Download File

EVOLUTION AND
CLASSIFICATION UNIT
Bio.3.4-Bio.3.5
Evolution: Evidences for Evolution, Natural
Selection
Classification: Classifying Life, Systems of
Classification, Diversity of Life
EVOLUTION
Bio.3.4
PRE-THINKING QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
List the levels of organization from cell to
biosphere.
Where does variation in a population come from?
What type of population growth models are
there? Describe.
Describe the type of independent and dependent
factors that can affect populations.
What is a mutation? Explain how a genetic
mutations can lead to changes in phenotype.
What is an adaptation? Give an example and
explain how adaptations develop.
How does animal behavior influence survival?
THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

The Origin of Life

Natural Selection and the Evidence for Evolution

Mechanisms of Evolution
DEFINITIONS
 Spontaneous
Generation: NonLiving material can produce
life.
 Biogenesis: Living organisms
come only from other living
organisms.
 Protocell: A large ordered
structure enclosed by a
membrane that carried out
some life activities such as
growth and division.
 Prokaryotes: unicellular
organisms that lack internal
membrane bound structures.
Spontaneous Generation
Experiment (Abiotic)
5
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/M/Miller.gif
DEFINITIONS
Chemosynthesis: Autotrophic process in which
organisms obtain energy from breaking down
available chemicals usually containing nitrogen and
sulfur.
 Archaebacteria:
Chemosynthetic
prokaryotes that live in
harsh environments
such as deep sea vents
and hot springs.
Hot Spring: Yellowstone Nat. Park
http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ploct97.htm#hotsprings
6
SCIENTISTS
 Francesco
Redi: Disproved that meat
produced maggots by putting meat in
a jar and covering it with cheese cloth.
 Louis Pasteur: Proved that
microorganisms such as bacteria did
not just arise from air- the final
experiment in disproving spontaneous
generation.
 Alexander Oparin: Hypothesized that
life began in the oceans. He said that
the sun, lightning, rain, and various
chemicals came together to form the
first life forms.
7
SCIENTISTS
 Miller
and Urey: Devised an
apparatus and process by which
life molecules such as amino acids
and sugars could be produced from
ammonia, methane, hydrogen, and
water vapor when electricity
simulating lightning was
introduced.


see page 424
Lynn Margulis: Responsible for
the endosymbiotic theory.

see page 427
http://members.dialmaine.com/drwdavis/wsdavis/friends/lynn.jpg
8
EVOLUTION
 In
the world of science, a theory is a
hypothesis that has been tested over time,
again and again by many scientists, and their
results only support the hypothesis- they
never refute it.

Scientific Theories:
DNA structure (Watson and Crick)
 Round Earth
 Evolution of Species

http://www.astronomy.com/images/astrokids/content/earth.jpg
9
http://imiloa.wcc.hawaii.edu/krupp/BIOL101/present/lcture14/img0
EVOLUTION
 Evolution
is the change in existing species or the
appearance of new species over time.
 Species are groups of organisms that can
successfully interbreed.
 Scientists study fossils in order to determine the
history of species.

http://www.fimus.dk/images/evolut
io.gif
Fossils are preserved remnants
of a dead organism.
10
http://www.stemnet.nf.ca/gif/backgrounds/fossils.jpg
LAMARCK’S EVOLUTION HYPOTHESIS
One of the first scientist to
recognize organisms have
changed over time.
 Stated that by selective use
or disuse of organs,
organisms acquired or lost
certain traits during their
lifetime.
 These traits could be passed
on to their offspring and led
to change in the species over
time.

Example: birds flying,
giraffes neck
 **Found to be incorrect**

11
DARWIN
 Darwin
studied plants and animalshe was a naturalist.
 He noticed that very similar species on different
close-by islands had varying traits.
 Geographic
Isolation
 Specifically he ended up studying
finches with varying beak
size and color.
12
DARWIN
His theory of Natural Selection
stemmed from two ideas:


Organisms usually produce more
than enough (sometimes even way
too many) offspring
All individuals are different in
certain ways (genetic variation).
http://www.karthikram.org/files/images/natural%20selecti
13
NATURAL SELECTION

Darwin arrived with the theory of Natural
Selection
It said that the “fittest” shall more often than not
survive to reproductive age and pass on their genes.
 It said that the least fit will often die before they can
pass on their genes.
 Therefore, the more fit organisms thrive and the
species will “evolve.”
 “Survival of the Fittest.”

14
NATURAL SELECTION
 Evidence

of Natural Selection
Predator-Prey relationships
Camouflage
 Mimicry

The Mimic Octopus (All Three Pictures!!)
Mimics: flatfish, sea snakes, jawfish, mantis
shrimp, lionfish and others!
15
Natural Selection
Structural Adaptations
16
•Long necks in a giraffe
•Webbed feet in a duck
THINKING:
1.
2.
3.
4.
What forces would drive natural selection?
What do you think artificial selection is?
Give an example of an organism that produces
more offspring than can survive.
A flower and a humming bird are said to exhibit
co-evolution. Another example is a bat eating
fruit (distributing seeds). Another would be a
clown fish and anemone. How have these
relationships been described earlier in this
course?
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Fossils and the places that they were found.
Recent fossils never found in old rock layers.
 Ancient fossils never found in new rock layers.


Anatomy
•Homologous Structures:
similar structures
(often with completely different
functions)
with the same evolutionary origin.
-see page 384
18
Evidence for Evolution
Analogous Structures: structures with similar functions,
but with different evolutionary origins.
19
Evidence for Evolution
Vestigial Structures: have no function in
20
present organism but may have had use in
ancestral organism.
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
 Embryology:


Fish, reptile, bird and mammal all have gill slits as
embryos.
Embryos very similar in many stages of development.
•Biochemistry:
•DNA Codons alike throughout all life forms.
•DNA sequences differ depending on evolutionary
relationships.
21
SUMMARY OF DARWIN’S THEORY
Individual organisms differ, and some of this
variation is heritable.
 Organisms produce more offspring than can
survive.
 Organisms compete for limited resources
 Individuals best suited will survive, reproduce
and pass on traits
 Species alive today are descended from ancestor
species

22
EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION CIRCLE
MAP
Forelimbs of
crocodiles, bats,
and humans
Fish, reptile, bird,
mammal
Homologous structures
(Different function)
Evidence for
Evolution
Analogous
structures
(Similar function)
Wings of
birds and
butterflies
Embryology
Vestigial
Appendix
Tailbone
Sightless
eyes
23
CHAPTER 16: EVOLUTION OF
POPULATIONS
16.1
Genes and Variation
16.2
Evolution as Genetic Change
16.3
The Process of Speciation
POPULATION GENETICS
Evolutionary thought today
is tightly linked to genetics.
 Remember, populations, not
individuals evolve.
 All the alleles in a pop.
added together are called
the gene pool.

Blue People of Kentucky
POPULATION GENETICS

The frequency that any one allele is seen in the
population is called the allele frequency (relative
frequency).
Is the frequency of the dominant Huntington’s allele high?
 Is the frequency of
the dominant allele
causing 6 fingers high?

POPULATION GENETICS
 If
the frequency of the
alleles doesn’t
change over time, the
population is at
genetic
equilibrium.
 Hardy-Weinberg
Principle

see page 401
POPULATION GENETICS
When
alleles are brought in and out
of a population due to migration of
individuals, it is called gene flow.
POPULATION GENETICS
 When
isolated chance events
can alter gene frequencies in a
population (therefore disrupting
gene equilibrium) you have
what is called genetic drift.
Common in small isolated
populations such as the Amish of
Lancaster, PA
 Darwin’s finches (perhaps)
 founder effect: change as a result
of migration

POPULATION GENETICS

Sources of Genetic Variation:
Mutations
 Gene Shuffling
 Single gene trait
 Polygenic trait

POPULATION GENETICS
Types of selection: 

When natural selection of a trait favors the average
individuals in the pop. it is called stabilizing selection.
POPULATION GENETICS
Types of selection:

When natural selection favors both extreme
phenotypes of a trait in a pop., it is called
disruptive selection.

POPULATION GENETICS
Types of selection: 
When natural selection favors one extreme
phenotype of a trait, it is called directional
selection.

POPULATION GENETICS
 Type



of Selection??
Grey mice are preyed upon but black and white mice
are left alone?
Disruptive
The longer a giraffe’s neck gets the more food is
available, while short necked giraffes die of
starvation before they can reproduce?
Directional
A slow gazelle is easily caught by a cheetah, but one
too fast breaks its legs easily and is eaten by
hyenas??
Stabilizng
POPULATION GENETICS
 Artificial
Selection: Selection
for traits that are determined
and monitored by man.

Ex. Breeding animals such as
dogs or cats.
 Sexual
Selection: Selection
by one gender for another
gender.

Ex. Peacock feathers, body hair
disappearance in humans, walrus
tusks.
SPECIATION
 Speciation
is
when a new species is
formed. This means
that the individuals in
the new species can no
longer produce
successful offspring
with the population from
which they came.
SPECIATION
 Geographic
Isolation
can cause speciation over
long periods of time.


The seperated organisms are
adapting to different
environments and responding
differently.
Eventually if a mating is
attempted, they can no longer
produce successful offspring
with one another.
SPECIATION

Reproductive Isolation is when a population can no
longer successfully interbreed with its parent population
(the pop. it came from).

Reproduction if attempted will fail.
Ex. One group breeds
in the fall, one in the
spring and over time
the populations become
new species incapable
of interbreeding.
 Mating Calls
 Courtship rituals differ

SPECIATION

Temporal Isolation:
Two or more species reproduce at different times
 Example: orchid in the rainforest

SPECIATION
Changes
in chromosome number
can cause speciation.
Some cases of polyploidy (more
common in plants) produce
individuals that can only mate with
other polyploids in a pop.
17.4 SPECIATION
Can
occur rapidly
 Punctuated
Equilibrium
 Gould
Can
occur very slowly
 Gradualism
 Darwin
 see
page 439
17.4 PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION
Adaptive
Radiation: When an
ancestral species evolves into
several different species, each filling
a specific niche.
 Darwin’s
finches
 Hawaiian Honeycreepers
(p. 406 &436).
17.4 PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION
Divergent
Evolution: Species that
once were similar or closely related
become very different.
 New
Species are very different from
each other.

Ex. Adaptive Radiation
17.4 PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION

Convergent Evolution:
Unrelated species that live in
similar environments evolve the
same adaptations in order to
survive.
Ex. Tasmanian Wolf and North
American Wolf.
 P. 437

PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION
 Coevolution:
the
process by which two
species evolve in
response to changes in
each other over time.


Example: flowering plants
and their pollinator
Page 437
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio303/coe
volution.htm
17.4 NOTE
Common genetic occurrences we have
studied such as polyploidy, crossing over, and point
mutations can provide the genetic basis for evolution.
Although these genetic changes are not evolution
themselves, they can begin the long process of
evolution by affecting one individual in a population in a
positive way. But only if the trait is passed on, and on,
and on…
CLASSIFICATION
Bio.3.5
CLASSIFICATION
Organizing living things
 Why necessary?

Leaf Cutter Ants
Edward Terzian, Jr.
http://search.gallery.yahoo.com/search/corbis?p=ant+-atoll+-island&strip=2
Argentine Ants
CLASSIFICATION


Taxonomy: grouping and naming of organisms.
Aristotle: made first classification system with 2
groups- plants and animals.

no microscopic organisms considered?

Evolutionary ancestry? genetics-based?
http://www.bats.org.uk/
Edward Terzian, Jr.
http://birds.cornell.edu/bow/
http://www.junglewalk.com/frames.asp

CLASSIFICATION
Carolus Linnaeus : developed the modern day
system of classification called binomial
nomenclature.
Father of Classification
 Naming based on similar structures
 Evolutionary relationships later used by
scientists.

http://www.english.upenn.edu/~jlynch/Frank/People/linnaeus.html
Edward Terzian, Jr.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

Binomial nomenclature (scientific names)
means “two names” in Latin
 uses two names, genus and species to give organisms their
names for classification
 A genus is a group of similar species.
 Ex. Homo sapiens, Felis concolor, Mus musculus, Vulpes
vulpes.

Edward Terzian, Jr.
Genus: Tolypeutes
Genus: Tolypeutes
Species: matacus
Species: tricinctus
http://www.msu.edu/~nixonjos/armadillo/tolypeutes.html
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE RULES
1. Capitalize genus, lowercase species name
 2. When written by hand, underline whole name
 3. When typed, put whole name in italics
 *One scientific name, many common names*


Dog, perro, chien, or Canis familiaris.
Genus:
Canis
Edward Terzian, Jr.
http://www.nwf.org/wolves/programHomepage.cfm?cpId=57&C
FID=1692833&CFTOKEN=42224307
http://www.doggroups.com/community/album.php
HOW LIVING THINGS ARE CLASSIFIED
taxonomic hierarchy: grouping that goes
from very specific characteristics to
broad ones
 Taxon: group


smallest group = species
largest = kingdom
Edward Terzian, Jr.

King Philip Came Over From Germany
Sailing!
 Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family,
Genus, Species.
 **NOTE: In plants, division replaces
phylum.**

HOW LIVING THINGS ARE CLASSIFIED
Species is the smallest grouping.
 Kingdom is the largest.

Edward Terzian, Jr.
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/kids/creature_feature/0112/chimps.html
Human
Chimpanzee
Housecat
Kingdom
Animalia
Animalia
Animalia
Phylum
Chordata
Chordata
Chordata
Class
Mammalia
Mammalia
Mammalia
Order
Primates
Primates
Carnivora
Family
Hominidae
Pongidae
Felidae
Genus
Homo
Pan
Felis
Species
Sapiens
Troglodytes
Familiaris
Edward Terzian, Jr.
http://callie.csci.unt.edu/~donr/cat-pics/
http://www.picturesof.net/_people/people_index.html
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
 Phylogeny:
The evolutionary
history of a species.

illustrated in a cladogram.
: a phylogenetic
diagram that uses branches
to show where in time
certain groups diverged from
one another.
 See p. 452 for cladogram
http://www.calacademy.org/research/izg/marineanimals.htm
Edward Terzian, Jr.
 Cladogram
DICHOTOMOUS KEY
Classification tool used to identify organisms
based on various traits
 *Always start at #1!

Edward Terzian, Jr.
Edward Terzian, Jr.
THE SIX KINGDOMS
 Factors
in Determining
Evolutionary Relationships:

Structural Similarities
Breeding Behavior

http://www.wildlife-australia.com/frogs.htm

Geographical Distribution


Humans, apes, chimps
Biochemistry

http://health.allrefer.com/health/chromosome-chromosomes-and-dna.html
Location, Location, Location!
Chromosome Comparisons


Ex. Frogs with different calls
DNA sequencing
Edward Terzian, Jr.

THE 3 DOMAIN SYSTEM
 Larger
than a Kingdom
 Domain Bacteria:
Kingdom Eubacteria
 Domain Archaea:
Kingdom Archaebacteria
 Domain Eukarya:
Kingdoms: protista,
fungi, plantae and
animalia
http://www.palaeos.com/Kingdoms/Prokaryotes/Eubacteria.htm
http://www.thewildones.org/Animals/aramacao.html
Edward Terzian, Jr.
DOMAIN ARCHAEA AND DOMAIN BACTERIA

Prokaryotes

Kingdom Archaebacteria
found in harsh, extreme environments such
as hot springs or deep sea vents.
 Usually no oxygen!

http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/monerans.html
Edward Terzian, Jr.

NO defined nucleus
Two separate kingdoms- Eubacteria and
Archaebacteria.

http://www.ocean.udel.edu/deepsea/level-2/geology/vents.html
DOMAIN ARCHAEA AND DOMAIN BACTERIA

Kingdom Eubacteria
make up most of the Prokaryotes.
 COMMON bacteria that do not live in harsh
environments
 most need oxygen to live
 Some cause disease, some can actually be helpful.
Most don’t affect us.

Edward Terzian, Jr.
http://www.palaeos.com/Kingdoms/Prokaryotes/Eubacteria.htm
Edward Terzian, Jr.
Edward Terzian, Jr.
DOMAIN EUKARYA
 Eukaryotes:
Eukaryotes that lack organ
systems and live in moist
environments.
 Autotrophs or heterotrophs
 Mostly Unicellular and some
multicellular
 Least satisfying kingdom

Actinophrys feeding on http://www.microbe.org/microbes/protists1.asp
Colpidium (green).
Actinophrys engulfs its prey
like an amoeba.
Edward Terzian, Jr.
cells with a
membrane bound nucleus and
organelles
 YOU are eukaryotic!
 Kingdom Protista
Edward Terzian, Jr.
DOMAIN EUKARYA
 Kingdom


Edward Terzian, Jr.
Fungi:
 Mostly multicellular, some
unicellular eukaryotes
 Do not move
 HETEROTROPHIC!
absorb nutrients by secreting digestive
enzymes
Cell walls of chitin
http://thenewzealandsite.com/photo/289/
DOMAIN EUKARYA
 Kingdom



Edward Terzian, Jr.
Plantae: All plants!
 All are eukaryotic, multicellular,
photosynthetic = autotrophs!
 Have different tissue types and
organs as well as organ systems.
Ex. Mosses, Ferns, Evergreens, Maple
Trees.
Cell Walls of cellulose
Chloroplasts
http://www.picturesof.net/_gallery/_Plants/_PAGES/pictures_of_ferns_00206240933.html
http://www.acclaimimages.com/_gallery/_pages/0027-0401-1708-1752.html
DOMAIN EUKARYA
 Kingdom

NO cell walls or chloroplasts!
http://www.acclaimstockphotography.com/_gallery/_pages/0001-0302-0502-2758.html
Edward Terzian, Jr.
Animalia:
 All animals! Eukaryotic and
usually capable of locomotion
 heterotrophs!
 have tissues, organs, and organ
systems.
IMPORTANT STUDY TIPS!
Aristotle/Linnaeus
 Classification/Taxonomy/Binomial Nomenclature
 Writing Scientific Names
 KPCOFGS
 Phylogeny/Cladistics
 Fan Diagram/Cladogram
 6 Kingdoms- Characteristics of each
 Archaebacteria/Eubacteria
 Eukaryote/Prokaryote

Edward Terzian, Jr.
THE SIX KINGDOMS

Structural Similarities

All have retractable
claws!
Edward Terzian, Jr.

Shows that there is a
relationship between the
organisms with the
similarities.
Example: shared physical
structures between
organisms implies (does not
necessarily mean though)
that the organisms are
related and may have evolved
from a common ancestor.
Back to previous slide
http://www.acclaimimages.com/_gallery/_pages/0028-0401-2813-4017.html
THE SIX KINGDOMS
 Breeding

“Mating Dance”
http://www.acclaimimages.com/_gallery/_pages/0001-0209-0209-2455.html
The males of a species
may make different
sounds to attract a
female.
An intricate mating
dance, or display may
also be displayed by
the males.
Edward Terzian, Jr.

behavior
Back to previous slide
http://www.vernalpool.org/inf_wf.htm
THE SIX KINGDOMS

Geographical distribution

Location on earth

Back to previous slide
http://www.spacepix.net/earth/earth_apollo_17.htm
Edward Terzian, Jr.

Example: certain species of
finches are found in South
America and on the
Galapagos Islands.
Common ancestry between
organisms may be
supported by geographical
distribution, as well as
genetic similarities.
THE SIX KINGDOMS
 Chromosome
comparisons


Edward Terzian, Jr.
Number and structure
of chromosomes may
show relationships
between organisms.
Example: Cauliflower,
cabbage, kale, and
broccoli look different,
but have chromosomes
that are nearly identical.
Back to previous slide
http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotypeold/
THE SIX KINGDOMS

Biochemistry



Edward Terzian, Jr.

A similarity in DNA
sequences and proteins.
Generally, the more
nucleotide sequences
shared between two
species, the more these two
species might be related.
Molecular clock: uses
DNA comparisons to
estimate the length of time
that two species have been
evolving independently
See page 455
Back to previous slide
http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/graphics/slides/hgplogotochrom.shtml
CLASSIFICATION CIRCLE MAP
Grouping and naming of
organisms
Developed first
system
Taxonomy
Language
of science
Aristotle
Taxon
Latin
Father of
Linnaeus
classification
Classification
Dichotomous
System
key
KPCOFGS
Binomial
nomenclature
Genus
Species
Edward Terzian, Jr.
Group
Two names
DETERMINING FACTORS OF EVOLUTIONARY
RELATIONSHIPS CIRCLE MAP
Lynx
Bobcat
Housecat
Dogs
Frogs
DNA sequencing
Structural
similarities
Breeding
behavior
Biochemistry
Determining
Chromosome Humans
factors of comparisons and chimps
evolutionary
relationships
Geographical isolation
Finches
Edward Terzian, Jr.
PROKARYOTES VS. EUKARYOTES DOUBLE BUBBLE
No
membranebound
structures
Types
of
cells
Animalia
Plantae
Fungi
Unicellular
Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
Protista
Archaebateria
Eubacteria
Edward Terzian, Jr.
No
defined
nucleus
Found in
organisms
Nucleus
Membranebound
structures
KINGDOMS TREE MAP
Kingdoms
Monera
Eubacteria
Common
bacteria
Disease
Strep
Edward Terzian, Jr.
Protista
Fungi
Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Unicellular
Archaebacteria Moist
environ. Multicellular
Lives in harsh
Heterotroph
Unicellular
conditions
Mushroom
Oxygen free Amoeba
Yeast
Plantae
Animalia
Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Multicellular
No cell
Cellulose cell walls or
walls
chloroplasts
ChloroplastsHeterotroph
Autotroph
Tissue
Produce O2
Organ
Organ
system