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EVOLUTION AND CLASSIFICATION UNIT Bio.3.4-Bio.3.5 Evolution: Evidences for Evolution, Natural Selection Classification: Classifying Life, Systems of Classification, Diversity of Life EVOLUTION Bio.3.4 PRE-THINKING QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. List the levels of organization from cell to biosphere. Where does variation in a population come from? What type of population growth models are there? Describe. Describe the type of independent and dependent factors that can affect populations. What is a mutation? Explain how a genetic mutations can lead to changes in phenotype. What is an adaptation? Give an example and explain how adaptations develop. How does animal behavior influence survival? THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION The Origin of Life Natural Selection and the Evidence for Evolution Mechanisms of Evolution DEFINITIONS Spontaneous Generation: NonLiving material can produce life. Biogenesis: Living organisms come only from other living organisms. Protocell: A large ordered structure enclosed by a membrane that carried out some life activities such as growth and division. Prokaryotes: unicellular organisms that lack internal membrane bound structures. Spontaneous Generation Experiment (Abiotic) 5 http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Miller.gif DEFINITIONS Chemosynthesis: Autotrophic process in which organisms obtain energy from breaking down available chemicals usually containing nitrogen and sulfur. Archaebacteria: Chemosynthetic prokaryotes that live in harsh environments such as deep sea vents and hot springs. Hot Spring: Yellowstone Nat. Park http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ploct97.htm#hotsprings 6 SCIENTISTS Francesco Redi: Disproved that meat produced maggots by putting meat in a jar and covering it with cheese cloth. Louis Pasteur: Proved that microorganisms such as bacteria did not just arise from air- the final experiment in disproving spontaneous generation. Alexander Oparin: Hypothesized that life began in the oceans. He said that the sun, lightning, rain, and various chemicals came together to form the first life forms. 7 SCIENTISTS Miller and Urey: Devised an apparatus and process by which life molecules such as amino acids and sugars could be produced from ammonia, methane, hydrogen, and water vapor when electricity simulating lightning was introduced. see page 424 Lynn Margulis: Responsible for the endosymbiotic theory. see page 427 http://members.dialmaine.com/drwdavis/wsdavis/friends/lynn.jpg 8 EVOLUTION In the world of science, a theory is a hypothesis that has been tested over time, again and again by many scientists, and their results only support the hypothesis- they never refute it. Scientific Theories: DNA structure (Watson and Crick) Round Earth Evolution of Species http://www.astronomy.com/images/astrokids/content/earth.jpg 9 http://imiloa.wcc.hawaii.edu/krupp/BIOL101/present/lcture14/img0 EVOLUTION Evolution is the change in existing species or the appearance of new species over time. Species are groups of organisms that can successfully interbreed. Scientists study fossils in order to determine the history of species. http://www.fimus.dk/images/evolut io.gif Fossils are preserved remnants of a dead organism. 10 http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/gif/backgrounds/fossils.jpg LAMARCK’S EVOLUTION HYPOTHESIS One of the first scientist to recognize organisms have changed over time. Stated that by selective use or disuse of organs, organisms acquired or lost certain traits during their lifetime. These traits could be passed on to their offspring and led to change in the species over time. Example: birds flying, giraffes neck **Found to be incorrect** 11 DARWIN Darwin studied plants and animalshe was a naturalist. He noticed that very similar species on different close-by islands had varying traits. Geographic Isolation Specifically he ended up studying finches with varying beak size and color. 12 DARWIN His theory of Natural Selection stemmed from two ideas: Organisms usually produce more than enough (sometimes even way too many) offspring All individuals are different in certain ways (genetic variation). http://www.karthikram.org/files/images/natural%20selecti 13 NATURAL SELECTION Darwin arrived with the theory of Natural Selection It said that the “fittest” shall more often than not survive to reproductive age and pass on their genes. It said that the least fit will often die before they can pass on their genes. Therefore, the more fit organisms thrive and the species will “evolve.” “Survival of the Fittest.” 14 NATURAL SELECTION Evidence of Natural Selection Predator-Prey relationships Camouflage Mimicry The Mimic Octopus (All Three Pictures!!) Mimics: flatfish, sea snakes, jawfish, mantis shrimp, lionfish and others! 15 Natural Selection Structural Adaptations 16 •Long necks in a giraffe •Webbed feet in a duck THINKING: 1. 2. 3. 4. What forces would drive natural selection? What do you think artificial selection is? Give an example of an organism that produces more offspring than can survive. A flower and a humming bird are said to exhibit co-evolution. Another example is a bat eating fruit (distributing seeds). Another would be a clown fish and anemone. How have these relationships been described earlier in this course? EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION Fossils and the places that they were found. Recent fossils never found in old rock layers. Ancient fossils never found in new rock layers. Anatomy •Homologous Structures: similar structures (often with completely different functions) with the same evolutionary origin. -see page 384 18 Evidence for Evolution Analogous Structures: structures with similar functions, but with different evolutionary origins. 19 Evidence for Evolution Vestigial Structures: have no function in 20 present organism but may have had use in ancestral organism. EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION Embryology: Fish, reptile, bird and mammal all have gill slits as embryos. Embryos very similar in many stages of development. •Biochemistry: •DNA Codons alike throughout all life forms. •DNA sequences differ depending on evolutionary relationships. 21 SUMMARY OF DARWIN’S THEORY Individual organisms differ, and some of this variation is heritable. Organisms produce more offspring than can survive. Organisms compete for limited resources Individuals best suited will survive, reproduce and pass on traits Species alive today are descended from ancestor species 22 EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION CIRCLE MAP Forelimbs of crocodiles, bats, and humans Fish, reptile, bird, mammal Homologous structures (Different function) Evidence for Evolution Analogous structures (Similar function) Wings of birds and butterflies Embryology Vestigial Appendix Tailbone Sightless eyes 23 CHAPTER 16: EVOLUTION OF POPULATIONS 16.1 Genes and Variation 16.2 Evolution as Genetic Change 16.3 The Process of Speciation POPULATION GENETICS Evolutionary thought today is tightly linked to genetics. Remember, populations, not individuals evolve. All the alleles in a pop. added together are called the gene pool. Blue People of Kentucky POPULATION GENETICS The frequency that any one allele is seen in the population is called the allele frequency (relative frequency). Is the frequency of the dominant Huntington’s allele high? Is the frequency of the dominant allele causing 6 fingers high? POPULATION GENETICS If the frequency of the alleles doesn’t change over time, the population is at genetic equilibrium. Hardy-Weinberg Principle see page 401 POPULATION GENETICS When alleles are brought in and out of a population due to migration of individuals, it is called gene flow. POPULATION GENETICS When isolated chance events can alter gene frequencies in a population (therefore disrupting gene equilibrium) you have what is called genetic drift. Common in small isolated populations such as the Amish of Lancaster, PA Darwin’s finches (perhaps) founder effect: change as a result of migration POPULATION GENETICS Sources of Genetic Variation: Mutations Gene Shuffling Single gene trait Polygenic trait POPULATION GENETICS Types of selection: When natural selection of a trait favors the average individuals in the pop. it is called stabilizing selection. POPULATION GENETICS Types of selection: When natural selection favors both extreme phenotypes of a trait in a pop., it is called disruptive selection. POPULATION GENETICS Types of selection: When natural selection favors one extreme phenotype of a trait, it is called directional selection. POPULATION GENETICS Type of Selection?? Grey mice are preyed upon but black and white mice are left alone? Disruptive The longer a giraffe’s neck gets the more food is available, while short necked giraffes die of starvation before they can reproduce? Directional A slow gazelle is easily caught by a cheetah, but one too fast breaks its legs easily and is eaten by hyenas?? Stabilizng POPULATION GENETICS Artificial Selection: Selection for traits that are determined and monitored by man. Ex. Breeding animals such as dogs or cats. Sexual Selection: Selection by one gender for another gender. Ex. Peacock feathers, body hair disappearance in humans, walrus tusks. SPECIATION Speciation is when a new species is formed. This means that the individuals in the new species can no longer produce successful offspring with the population from which they came. SPECIATION Geographic Isolation can cause speciation over long periods of time. The seperated organisms are adapting to different environments and responding differently. Eventually if a mating is attempted, they can no longer produce successful offspring with one another. SPECIATION Reproductive Isolation is when a population can no longer successfully interbreed with its parent population (the pop. it came from). Reproduction if attempted will fail. Ex. One group breeds in the fall, one in the spring and over time the populations become new species incapable of interbreeding. Mating Calls Courtship rituals differ SPECIATION Temporal Isolation: Two or more species reproduce at different times Example: orchid in the rainforest SPECIATION Changes in chromosome number can cause speciation. Some cases of polyploidy (more common in plants) produce individuals that can only mate with other polyploids in a pop. 17.4 SPECIATION Can occur rapidly Punctuated Equilibrium Gould Can occur very slowly Gradualism Darwin see page 439 17.4 PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION Adaptive Radiation: When an ancestral species evolves into several different species, each filling a specific niche. Darwin’s finches Hawaiian Honeycreepers (p. 406 &436). 17.4 PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION Divergent Evolution: Species that once were similar or closely related become very different. New Species are very different from each other. Ex. Adaptive Radiation 17.4 PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION Convergent Evolution: Unrelated species that live in similar environments evolve the same adaptations in order to survive. Ex. Tasmanian Wolf and North American Wolf. P. 437 PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION Coevolution: the process by which two species evolve in response to changes in each other over time. Example: flowering plants and their pollinator Page 437 http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio303/coe volution.htm 17.4 NOTE Common genetic occurrences we have studied such as polyploidy, crossing over, and point mutations can provide the genetic basis for evolution. Although these genetic changes are not evolution themselves, they can begin the long process of evolution by affecting one individual in a population in a positive way. But only if the trait is passed on, and on, and on… CLASSIFICATION Bio.3.5 CLASSIFICATION Organizing living things Why necessary? Leaf Cutter Ants Edward Terzian, Jr. http://search.gallery.yahoo.com/search/corbis?p=ant+-atoll+-island&strip=2 Argentine Ants CLASSIFICATION Taxonomy: grouping and naming of organisms. Aristotle: made first classification system with 2 groups- plants and animals. no microscopic organisms considered? Evolutionary ancestry? genetics-based? http://www.bats.org.uk/ Edward Terzian, Jr. http://birds.cornell.edu/bow/ http://www.junglewalk.com/frames.asp CLASSIFICATION Carolus Linnaeus : developed the modern day system of classification called binomial nomenclature. Father of Classification Naming based on similar structures Evolutionary relationships later used by scientists. http://www.english.upenn.edu/~jlynch/Frank/People/linnaeus.html Edward Terzian, Jr. BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE Binomial nomenclature (scientific names) means “two names” in Latin uses two names, genus and species to give organisms their names for classification A genus is a group of similar species. Ex. Homo sapiens, Felis concolor, Mus musculus, Vulpes vulpes. Edward Terzian, Jr. Genus: Tolypeutes Genus: Tolypeutes Species: matacus Species: tricinctus http://www.msu.edu/~nixonjos/armadillo/tolypeutes.html BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE RULES 1. Capitalize genus, lowercase species name 2. When written by hand, underline whole name 3. When typed, put whole name in italics *One scientific name, many common names* Dog, perro, chien, or Canis familiaris. Genus: Canis Edward Terzian, Jr. http://www.nwf.org/wolves/programHomepage.cfm?cpId=57&C FID=1692833&CFTOKEN=42224307 http://www.doggroups.com/community/album.php HOW LIVING THINGS ARE CLASSIFIED taxonomic hierarchy: grouping that goes from very specific characteristics to broad ones Taxon: group smallest group = species largest = kingdom Edward Terzian, Jr. King Philip Came Over From Germany Sailing! Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species. **NOTE: In plants, division replaces phylum.** HOW LIVING THINGS ARE CLASSIFIED Species is the smallest grouping. Kingdom is the largest. Edward Terzian, Jr. http://www.nationalgeographic.com/kids/creature_feature/0112/chimps.html Human Chimpanzee Housecat Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia Order Primates Primates Carnivora Family Hominidae Pongidae Felidae Genus Homo Pan Felis Species Sapiens Troglodytes Familiaris Edward Terzian, Jr. http://callie.csci.unt.edu/~donr/cat-pics/ http://www.picturesof.net/_people/people_index.html CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS Phylogeny: The evolutionary history of a species. illustrated in a cladogram. : a phylogenetic diagram that uses branches to show where in time certain groups diverged from one another. See p. 452 for cladogram http://www.calacademy.org/research/izg/marineanimals.htm Edward Terzian, Jr. Cladogram DICHOTOMOUS KEY Classification tool used to identify organisms based on various traits *Always start at #1! Edward Terzian, Jr. Edward Terzian, Jr. THE SIX KINGDOMS Factors in Determining Evolutionary Relationships: Structural Similarities Breeding Behavior http://www.wildlife-australia.com/frogs.htm Geographical Distribution Humans, apes, chimps Biochemistry http://health.allrefer.com/health/chromosome-chromosomes-and-dna.html Location, Location, Location! Chromosome Comparisons Ex. Frogs with different calls DNA sequencing Edward Terzian, Jr. THE 3 DOMAIN SYSTEM Larger than a Kingdom Domain Bacteria: Kingdom Eubacteria Domain Archaea: Kingdom Archaebacteria Domain Eukarya: Kingdoms: protista, fungi, plantae and animalia http://www.palaeos.com/Kingdoms/Prokaryotes/Eubacteria.htm http://www.thewildones.org/Animals/aramacao.html Edward Terzian, Jr. DOMAIN ARCHAEA AND DOMAIN BACTERIA Prokaryotes Kingdom Archaebacteria found in harsh, extreme environments such as hot springs or deep sea vents. Usually no oxygen! http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/monerans.html Edward Terzian, Jr. NO defined nucleus Two separate kingdoms- Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. http://www.ocean.udel.edu/deepsea/level-2/geology/vents.html DOMAIN ARCHAEA AND DOMAIN BACTERIA Kingdom Eubacteria make up most of the Prokaryotes. COMMON bacteria that do not live in harsh environments most need oxygen to live Some cause disease, some can actually be helpful. Most don’t affect us. Edward Terzian, Jr. http://www.palaeos.com/Kingdoms/Prokaryotes/Eubacteria.htm Edward Terzian, Jr. Edward Terzian, Jr. DOMAIN EUKARYA Eukaryotes: Eukaryotes that lack organ systems and live in moist environments. Autotrophs or heterotrophs Mostly Unicellular and some multicellular Least satisfying kingdom Actinophrys feeding on http://www.microbe.org/microbes/protists1.asp Colpidium (green). Actinophrys engulfs its prey like an amoeba. Edward Terzian, Jr. cells with a membrane bound nucleus and organelles YOU are eukaryotic! Kingdom Protista Edward Terzian, Jr. DOMAIN EUKARYA Kingdom Edward Terzian, Jr. Fungi: Mostly multicellular, some unicellular eukaryotes Do not move HETEROTROPHIC! absorb nutrients by secreting digestive enzymes Cell walls of chitin http://thenewzealandsite.com/photo/289/ DOMAIN EUKARYA Kingdom Edward Terzian, Jr. Plantae: All plants! All are eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic = autotrophs! Have different tissue types and organs as well as organ systems. Ex. Mosses, Ferns, Evergreens, Maple Trees. Cell Walls of cellulose Chloroplasts http://www.picturesof.net/_gallery/_Plants/_PAGES/pictures_of_ferns_00206240933.html http://www.acclaimimages.com/_gallery/_pages/0027-0401-1708-1752.html DOMAIN EUKARYA Kingdom NO cell walls or chloroplasts! http://www.acclaimstockphotography.com/_gallery/_pages/0001-0302-0502-2758.html Edward Terzian, Jr. Animalia: All animals! Eukaryotic and usually capable of locomotion heterotrophs! have tissues, organs, and organ systems. IMPORTANT STUDY TIPS! Aristotle/Linnaeus Classification/Taxonomy/Binomial Nomenclature Writing Scientific Names KPCOFGS Phylogeny/Cladistics Fan Diagram/Cladogram 6 Kingdoms- Characteristics of each Archaebacteria/Eubacteria Eukaryote/Prokaryote Edward Terzian, Jr. THE SIX KINGDOMS Structural Similarities All have retractable claws! Edward Terzian, Jr. Shows that there is a relationship between the organisms with the similarities. Example: shared physical structures between organisms implies (does not necessarily mean though) that the organisms are related and may have evolved from a common ancestor. Back to previous slide http://www.acclaimimages.com/_gallery/_pages/0028-0401-2813-4017.html THE SIX KINGDOMS Breeding “Mating Dance” http://www.acclaimimages.com/_gallery/_pages/0001-0209-0209-2455.html The males of a species may make different sounds to attract a female. An intricate mating dance, or display may also be displayed by the males. Edward Terzian, Jr. behavior Back to previous slide http://www.vernalpool.org/inf_wf.htm THE SIX KINGDOMS Geographical distribution Location on earth Back to previous slide http://www.spacepix.net/earth/earth_apollo_17.htm Edward Terzian, Jr. Example: certain species of finches are found in South America and on the Galapagos Islands. Common ancestry between organisms may be supported by geographical distribution, as well as genetic similarities. THE SIX KINGDOMS Chromosome comparisons Edward Terzian, Jr. Number and structure of chromosomes may show relationships between organisms. Example: Cauliflower, cabbage, kale, and broccoli look different, but have chromosomes that are nearly identical. Back to previous slide http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotypeold/ THE SIX KINGDOMS Biochemistry Edward Terzian, Jr. A similarity in DNA sequences and proteins. Generally, the more nucleotide sequences shared between two species, the more these two species might be related. Molecular clock: uses DNA comparisons to estimate the length of time that two species have been evolving independently See page 455 Back to previous slide http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/graphics/slides/hgplogotochrom.shtml CLASSIFICATION CIRCLE MAP Grouping and naming of organisms Developed first system Taxonomy Language of science Aristotle Taxon Latin Father of Linnaeus classification Classification Dichotomous System key KPCOFGS Binomial nomenclature Genus Species Edward Terzian, Jr. Group Two names DETERMINING FACTORS OF EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS CIRCLE MAP Lynx Bobcat Housecat Dogs Frogs DNA sequencing Structural similarities Breeding behavior Biochemistry Determining Chromosome Humans factors of comparisons and chimps evolutionary relationships Geographical isolation Finches Edward Terzian, Jr. PROKARYOTES VS. EUKARYOTES DOUBLE BUBBLE No membranebound structures Types of cells Animalia Plantae Fungi Unicellular Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Protista Archaebateria Eubacteria Edward Terzian, Jr. No defined nucleus Found in organisms Nucleus Membranebound structures KINGDOMS TREE MAP Kingdoms Monera Eubacteria Common bacteria Disease Strep Edward Terzian, Jr. Protista Fungi Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Unicellular Archaebacteria Moist environ. Multicellular Lives in harsh Heterotroph Unicellular conditions Mushroom Oxygen free Amoeba Yeast Plantae Animalia Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Multicellular No cell Cellulose cell walls or walls chloroplasts ChloroplastsHeterotroph Autotroph Tissue Produce O2 Organ Organ system