Download Chapter 7 – Stratification by Gender Gender is a routine part of our

Chapter 7 – Stratification by Gender
Gender is a routine part of our everyday activities that we typically take notice only when someone deviates from conventional
behavior and expectations. We begin life with a definite sex and quickly receive societal messages about how to behave.
Gender roles are defined as expectations regarding the proper behaviors, attitudes, and activities of males and females. The
application of traditional gender roles leads to many forms of differentiation between women and men. It is also evident in how we
react to others.
We construct our social behavior socially so as to exaggerate male-female differences. Some social norms concerning heterosexual
couples help reinforce and legitimize patterns of male dominance.
In recent years, urban women have increasingly entered occupations and professions previously dominated by men. Nevertheless,
society still focuses on “masculine” and “feminine” qualities, as if men and women must be evaluated in those terms.
Gender Role Socialization
Traditional gender-role patterns have been influential in the socialization of children.
Since many people stereotypically associate male homosexuality with femininity and lesbianism to masculinity, men and women
who deviate from traditional views about gender roles are often presumed gay. The stigma attached to homosexuality places
pressure on men and women to exhibit only narrow masculine or feminine behaviors.
Adults (parents, older siblings, and mass media) play a critical role in guiding children into those gender roles deemed important in a
society.
Women’s Gender Roles
Girls develop a feminine self-image, in part, by identifying with females in their families, neighborhood, and mass media. Girls
become aware of expectation regarding, a female’s profession, look, and conduct. For example, women are expected to become
mothers and to want to become one.
Men’s Gender Roles
Gender roles men are socially constructed in much the same ways as women’s roles are. The male gender roles have five identified
aspects:
1. Antifeminine element
2. Success element
3. Aggressive element
4. Sexual element
5. Self-reliant element
Males who do not conform to the socially constructed gender role face constant criticism and even humiliation. Boys who
successfully adapt to cultural standards of masculinity may grow up to be inexpressive men who cannot share their feelings with
others. Traditional male gender roles, can be disadvantageous for men as well.
Cross-Cultural Perspective
To what extent do actual biological differences between the sexes contribute to the cultural differences associated with genders?
Looking at different culture, some sociologists see no innate or biological reason to designate completely different gender roles for
men and women. Gender stratification requires not only individual socialization into traditional gender roles within the family, but
the promotion and support by other social institutions. Every society has women and men who resist and successfully oppose the
stereotype.
Explaining Stratification by Gender
Studies show that societies dominated by men are much more common than those in which women plays the decisive role. Let us
turn to the major theoretical perspectives to understand how and why these social distinctions are established.
The Functionalist View
Gender stratification has contributed to overall social stability. It is argued that, to function most effectively, the family requires
adults who specialize in particular roles. Traditional gender roles arise from the need to establish a division of labor between marital
partners. Women take the expressive, emotionally supportive role, and men take the instrumental, practical role, with the two
complementing each other.
Expressiveness denotes concern for the maintenance of harmony and the internal emotional affairs of the family. Instrumentality
refers to an emphasis on tasks, a focus on more distant goals, and a concern for the external relationship between one’s family and
other social institutions. Women’s interest in expressive goals frees men for instrumental tasks, and vice versa.
The perspective does not explicitly endorse traditional gender roles; it implies that dividing tasks between spouses was functional for
a family as a unit.
However critics of the functionalist perspective say that such differentiation might harm the individual who does not fit into
prescribed roles, as well as deprive society of the contributions of many talented people who feel confined by gender stereotyping.
It does not also explain why men should be assigned categorically to instrumental role, and women to the expressive role.
The Conflict View
Social institutions may pay lip service to women’s expressive skills, but men’s instrumental skills are more highly rewarded, whether
in terms of money and prestige. Any division of labor by gender into instrumental and expressive tasks is far from neutral in its
impact on women. The relationship between female and males has traditionally been one of unequal power, with men in a
dominant position over women.
The Feminist Perspective
Women’s subordination is a part of the overall exploitation and injustice that is seen as inherent in capitalist societies, or more
radically, inevitable in all male-dominate societies, whether they are labeled capitalist, socialist, or communist. For feminists,
discussions about women are often distorted by the exclusion of women from academic thought. Even in politics, women remain
under represented. The ugly realities of rape, wife battering, sexual harassment, and street harassment all illustrate and intensify
women’s subordinate position. Genuine equality between the sexes cannot be achieved if these attacks remain as commons as they
are today.
The Interactionist Approach
Interactionists focus on gender stratification as mirrored by day-to-day events. For example, studies show that men initiate up to
96% of all interruptions in cross-sex conversations. Even if a women hold a prestigious position, such as that of a physician, they are
more likely to be interrupted that their male counterparts. These present another battle ground in the struggle for equality.
Sexism and Discrimination
Sexism is the ideology the one sex is superior to the other. The term is generally used to refer to male prejudice and discrimination
against women.
Institutional discrimination defined as the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the
normal operations of the society.
Since major institutions of society are controlled by men, they often discriminate against women and perpetuate sexism.
Sexual Harassment
Sexual harassment refers to behaviors that occur when work benefits are made contingent on sexual favor, or when touching, lewd
comments, or the exhibition of pornographic material creates a “hostile environment” in the workplace.
The Status of Women Worlwide
The United Nation note that men and women differ in access to education and work opportunities, as well as health, personal
security and human rights. It is estimated the women grow half the world’s food, but they rarely own land. They constitute onethird of the world’s paid labor force, but generally found in the lowest paying jobs. Women rarely hold more than 1 percent of top
executives. Many widows around the world receive little support from extended family. Women occupy sex-typed occupation
(secretaries, librarians) which places women in service roles that parallel traditional gender roles. Women are still underrepresented
in occupations traditionally held by males – occupational segregation. They sometime experience the glass ceiling – an invisible
barrier that blocks the promotion of a qualified individual in a work environment because of his or her gender, race, or ethnicity.
Social Consequences of Women’s Employment
Women of today face the challenge of juggling work and family – second shift. Such is not shared with by men. This is true even in
terms of mental labor; mothers are more involved in spending time thinking about the care of their children.