdisruptedby the
He is an accomplishedj
I as.singer
and actor,and
l
:y'l,i:::"'_
__l
leijingopera performance,
maturgy and stagecraft.
I the institution produced
schools at all levels is
itive examination: about 5
rin admission.There is still
fmales,the rationale being
men.
#omentOsing female roles
n 1951PremierZhou Enlai
'up
tor Zhang Chrinqiu:
to
hat'sthe end'. If this po1iry
omen will perform all dan
hat a handful of female
g trained, so the art may
:rformershas risen greatly
the reasonsfor this are the
I discriminationwhich prer highly organized recruit:m, an improved standard
'.,,tt.,
ofliving,and the govelnment's high evaluation of
'att
workers'as a profession.There arc, however,
stillstronggradationsin the status ofpelformers:
starsmay be among the nost influential and
respected
members of society,while ordinary performerslive in serious poverty and social disregard.
Sincethe earliest days of its existencc thc CCP
hasstrongly encouraged amateur artists who, it
considered,could assist its propaganda work
amongthe nasses to an extent even greater than
'snall
professionals.
The slogan pushed was
in
scale,rich in variety' (xiaoxingduoyang),neaning
t h a tl o n g o [ c o u r p l i c a t c dp i c c c s| e q u i r i n g e x t e u sivetraining or elaborateand expensivecostLlmes
shouldbe avoided. The spoken drama, simple
songsand dances,or balladry iterns, were greatly
preferred
to traditional music drana. The Cultural
'mass
Revolutiongave great priority to
ilnateur
propaganda
tror.lpcs'and for severalyears in the
late1960sthey were morc or lessthc only soulceof
China'stheatrical Iif'e.
Since the late 1970s amateur troupes have
declinedmarkedly. To fill their place semiprofessionaltroupes have arisen everywhere in Cl'rina,
especiallyin the countryside where fully plofessionaltheatre is less accessiblethan in the cities.
fbrm troupes on their own initiative and
Peasants
onlythe tnosttalented and skilled local performers
arechosen.They spend most of the year as peasants,and during the slack seasonthey go around
performing, mainly traditional regional music
dramas.The reward is financial, for although the
performersdo not receive salaries,they are paid
out ofbox-officereturns according to their coDtribution to the particular drama. Even if they perform in the street and there is no box-office,they
arequite likely to be thrown tips from the audi
ence.ln 1983 there were about 3000 seniprofessionaltroupesin the single province ofAnhui, and
thenumber was still rising.
ist society and nany fully professional ttoupes
remain state-owned.However, despite a reversal
fiom mid-1989 to the beginning of 1992 due to the
1989 Tiananmen Square crisis, the overall direction of changesince 1978has been towards greater
variefy and liberalisn in terms of form and content, and free enterprisein organization, with ideology reflecting nationalism more strongly than
Marxisn-Leninism. Experiencein other countries
suggeststhat economic modernization affects traditional arts adversely.Despite the current enthusiasm in China for traditional music drana as an
exanple of its national arts, the sane could easily
happen there in the next few decades.
Genres
Chuaniu(Sichuanopera).
The forn of music drama fbund in Sichuan,
China'smost populousprovince,and one of the
lnostimportantof the country'sregionalsfyles.lt
grewout of five differentmusicaland theatrical
styles that originally were independent,four
belongingto the main systems
of Chinesetheatre
and introducedfrorn outsidethe province.The
earliestof these,gaoqiang,came into Sichuan
aroundthe 17thcentury.A variantof the 'musicoiYiyang'drana, it featuredan offstagechorus.
Slightlylatcr,clapperopera,knownin Sichuanas
('strum music'),was introducedfrom
tanqianq,
Shaanxito the north.Nexthuqinqiang{ 'musicof
t h eh u q i nt .a v a r i a not l ' t h eP T H U AsNyG
s l e r ri nr ,l r o duced the two-string huqin instrunent.
Aristocratic1{uNeuwas
popularwith the officials
of Sichuan.The one fbrm nativeto Sichuanwas
dengxi('lanterntheatre'),a folk style basedon
localmaskdancesof villageshamans.
Early in the 20th century, the theatre was
reforned and the five stylcsbegan to be perforned on the samestageand wereregardedasa
uniry,thougheveryiten still retainedits styleof
origin in its umsic.The first teahouse-theatres
were introducedinto Sichuan'scities.Probably
Conclusion
Clearlythe peliod since 1978 has brought cnor- the greatestof the refblners was Kang Zilin
(1870-1931),
a fine actor,teacherand leaderof
mous changes to the Chinese theatre in all
A major feature of societyin general and the famous Three Celebrations (Sanqing)
respects.
Apartfrom the decadeofthe
thetheatrein particular is a dichotomorisimpulse Conpany(est.1912).
towardsmodernization on the one hand and a tra- Cnltural Revolution, Sichuanopera has flouditionalistrevival on the other. The najor thrust is rished under the Comnunists,especiallysince
stillsocialistin that content tends to reflect social- 1978.The SichuanProvinceChuanju Research
51