Download HI136 The History of Germany Lecture 5

HI136 The History of Germany
Lecture 5
Foreign and
Colonial Policy
“there is not a
diplomatic tradition
which has not been
swept away . . .
The balance of power
has been entirely
destroyed.”
Benjamin Disraeli
The International Consequences of
German Unification





Answered the ‘German Question’ that had been a
feature of European politics for a generation.
Created a strong military and economic power at the
heart of Europe.
Demonstrated the weakness of Austria and, to a lesser
extent, France.
Expelled Austria from Germany once and for all, forcing
her to look south and east for foreign policy successes.
Encouraged nationalist movements elsewhere –
especially in the Balkans.
The Bismarckian System





After 1871 Germany needed peace and stability in order
to consolidate the gains of the Wars of Unification.
Bismarck thus needed to persuade Europe that
Germany was a “satiated power”.
The key to German security was keeping France
isolated.
There were 5 Great Powers so Germany always needed
to be part of a bloc of 3.
The nightmare scenario of encirclement and a war on
two fronts needed to be avoided at all costs.
The Dreikaiserbund (1873)




An
informal
agreement
between Germany, Russia and
Austria-Hungary.
The terms were vague and
included no concrete military
alliances.
Identified republicanism and
socialism as common threats.
Committed all three powers to
consult with one another in
matters of common interest,
and to joint action if another
power should disturb the
peace of Europe.
The Near Eastern Crisis, 1877-78







Punch cartoon showing Britain warning
Russia not to release the ‘Dogs of War’
1875: Christian peasants in Bosnia &
Bulgaria rebel against Ottoman rule.
1876: Serbia and Montenegro declare
war on Turkey.
Thousands of Russian volunteers
joined the Serbian army
Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria led to an
international outcry and turned British
public opinion against intervention to
support the Ottoman Empire.
1877: Austria agrees to remain neutral
in the event of Russian intervention in
return for being allowed to occupy
Bosnia-Herzegovina.
1877-78: Russo-Turkish War.
3 March 1878: Turks forced to sign the
Treaty of San Stefano.
The Congress of Berlin (1878)





The fact that such a high-profile conference was held in Berlin
was an indication of Germany’s power and prestige.
Negotiations were stormy and only Bismarck’s energetic and
skilful diplomacy kept them from breaking down completely.
The resultant Treaty of Berlin (1878) created a smaller
Bulgarian state under Russian protection, allowed AustriaHungary to occupy Bosnia-Herzegovina and gave Cyprus to
Britain.
The Congress succeeded in averting a major European war,
but led to a deterioration in Russo-German relations.
Russia felt that she had suffered a humiliating diplomatic
setback and that Bismarck was to blame.
The territorial settlement in
the Balkans, 1878
Source: Farmer & Stiles, The
Unification of Germany 1815-1919
The Making of the Alliance System

The Dual Alliance (1879)




The Three Emperor’s Agreement (1881)



Germany, Austria-Hungary & Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event of any
of them being involved in a war with another power.
The Balkans divided into spheres of influence.
The Triple Alliance (1882)




Signed between Germany and Austria-Hungary.
Each agreed to come to the others aid in the event of war with Russia or to
remain neutral in a war with any other power.
The treaty was to last for 5 years, but in the event remained valid until 1918.
Between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Germany & Austria agreed to intervene if Italy were attacked by France.
Italy agreed to support Germany if she were attacked by France.
The Reinsurance Treaty (1887)

Germany and Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event of either one of them
being involved in a war with a third power.
Bismarck’s Colonial Policy




Punch cartoon depicting Bismarck as the
“irrepressible Tourist” (1885)
Bismarck was generally
ambivalent about colonial
expansion, considering an
overseas empire to be an
expensive indulgence.
But public pressure for a colonial
empire led to the acquisition of a
number of territories in Africa.
The Berlin Conference of 1884-5
laid down the rules for European
expansion in Africa and granted
colonies to Germany.
However, Bismarck’s flirtation with
colonialism was short-lived – by
1887 he was resisting pressure to
acquire more colonies on the
grounds that to do so would
needlessly antagonise Britain.
German Acquisitions in Africa 1884-85
Source: Farmer & Stiles, The Unification of Germany
1815-1919
Wilhelm II
Minister for the Navy:
Alfred von Tirpitz
Leo von Caprivi
1890-1894
Imperial Chancellors
Chlodwig zu Hohenloe
-Schillingfurst
1894-1900
Bernhard von Bülow
1900-1909
Philipp zu
Eulenburg
Theobald von
Bethmann-Hollweg
1909-1917
Pressure Groups

Deutscher Kolonialverein (German Colonial Association):





Alldeutscher Verband (Pan-German League):




Founded 1882.
Campaigned for the establishment of German colonies.
Membership had reached 9,000 by 1884.
Merged with the Society for German Colonization in 1887 to form the
Deutsche Koloialgesellschaft (German Colonial Society).
Founded in 1891 by Alfred Hugenberg & Karl Peters.
Radical right-wing nationalist organization which supported Weltpolitik
and saw itself as an unofficial watchdog, critic and advisor to successive
governments.
Had 8,601 members in 1896, rising to over 20,000 in 1900.
Deutscher Flottenverein (German Navy League):




Founded in 1898 with just over 14,000 members.
Campaigned for an enlarged German fleet and supported Weltpolitik.
Had strong links with big business and Conservative politicians.
Had over 330,000 members in 1914.
The ‘New Course’, 1890-94



No a coherent policy.
Reflected the Kaiser’s anti-Russian and pro-British
sympathies.
1890: Germany allows the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse



Overtures to Britain



Russia no longer considered Germany’s natural ally.
Considered incompatible with Germany’s other commitments.
Close dynastic relationship.
1890: Anglo-German Convention.
Result: pushes Russia into the arms of France.
“We definitely do not feel the need to
have a finger in every pie. But we
believe that it is inadvisable, from
the outset, to exclude Germany from
competition with other nations in
lands with a rich and promising
future. . . . We see it as our foremost
task to foster and cultivate the
interests of our shipping, our trade
and our industry, particularly in the
East.”
Bernhard von Bülow (1897)
Weltpolitik







A more aggressive and assertive foreign policy after 1897.
A clear rejection of Bismarck’s ‘continental policy’ in favour of the
‘World Policy’ (Weltpolitik).
The emphasis on the expansion of Germany’s overseas empire –
intended to demonstrate her power and prestige to the other Great
Powers.
1897: Seizure of the Chinese port of Kiao-Chow & Shantung
province claimed as a German ‘sphere of influence’.
1898: Purchase of Pacific islands (the Carolines, Marshalls and
Marianas) from Spain.
1899: Acquisition of the Samoan Islands.
1900: Germany leads multi-national intervention force after the
Boxer Rebellion.
The German Empire and colonial possessions at their greatest extent in 1914.
“Give no quarter! Take no
prisoners! Anybody who
falls into your hands must
be destroyed. Just as a
thousand years ago Attila’s
Huns made a reputation for
ruthless violence that still
resounds through the ages,
so let the name of Germans . . .
acquire a similar reputation that
will last for a thousand years.”
Wilhelm II (1900)
The Debate over Weltpolitik



Fritz Fischer et. al. → Three main aims of Weltpolitik: to create a
large German Navy demonstrating her claim to be a world power, a
Central African Empire (Mittelafrika) and a Central European
customs union (Mitteleuropa). All part of a master plan to achieve
World Power (Weltmacht).
Wehler, Berghahn, Geiss → Weltpolitik motivated by domestic
concerns and a substitute for unwanted social change (‘Social
Imperialism’).
David Kaiser → Weltpolitik was ‘a patriotic umbrella, not a magic
wand’ – rather than being designed to outflank the Socialists, it was
a means to unite the Conservatives, National Liberals and the
Centre Party behind the government. Appearances more important
than realities.
Flottenpolitik



A world empire required a strong navy to defend it.
In the 1890s Germany had only the world’s 7th biggest navy, but its
share of world trade was almost as large as Britain’s.
1898: Alfred von Tirpitz appointed State Secretary for the Navy.
“Up to now, our policies have
completely overlooked the political
significance of naval power. Yet if
we want to go out into the world
and increase our economic strength
at sea, we will only construct a
hollow edifice if we do not obtain
a degree of naval strength. If we
go out into the world, we will find
either existing interests or interests
that will be claimed in the future.
These make conflicts of interest
inevitable. . . . Naval power is the
only politically versatile type of
power there is. This is why we will
always end up getting shortchanged
politically, even if there is no war.”
Alfred von Tirpitz (1896)
Flottenpolitik







A world empire required a strong navy to defend it.
In the 1890s Germany had only the world’s 7th biggest navy, but its
share of world trade was almost as large as Britain’s.
1898: Alfred von Tirpitz appointed State Secretary for the Navy.
1898: First Navy Law – provided funds for the construction of 16
new battleships.
1900: Second Navy law – allowed for the construction of 3 ships a
year for the next 6 years.
1906: Britain launches HMS Dreadnought, a revolution in naval
technology which was thought to have made all existing battleships
obsolete.
1908-1912: Naval building stepped up, leading to a dangerous and
expensive arms race with Britain.
The Anglo-German Relationship
Wellington and Blücher greet each other after the Battle of Waterloo
The Anglo-German Relationship
Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and
Gotha (1819-1861)
Victoria, German Empress, Queen Consort
of Prussia and Princess Royal (1840-1901)
The Anglo-German Relationship
Crown Prince Friedrich and the future
Wilhelm II in highland dress at Balmoral
The Diplomatic Revolution,
1900-1907

1902: Anglo-Japanese Alliance



1904: Entente Cordiale




Not an alliance as such.
France agreed to give Britain a freehand in Egypt in return for acceptance
of her domination of Morocco.
Opened the way for future cooperation.
1907: Anglo-Russian Convention


Cartoon depicting Britain walking off with the
‘trollop’ France, while Germany pretends not to
care.
Marked an end to Britain’s isolation.
Led to negotiations with France, as
Britain feared that growing RussoJapanese tensions would drag the UK
and France into war.
Persia, Tibet and Afghanistan divided
into spheres of influence.
Further aligned Britain with France and
Russia against Germany and the Triple
Alliance.
The Moroccan Crisis (1905-06)


1904-05: Russo-Japanese War.
1905: Revolution in Russia


1905: Moroccan Crisis




January: The Kaiser guarantees Moroccan independence.
Germany insists that her commercial interests must be protected.
Refuses to negotiate with France and insists on an international
conference to settle Morocco’s fate.
1906: Algeçiras Conference




Russia temporarily weakened and distracted from European politics.
Britain, Russia and Italy all support France.
A humiliating diplomatic defeat for Germany.
Strengthens rather than breaks up the Anglo-French entente.
Negotiations between the Kaiser and the Tsar for a defensive
alliance (July 1905) come to nothing after France objects to the
scheme.
The Annexation Crisis (1908-09)





October 1908: Austria-Hungary moves to formally annex
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Serbia, backed by Russia, demands compensation.
Britain and France make it clear that they will not support
Russia over the issue.
Germany supports Austria and threatens to intervene in
the event of war.
Diplomatically isolated, Russia is forced to back down
and recognize the annexation in March 1909.
The Agadir Crisis (1911)




July 1911: Germany sends to
gunboat Panther to the
Moroccan port of Agadir in an
attempt to force territorial
concessions from the French.
Alarmed by these bullying
tactics Britain threatens to
intervene.
Austria makes it clear that she
will not fight over Morocco and
Germany is forced to back
down.
An example of Weltpolitik at its
worst.
The Balkan Wars (1912-13)





First Balkan War (1912): Serbia,
Greece, Bulgaria and Montenegro
wrest control of Macedonia from
Turkey.
Second Balkan War (1913):
Bulgaria attacks Serbia and is
decisively defeated by the Greeks
and Serbs.
Anglo-German
co-operation
secures a settlement in the
Balkans
at
the
London
Conference.
Germany initially restrains Austria,
But after 1913 she agrees to back
her ally in any future confrontation
with Serbia (and by extension
Russia).
Rearmament



Source: Farmer & Stiles, The Unification of Germany
1815-1919
All the Great Powers entered
into an arms race after 1900.
There was a desire for some
kind of military advantage over
the most likely opponent in a
future war.
Germany
was
particularly
concerned
that
Russia’s
military reforms (due to be
completed in 1917) would
make her unbeatable.
Conclusion





German Unification upset the balance of power.
Despite Bismarck’s best efforts, Weltpolitik convinced the
other Great Powers that Germany was dangerous to the
peace and stability of Europe.
But Germany’s foreign policy based on the principle of
the search for security.
By 1914 Germany felt surrounded by hostile powers,
was slowly being bankrupted by the arms race, and
under pressure from social change at home.
War was thus seen by some as the ideal way out of
Germany’s problems.