Download Volition and Non-Volition Markers on the Verb

Descriptive Grammar of Latropeth
Release 1.1 – October 2011
1
Table of Contents
1)
2)
3)
4)
Sound System and Orthography
Syntax
Morphology
Parts of Speech – Nouns
- i) Noun Classes
- ii) Basic and Compound Nouns
- iii) Nominalization
5) Parts of Speech – Verbs
- i) Verb Form Components
- ii) Verb Prefix Dissimilation Rules
- iii) Negation
- iv) Basic and Compound Verbs
- v) Clause Chaining
- vi) Aspect and Validation Markers
- vii) Volition and Non-Volition Markers
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Table of Contents continued
-
viii) The Irrealis Marker lasa
ix) Expressing Existence with fanajis
x) Verbal Adjectives (participles)
xi) Verbal Adverbs (gerunds)
6) Parts of Speech – Adjectives
- i) Basic Rules
- ii) Comparative and Superlative Reference
7) Parts of Speech –Adverbs
- i) Basic Rules
- ii) Common Set – Potential Adverb Matrix
- iii) Clause Relational Adverbs
- iv) Further Adverbs from Common Adverb Set
- v) Pronoun + Verb Nucleus Adverbs
- vi) Clarifying Ambiguous Meanings with kutaje
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Table of Contents continued
8) Parts of Speech - Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers
- i) Personal Pronoun Verb prefixes
- ii) Compound Pronominal Prefix Forms
- iii) Possessives
- iv) Demonstrative Pronouns
- v) Numbers
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
Parts of Speech – Prepositions
Passive Voice
Interrogative Mood
Additional Uses of the Particle kala
Imperative Mood
Relative Clauses
Causative Constructions
Temporal Orientation
Spatial/Directional Orientation
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1) Sound System and Orthography
Phonemes
Latropeth has seventeen consonant phonemes and five vowel phonemes. Consonants include eight
plosives, two fricatives, three nasals and three liquids. Vowels include two high front unrounded
vowels, two high back rounded vowels and a low vowel.
As much as possible the orthographic symbols used for a Latin alphabet transcription of the
language directly correspond to the IPA phoneme symbols where they are available on the
conventional computer keyboard. Due to this not being the case for the three retroflex consonants
and the glottal stop the orthographic symbols used for these sounds; q , v , r and x respectively bear
little resemblance to their values in English.
5
Sound System and Orthography continued (consonants)
Consonants
Phonetic description
IPA symbol
Orthographic symbol
Plosives
voiceless bilabial
/p/
p
voiceless dental
/t/
t
voiceless velar
/k/
k
voiced bilabial
/b/
b
voiced dental
/d/
d
voiceless retroflex
/ʈ/
r
voiced retroflex
/ɖ /
q
voiceless glottal
/ʔ/
x
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Sound System and Orthography continued (consonants)
Fricatives
voiceless labiodental
/f/
f
voiceless alveolar
/s/
s
voiceless glottal
/h/
h
/m/
m
Nasals and Liquids
bilabial nasal
dental nasal
/n/
n
retroflex nasal
/ɳ/
v
lateral approximant
/l/
l
palatal approximant
/j/
j
labiovelar approximant
/w/
w
7
Sound System and Orthography continued (consonants)
Some notes on consonants
Voiceless plosives /p/, /t/, /k/ and /ʈ/ are non-aspirated in Latropeth (unlike syllable initial /p/,
/t/, /k/ in English) . As such they are closer to /p/, /t/ and /k/ in French/Spanish etc.
The /t/ phoneme is more dental than alveolar in Latropeth.
Allophones
Allophone variation in Latropeth is restricted to one case; dental stop consonants palatalize prior to
front vowel phonemes /i/ and /e/
eg
/bide/ > [biɟe] “very”
/pitenijojis/ > [picenijojis] “he/she goes”
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Sound System and Orthography continued (vowels)
Vowels
Latropeth vowel grid
i
u
e
o
a
Some notes on vowels
With respect to the five vowel phonemes;
/i/ is high front unrounded like ee in seed
/e/ is mid high front unrounded and close to cardinal vowel
two. It resembles the vowel sound in weight as pronounced in
a Northern British accent.
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Sound System and Orthography continued (vowels)
/a/ is the low vowel in Latropeth. As a low back vowel it is
pronounced like a in father.
/o/ and /u/ are the mid high and high back rounded vowels
respectively
The orthographic symbols for vowels match the IPA symbols though a can also be written as a.
The vowels are pure and short in polysyllabic morphemes and pure and longer in monosyllabic
morphemes. They do not dipthongize or centralize.
Stress and Syllable Structure
Systematic stress is mostly equilateral across the syllables of words with each syllable being short
apart from morphemes with monosyllabic roots where the vowel is slightly elongated in most cases.
Reduced stress and truncation is encountered with the very common grammatical verb affixes that
cross reference nouns in the complex verb form .
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Sound System and Orthography continued (stress/syllable structure)
eg
jemo (‘je’mo) “spear”
- vowel short and equilateral stress on each syllable
sa (‘sa:) “apple”
– elongated vowel in morpheme of one syllable.
amufoikijis ( ‘a ‘mu fo ‘i ‘ki ‘jis ) “I see it”
- stress is reduced for the grammatical affix fo in the verb complex here.
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2) Syntax
Basic word order is Verb – Subject – Object – (VSO) but where the object specifies a location it
precedes the subject and the word order is thenVOS.
The subject can be fronted with emem/’em preceding the verb and marking the shift.
A broader overview of the order of constituents and phrase structure follows along with illustrative
examples;
Sentence
V/S/O (VP / NP / NP) – standard sentence constituent order
VP Structure
Verb / Adverb / (subject) / object
Given the VSO word order the VP wraps around the subject
(! the direct object is often preceded with kala/kal’ if it denotes an animate entity)
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Syntax continued
eg
(sentence with standard VSO word order)
piadetowejis paqa sa
pi – ade – towe – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass5
eat
general
paqa
sa
man
apple
“The man eats the apple”
(VOS word order due to object containing locative information)
jotenijojis damu kuhi
jo – te – nijo – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass2
go
general
damu
kuhi
tree
racoon
“The raccoon goes to the tree”
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Syntax continued
(fronted subject with emem preceding verb)
Paqa emem piadetowejis sa
paqa
emem
man
fronting
of
subject
pi – ade – towe – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass5
eat
general
sa
apple
“The man eats the apple”
Footnote: emem is usually contracted to em’ in everyday speech
(Clause with adverb)
piteikijis buwe paqa kuma
pi – te – iki – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass2
see
general
buwe
paqa
kuma
quiet
man
mountain
“The man looked at the mountain quietly” “
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Syntax continued
(with an animate object preceded by kala)
pijoikijis paqa kala boje
pi – jo – iki – jis
paqa
kala
boje
sub
nclass3
man
animate
object
puma
obj
nclass4
see
general
“The man sees the puma”
NP Structure
Noun / Adjective / Quantifier / Demonstrative
eg
xaki
xaki
frog
jopaja sejovemvem vahes
jo
–
adjective
agreement
nclass4
paja
big
sejovemvem
three
vahes
that
“Those three big frogs”
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3) Morphology
Agglutinating morphology occurs by way of grammatical prefixes and suffixes in the complex verb
forms of Latropeth and to a much lesser extent with agreement markers on adjectives used
attributively in the noun phrase.
Compound nouns and compound verb stems can employ multiple morphemes as a derivational
device. Sometimes these are multiple free standing forms combined or involve a free standing form
with an affix used derivationally.
Outside of the above instances the morphology of Latropeth is simpler and many morphemes appear
in isolation in a clause.
eg
(grammatical morphemes in a verb form)
piademawlasamifijojis
toqa sa
pi – ade – maw – lasa
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass5
negation
want/desire
ema qose
- mifi give
(verb stem)
jo
indirect obj
nclass4
-
jis
toqa
sa
ema
qose
general
boy
apple
indirect
object
squirrel
“The boy does not want to give the squirrel an apple”
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Morphology continued
(adjectives used attributively in a noun phrase with noun referencing prefix)
nojem jowom
nojem
deer
jo
-
adjective
agreement
nclass4
wom
fast
“The fast deer”
(derivational use of morphemes – nouns)
pipala
pi
derivational
prefix
nclass3
pala
ground
“camp/settlement”
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Morphology continued
(derivational use of morphemes – verb stem)
mulasakihijis
mu lasa
speak
want/desire
-
kihi
detail
-
jis
general
“ask”
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4) Parts of Speech - Nouns
Noun Classes
Nouns in Latropeth are classified grammatically into 8 noun classes. The noun classes are reflected
in common affixes that cross reference the nouns of the clause within the Latropeth verb form and in
adjective declination.
The same affixes are used derivationally in certain nouns. The classification system is logical and
predictable to a certain extent.
The 8 noun classes are listed below along with the affixes associated with each noun class;
Noun Class
Prefix/Suffix
Usage
Class 1
.
da-
tangible objects, layouts
which are slender ,
smooth or hard
to contain. eg lobe "sand"
Class 2
te-
tangible objects , structures
which are angular or large.
eg xiha "home / hut"
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Parts of Speech - Nouns continued (noun classes)
Class 3
pi-
human. eg wuhi "person"
Class 4
jo-
animal. eg nojem "deer"
Class 5
ade-
food, drink, vegetable or plant.
eg. sa "apple"
Class 6
ni-
Class 7
fo-
Class 8
fa-
tool, implement or utensil.
eg. xuha "axe / mallet"
miscellaneous;
generic class for nouns
that do not fit elsewhere.
eg. siwe "facial accessory"
gods / spirits / spiritual forces/celestial bodies
medicine / medicine man / elders
geological and meteorological occurrences
some animals / ancestors / some expressions
referring to time cycles
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Parts of Speech - Nouns continued (noun classes)
Footnote: In spoken Latropeth classes 1 and 2 as verb affixes are in the process of merging to the
class 2 form te – which is frowned upon by some older speakers.
Footnote: The direct object of a verb of motion (which denotes the destination of the movement) is
always cross referenced with te in written and spoken Latropeth regardless of the noun class of the
object.
Basic Nouns and Compound Nouns
Basic nouns are composed of one morpheme which is usually two syllables but can be one;
eg
niju
“water”
sa
“apple”
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Parts of Speech – Nouns continued (basic nouns and compound nouns)
Complex nouns are formed by combining morphemes in various ways.
eg
(noun + verb root)
tifakohe
tifa - kohe
seed
proliferate
“buckwheat”
(verb + adjective)
mifipaja
mifi -
paja
give/present
big
“show/presentation”
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Parts of Speech – Nouns continued (basic nouns and compound nouns)
(noun + adjective)
mupaja
mu - paja
speech
big
“public speech”
(derivational noun class prefix + noun)
pipala
pi
nclass 3
human
pala
ground / area
“camp”
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Parts of Speech – Nouns continued (basic nouns and compound nouns)
(compound verb + verb + adjective)
mukasumlasakawim
[mu - kasum ] lasa
speak
clear
compound verb
“explain/clarify”
-
want
kawim
content
“greeting”
(compound verb + verb + verb)
mukasumlasatenijo
[mu - kasum ] speak
clear
compound verb
“explain/clarify”
lasa
want
-
tenijo
go
“farewell”
24
Parts of Speech – Nouns continued (basic nouns and compound nouns)
(phrasal noun)
teha joweje
teha
jo - weje
antler
attrib
prefix
nclass4
sharp
“danger” (literally: “sharp antler”)
Nominalization
Verbs and adjectives can freely be nominalized. They generally retain the same form as nouns but
without the verbal/adjectival morphology
eg
baqiniju
“swimming”
from the verb baqinijujis “swim”
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Parts of Speech - Nouns continued (nominalization)
mu
“speech/talk”
from the verb mujis “speak”
weje
“sharpness”
from the adjective weje “sharp”
If the nominalized form is more of an abstract noun the suffix
– sawu is sometimes incorporated into the nominalized form.
eg
bumesawu
“sadness”
from the adjective bume “sad”
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5) Parts of Speech - Verbs
The Latropeth verb form incorporates many grammatical affixes. These include noun class
agreement prefixes and suffixes that cross reference the subject/object/indirect object of the clause
and include markers of negation, aspect, voice, mood and volition.
The basic skeleton of the Latropeth verb form follows.
Note that a verb in real use would not usually incorporate all these markers together;
Verb form Components
1) subject noun class prefix 2) direct object noun class prefix if applicable 3) passive voice prefix if
applicable 4) irrealis (subjunctive) prefix lasa if applicable 5) volition/non volition prefix
dasi/mafa if applicable 6) negation marker maw if applicable 7) VERB ROOT 8) **indirect
object noun class suffix if applicable 9) spatial/temporal marker if applicable
10) general non perfective suffix jis OR perfective suffix ema .
OR imperative/reverent suffix kala
Footnote: The reflexive is conveyed by an adverb nija in Latropeth and is not marked on the verb.
(! Important exception when personal pronouns are used )
Personal pronouns in Latropeth appear as prefixes which take the place of subject/object/indirect
object noun class prefixes on the verb as noted above but with an altered configuration where all
three prefixes appear together preceding the verb root in the order subject – indirect object – object
(for more details on this see the section further below on personal pronouns ).
27
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (verb form components)
The subject/object prefixes and the indirect object suffix on the verb have forms that cross reference
the respective nouns of the clause by noun class (refer to the section on nouns above for a list of the
8 noun classes and the associated affix forms).
The affixes are the same regardless of the syntactic position that the cross referenced noun assumes
in the clause. It is only the position of the affixes in the verb complex that indicates whether they
refer to the subject, object or indirect object of the clause.
eg
(intransitive clause with only subject marker present on the verb)
piwijis toqa
pi – wi – jis
sub
nclass3
sit
general
toqa
boy
“the boy sits”
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Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (verb form components)
(transitive clause with subject and object prefixes on the verb)
Piadetowejis toqa sa
pi – ade – towe – jis
toqa
sa
sub
nclass3
boy
apple
obj
nclass5
eat
general
“The boy eats the apple”
(clause including direct and indirect objects where the indirect object is cross referenced with a
suffix following the verb root)
Piademifijojis toqa sa ema qose
pi – ade – mifi - jo –
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass5
give
ind. obj
nclass4
jis
general
toqa
man
sa
apple
ema
indirect
object
to follow
nojem
deer
“The boy gives the deer the apple”
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Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (verb form components/verb prefix dissimilation rules)
Footnote: The principal reason for classifying nojem here as an indirect object is the inclusion in the
verb complex of a separate affix to reference it and for convenience. Strictly speaking in the clause
the NP nojem here is better classified as a prepositional object.
Dissimilations with Certain Combinations of
Noun Class Prefixes on the Verb
When two noun class prefixes appear together on a verb they may be subject to a dissimilation
process that causes the second prefix to change form;
Dissimilation to fu of the same prefix duplicated
If the two noun class prefixes on the verb are the same then the prefix dissimilates to fu the second
time it is used;
30
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (verb prefix dissimilation rules)
eg
pifuikijis kusu (kala) tuji
pi – fu – iki sub
nclass3
sub
nclass3
dissim
see
jis
general
kusu
(kala)
man
animate
woman
direct object
tuji
“The girl sees the woman”
* Pipiikijis pifi kala tuji is ungrammatical.
Dissimilation to te of second prefix where two labio-velar prefixes occur together
(there are two such prefixes; fo- for noun class 7 and fa- for noun class 8)
If the two noun class prefixes on the verb are any combination from noun class 7 and noun class 8
the above dissimilation of the second prefix to te occurs which overrules the fu dissimilation rule
mentioned previously;
31
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (verb prefix dissimilation rules)
eg
fatepaweskala kika kala Wunim
fa – te – pawes sub
nclass8
sub
nclass8
dissm
praise
kala
kika
reverent
mood
medicine
man
(kala) Wunim
Wunim
“The medicine man praises Wunim (the Earth God)”
* Fafapaweskala kika kala Wunim is ungrammatical
* Fafupaweskala kika kala Wunim is ungrammatical
Dissimilation to yi of the second prefix where the
subject prefix is labio-velar (noun class 7 fa or noun class 8 fo) and the object prefix is noun
class 3 prefix pi
The above dissimilation occurs where the prefix combination expected would be fapi or fopi . Due to
the dissimilation rule the correct forms are respectively fayi and foyi.
32
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (negation)
Negation
The clause is negated with mawi/mawThe free-standing form mawi is usually used in isolation to negate a proposition that is clear from
earlier context. As such it is very like no in English. The variation mawikala is also used in the same
way.
To produce a clause that is negated the contracted form maw- occurs as a prefix directly before the
verb root in the verb complex;
eg
(basic clause without negation)
Piadeikijis kusu damu
pi – ade – iki sub
nclass3
sub
nclass5
see
jis
general
kusu
girl
damu
tree
“The girl sees the tree”
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Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (negation)
(clause with negation)
Piademawikijis kusu damu
pi – ade – maw - iki sub
nclass3
sub
nclass5
negation
see
jis
kusu
damu
general
girl
tree
“The girl does NOT see the tree”
34
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (negation)
maw- can be prefixed to other components in the clause or to other isolated elements to focus
negation on the given element;
eg
Mawamuadeikijis damu
Maw – amu – ade – iki - jis
negation
Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
Obj
nclass5
see
general
damu
tree
“I (specifically) did not see the tree”
“It was not me who saw the tree”
Mawqasa / Mawi qasa
Maw - qasa
negation
warrior
“Not the warrior”
35
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (basic and compound verbs)
Basic and Compound Verbs
Basic verbs have a verb root composed of one morpheme.
eg
posa - (jis)
“hit”
Compound verbs have a verb root composed of multiple morphemes. There are numerous variations.
eg
(verb + direct object noun)
baqinijujis
baqi - niju - (jis)
jump
water
“swim”
36
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (basic and compound verbs)
(verb + verb)
fojenijojis
foje - nijo - (jis)
grasp
go
“bring”
(verb + adjective)
ikiwejejis
iki - weje - (jis)
see
sharp
“concentrate”
37
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (basic and compound verbs)
(noun + adjective)
punimqojajis
punim - qoja - (jis)
face
good
“look good/be appealing”
(verb + verb + noun)
rohonijokuhujis
roho - nijo - kuhu - (jis)
release
go/move
blood
“bleed”
mulasakihijis
mu - lasa
speak
want
-
kihi
-
(jis)
detail
“inquire”
38
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (basic and compound verbs)
(derivational prefix + verb)
mafapuhijis
mafa
puhi
non volitional
-
(jis)
plummet/cascade
“fall down from”
Clause Chaining
Clause chain verbs such as the below can be constructed if the multiple verbs are intransitive or refer
to the same direct object
Otherwise separate clauses are required.
In spoken/informal Latropeth where separate clauses are required if the subject is the same then the
subject prefix is usually omitted from the verb in the second clause as in the second example below.
39
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (clause chaining)
eg
(multiple verbs in a clause chain with the same direct object)
Pewatuniukitomjis atuqoja jemo
Pewatu - ni
Hortative
+ Sub
2nd
Pers
Sing
Obj
nclass6
-
uki
find
-
tom
store
-
jis
atuqoja
jemo
general
polite request
spear
“Could you please find and store the spear”
40
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (clause chaining)
(multiple verbs with different objects requiring separate clauses)
Pewatuniukijis atuqoja jemo,
tenijopasomjis pipala
Pewatu - ni
Hortative
+ Sub
2nd
Pers
Sing
te
Obj
nclass2
-
-
Obj
nclass6
nijo
go
uki
find
-
-
jis
atuqoja
general
polite request
pasom - jis
around
general
jemo,
spear
pi - pala
camp
“Could you please find the spear and return to the camp”
41
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (aspect and validation markers)
Aspect and Validation Markers on the Verb
Verbs usually take an aspect suffix which appears at the end of the verb complex. The suffix most
commonly encountered is jis which is so frequent it can be thought of as a neutral verb ending. It’s
defined as the general non-perfective indicative suffix contracted to general in the interlinear
glosses used here. Generally speaking if one of the other more specified suffixes clarified below
does not occur than the suffix defaults to jis.
There are no tenses as such in Latropeth verb forms. The context clarifies whether reference is made
to a past, present or future event. When making reference to the future the irrealis prefix lasa
is generally included in the verb due to the future being hypothetical. Make note that the English
glosses throughout this text are randomly given as present or past in English if the context does not
imply a particular tense.
The perfective aspect suffix ema (pronounced [jema]) commonly occurs and conveys completion of
the action of the verb. This can be equivalent to both the standard perfect and the past perfect in
European languages (ie I have eaten vs. I had eaten) depending on the context.
42
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (aspect and validation markers)
eg
(general verb suffix jis used with reference to the present)
Jofuikijis
kuhi vala
jo – fu – iki – jis
kuhi
sub
nclass3
raccoon
obj
nclass4
dissim
see
general
vala
spider
“The raccoon sees the spider”
(jis used with reference to the past)
jofuikijis kunim kuhi vala
jo – fu – iki – jis
kunim
kuhi
sub
nclass3
yesterday
raccoon
obj
dissim
see
general
vala
spider
nclass3
“The raccoon saw the spider yesterday”
43
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (aspect and validation markers)
(jis used with reference to the future
and incorporating the irrealis prefix lasa on the verb)
Jofulasaikijis
kuhi
vala
jo – fu – lasa -
iki – jis
kuhi
vala
sub
nclass3
see
raccoon
spider
obj
nclass4
dissim
irrealis
general
“The raccoon will see the spider”
(the perfective suffix ema conveying completion of the action of the verb)
Jofuikiema kuhi vala
jo – fu – iki – ema
kuhi
vala
sub
nclass3
man
spider
obj
nclass4
dissim
see
perfective
“The raccoon has seen the spider”
44
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (aspect and validation markers)
Another suffix kala is encountered in the same position as jis/ema at the end of the verb. This suffix
is more of a mood than an aspect marker. It is used in the second person as an abrupt imperative
marker and in the first and third person in utterances conveying religious devotion or dutiful
obedience (referred to as the reverent mood).
eg
(kala used in the second person as an abrupt imperative
- see section below on the imperative mood for more on imperatives)
Atutenijokala
atu – te – nijo –
sub
2nd
Pers
Sing
obj
nclass2
go
kala
imperative
mood
“Go away !”
45
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (aspect and validation markers)
(Kala used in the third person conveying religious devotion – reverent mood)
Pifapaweskala
Pi – fa –
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass8
qasa
pawes –
praise
Paku
faemem
kala
qasa
Paku
reverent
mood
warrior
Sun God
“The warrior praises Paku (the Sun God)”
Volition and Non-Volition Markers on the Verb;
dasi and mafa
The verbal prefixes dasi and mafa convey volition and non-volition respectively and are employed
in a range of contexts.
Dasi (volitional) is often incorporated into passives where the agent is not animate (usually it is
expressed as an instrument) but there is animate (usually human) agency behind the action.
dasi is not generally used in standard clauses as volition is inherent in the action of the verb. In such
cases to include the dasi prefix emphasizes the sense of purposeful intention on the part of the
subject towards the action of the verb.
46
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (volition and non volition markers)
eg
(typical use of dasi in a passive where there is human/animate agency behind the action but the
agent is expressed explicitly as an instrument - see section on the passive voice for more on how
passives work in Latropeth).
Adetajedasilamejis
ade
Ade - taje
- lame - jis
sub
nclass5
- dasi
emem
dynamic
volition
cut
passive (animate agency
behind action
of verb )
quwe
general
ade
vegetables
emem quwe
agent
sharp stone
“The vegetables are being cut with a sharp stone”
47
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (volition and non volition markers)
(use of dasi in a standard clause emphasizing the sense of purposeful intention on the part of the subject towards
the action of the verb)
Pinidasifoqijis qasa
jemo
Pi – ni - dasi - foqi – jis
qasa
jemo
sub
nclass3
hunter
spear
obj
nclass6
volition
throw
general
“The hunter threw the spear stridently/forcefully etc”
48
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (volition and non volition markers)
Use of mafa (non volitional) is flexible as a grammatical prefix but it is also specifically
incorporated into some verb forms as a derivational prefix.
eg
(basic clause without mafa)
Pidafosenijolamjis
Pi – da sub
nclass3
obj
nclass1
tike
niju
fosenijolam - jis
make-go-out
general
tike
niju
mother
water
“Mother poured out the water”
49
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (volition and non volition markers)
(clause with mafa used as a grammatical prefix)
Pidamafafosenijolamjis
Pi – da -
mafa
sub
obj
nclass3 nclass1
non-volitional
tike niju
- fosenijolam - jis
make-go-out
general
tike
niju
mother
water
“Mother poured out the water unintentionally”
“Mother spilt the water”
(verb forms incorporating mafa as a derivational prefix)
mafapuhijis - “fall down from”
mafanijojis - “go the wrong way / become lost”
50
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (volition and non volition markers)
eg
Amutemafapuhijis
lam damu
Amu - te - mafapuhi - jis
lam
sub
general
from
te - mafanijo - jis
fawo
obj
nclass2
1st
fall
damu
tree
pers
sing
“I fell from the tree”
Jotemafanijojis fawo
Jo
sub
nclass4
-
obj
nclass2
become lost
general
fox
“The fox became lost”
51
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (the irrealis marker lasa)
The Irrealis Marker lasa on the Verb
Used as a basic verb lasa expresses a desire for something and is equivalent to English want. As a
grammatical device lasa is used in a range of irrealis (subjunctive) contexts where the proposition
expressed is not a direct reality but relates to a future or hypothetical event, an intention, a
conditional, an intended purpose etc.
eg
(as a basic verb)
Joadelasajis
qose
rusu
vahes
Jo – ade - lasa – jis
qose
rusu
vahes
sub
nclass4
squirrel
acorn
that
obj
nclass5
want
general
“The squirrel wants that acorn”
52
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (the irrealis marker lasa)
(as the grammatical irrealis verb prefix expressing a
future event)
pijolasaikijis
paqa
vimu
pi – jo – lasa -
iki – jis
sub
nclass3
see
obj
nclass4
irrealis
paqa
general
man
vimu
spider
“The man will see the spider”
(expressing intention)
pitelasanijojis punim nasu paqaba
pi – te –
lasa - nijo – jis
sub
nclass3
irrealis
obj
nclass2
go
punim
general
front
nasu
paqaba
river
they all
“They (all) intend to go to the river”
53
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (the irrealis marker lasa)
(expressing intended purpose)
Pinifoqijis tuja foseemakaqu bowa vahe luwa niju,
Pijolasafoseemajis fiqu
pi – ni – foqi
sub
nclass3
obj
throw/cast
nclass6
– jis
tuja
general
luwa
niju, pi - jo - lasa
in
(liquid)
water
sub
obj
nclass3 nclass4
irrealis
father
foseemakaqu bowa vahes
fish trap
movement
away from speaker
- foseema - jis
catch/trap
general
fiqu
fish
“Father cast the fishing net into the water to catch a fish”
54
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (expressing existence with fonajis)
Expressing Existence; The static verbform fonajis
To express the existence of something the invariable verbform fonajis is used. This is the equivalent
to the English there is/there are;
eg
fonajis bowa tayam xaki
fonajis
“there exists”
bowa tajam
here
xaki
frog
“There is a frog here”
55
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (verbal adjectives - participles)
Verbal Adjectives (Participles)
Participles are formed by placing the verb root after the noun as
an attributive with the verb morphology removed but with a noun class cross-reference prefix
attached to agree with the noun being qualified as with a typical adjective used attributively;
eg
nojem joluvi
nojem
deer
jo
-
nclass4
noun
agreement
luvi
die
“The dying deer”
participle formed from the verb luvijis “die”
56
Parts of Speech- Verbs continued (verbal adverbs - gerunds)
Verbal Adverbs (Gerunds)
Gerunds are formed with emem used as a conjunction and the gerund following in the form of a full
clause
eg
Pitenijopasomjis
pi –
te -
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass2
emem
introducing
gerund
pipala qasa
nijopasom –
return
emem pimurahujis
jis
pipala
qasa
general
camp
warrior
pimurahujis
shout
“The warrior returned to the camp shouting”
57
6) Parts of Speech - Adjectives
Adjectives in the predicate can be considered stative verbs as they take full verb morphology. Used
attributively they take only a noun class prefix (from the same set of 8 prefixes used on the verb)
which cross references the noun being qualified. In Latropeth adjectives follow the noun.
eg
(adjectives used attributively)
Joadelasajis
qose
rusu
adepaja
Jo – ade - lasa – jis
qose
rusu
sub
nclass4
squirrel
acorn
obj
nclass5
want
general
ade
-
nclass5
noun
agreement
paja
big
“The squirrel wants the big acorn”
58
Parts of Speech- Adjectives continued (basic rules)
Multiple adjectives used attributively in a chain describing a noun are not all declined with a noun
class agreement prefix, rather the first and the last adjectives in the chain only are prefixed
eg
Joadetowejis kede jopaja xuka jolesam sa
Joadetowejis
verb form - “eat”
not elaborated here
kede
bear
jo - paja
nclass4 big/large
noun
agreement
xuka
fat
jo - lesam
nclass4
brown
noun
agreement
sa
apple
“The large fat brown bear eats the apple”
59
Parts of Speech- Adjectives continued (basic rules)
(adjectives in the predicate)
Dapajajis
Da - paja
sub
nclass1
big
pubu
– jis
general
pubu
shoe
“The shoe is big”
Jokawujis fawo
Jo - kawu – jis
sub
nclass4
small
general
fawo
fox
“The fox is small”
60
Parts of Speech- Adjectives continued (basic rules)
Multiple adjectives used in the predicate describing the same noun appear in a linear sequence often
with kala occurring before the last adjective in sequence.
eg
Jopajaxukakalalesamjis kede
Jo
sub
nclass4
-
paja – xuka - kala - lesam big
fat
brown
jis
kede
general
bear
“The bear is big, fat and brown”
61
Parts of Speech- Adjectives continued (comparative and superlative reference)
Comparison of Adjectives (with taje and ku)
and the Superlative (with emem kuma)
Latropeth does not have comparative and superlative adjective forms like English but conveys these
concepts in phrasal constructions;
To convey a concept such as X is smaller than Y (where X and Y are noun phrases) most commonly
the noun phrase reference for comparison Y is preceded with taje + ku and this follows an adjectival
predicate verbform and then the compared noun phrase X which is the subject of the verb follows
this;
eg
Adekawujis taje ku paqa damu
Adekawujis
adjectival predicate
taje ku
reference for comparison
paqa
damu
man
tree
“The tree is smaller than the man”
62
Parts of Speech- Adjectives continued (comparative and superlative reference)
The superlative most is conveyed with emem kuma
(literally “on the mountain”)
eg
Adekawujis emem kuma damu tajam
Adekawujis
emem kuma
adjectival predicate
damu tajam
superlative
tree
this
“This is the smallest tree”
Piikijis toqa damu adekawu emem kuma
Piadeikijis
He sees it
toqa
damu
boy
tree
adekawu
small
emem kuma
superlative
“The boy sees the smallest tree”
63
7) Parts of Speech - Adverbs
Adverbs in Latropeth follow the verb and generally precede the subject and where present direct and
indirect and prepositional objects. Adverbs derived from adjectives have no specific derivational
morphology marking them as adverbs but are marked by their lack of prefixes that would be affixed
to the adjective form.
eg
Pinifoqijis qasa jemo
Pi – ni - foqi – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
throw
nclass6
general
wom
qasa
jemo
fast
hunter
spear
“The hunter threw the spear fast”
(cf. qasa piwom “fast warrior”)
64
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (common set – potential adverb matrix)
Common Adverb Set
A common set of adverbs are extensively and systematically used in Latropeth. These cover among
other things the functions covered in European languages by modal verbs and subordinate
conjunctions. The Common Adverb Set is described here divided into several categories;
The Potential Adverb Matrix (ability/possibility/probability/necessity/obligation)
The most extensive category covers such concepts as English modal verbs can / should / must. The
“potential” adverbs of
Latropeth have four forms based on function/mood; positive, negative, irrealis and interrogative and
each has three degrees; low, neutral and high.
At a higher level the “potential” adverb set can be categorized into possibility of action, probability
of action and necessity/obligation of action with reference to aptitude/morality/external
circumstances/personal actuation and situational practicality. The forms are presented in the below
matrices;
65
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (common set – potential adverb matrix)
1) Possibility
Mood/Function
Positive
Negative
Low
Neutral
High
dasakawu
dasa
dasapaja
Morality
Low
Neutral
High
pahusukawu mawpahusukawu
pahas
mawpahas
pahusupaja mawpahusupaja
lasupahusukawu
lasupahas
lasupahusupaja
kalupahusukawu
kalapahas
kalupahusupaja
External
Circumstances
Low
Neutral
High
tisekawu
tise
tisepaja
mawtisekawu
mawtise
mawtisepaja
lasutisekawu
lasutise
lasutisepaja
kalutisekawu
kalutise
kalutisepaja
Personal
Actuation
Low
Neutral
High
mutakawu
muta
mutapaja
mawmutakawu
mawmuta
mawmutapaja
lasumutakawu
lasumuta
lasumutapaja
kalumutakawu
kalumuta
kalumutapaja
kujakawa
kuja
kujapaja
mawkujakawu
mawkuja
mawkujapaja
lasudasakawu
lasudasa
lasudasapaja
Interrogative
Aptitude
Situational Low
Practicality Neutral
High
mawdasakawu
mawdasa
mawdasapaja
Irrealis
lasukujakawu
lasukuja
lasukujapaja
kaludasakawu
kaludasa
kaludasapaja
kalukujakawu
kalukuja
kalukujapaja
66
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (common set – potential adverb matrix)
2) Probability
Mood/Function
Positive
Negative
Irrealis
Aptitude Low
Neutral
High
akukawu
aku
akupaja
mawakukawu
mawaku
mawakupaja
Morality Low
Neutral
High
latukawu
latu
latupaja
mawlatukawu
mawlatu
mawlatupaja
External Low
Circum- Neutral
stances High
ikikawu
iki
ikipaja
mawikikawu
mawiki
mawikipaja
Personal Low
Actuation Neutral
High
xamekawu
xame
xamepaja
mawxamekawu lasuxamekawu kaluxamekawu
mawxame
lasuxame
kaluxame
mawxamepaja
lasuxamepaja
kaluxamepaja
Situational Low
wesukawu
Practicality Neutral wesu
High
wesupaja
mawesakawu
mawesa
mawesapaja
lasuakukawu
lasuaku
lasuakupaja
Interrogative
lasulatukawi
lasulatu
lasulatupaja
lasuikikawu
lasuiki
lasuikipaja
lasuwesakawu
lasuwesa
lasuwesapaja
kaluakukawu
kaluaku
kaluakupaja
kalulatukawu
kalulatu
kalulatupaja
kaluikikawu
kaluiki
kaluikipaja
kaluwesakawu
kaluwesa
kaluwesapaja
67
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (common set – potential adverb matrix)
3) Necessity / Obligation
Mood/Function
Positive
Aptitude
Low
Neutral
High
kupakawu
kupa
kupapaja
Morality
Low
Neutral
High
wuvekawu
wuve
wuvepaja
External
Circumtances
Low
Neutral
High
Personal
Actuation
Situational
Practicality
bahukawu
bahu
bahupaja
Low
lavukawu
Neutral lavu
High
lavupaja
Low
wutakawa
Neutral wuta
High
wutapaja
Negative
Irrealis
Interrogative
mawkupakawu
mawkupa
mawkupapaja
lasukupakawu
lasukupa
lasukupapaja
kalukupakawu
kalukupa
kalukupapaja
mawuvekawu
mawuve
mawuvepaja
lasuwuvekawu kaluwuvekawu
lasuwuve
kaluwuve
lasuwuvepaja
kaluwuvepaja
mawbahukawu
mawbahu
mawbahupaja
lasubahukawu
lasubahu
lasubahupaja
kalubahukawu
kalubahu
kalubahupaja
mawlavukawu
mawlavu
mawlavupaja
lasulavukawu
lasulavu
lasulavupaja
kalulavukawu
kalulavu
kalulavupaja
mawutakawu
mawuta
mawutapaja
lasuwutakawu
lasuwuta
lasuwutapaja
kaluwutakawu
kaluwuta
kaluwutapaja
68
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (common set – potential adverb matrix)
eg
(mawdasa – possibility/aptitude/neutral degree/negative)
Pitemedajis mawdasa qasa tayam xiha
Pi – te – meda – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass2
build
general
mawdasa
poss/apt/neudeg/neg
qasa
warrior
tajam xiha
this
hut
“This warrior is not able to build a hut”
“This warrior can’t build a hut”
(pahusukawu – possibility/morality/low degree/positive)
Pifosujapijis pahusukawu paqa tiwu
Pi – fo – suja – pi sub
obj
nclass3 nclass7
tell
jis
pahusukawu
indir.obj general poss/mor/lowdegr/pos
nclass3
paqa
tiwu
man
friend
“Morally speaking the man would be able to at least to some extent tell his friend”
“This man could to some extent tell his friend”
69
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (common set – potential adverb matrix)
(tisepaja – possibility/external circumstances/high degree/positive)
Pitenijojis tisepaja
kusu
Pi – te – nijo - jis
sub
obj
nclass3 nclass2
go
general
punim
nasu
tisepaja
kusu
poss/ext.circ./highdegr/pos
punim
girl
front
nasu
river
“Things are such that the girl could definitely go to the river”
(lasukuja – possibility/situational practicality/neutral degree/irrealis - in this example irrealis due to
future reference)
Piniukijis lasukuja
Pi – ni – uki - jis
sub
obj
find
nclass3 nclass6
general
nilim
jemo
lasukuja
poss/sit.prac./neudegr/irr girl
nilim
jemo
boy
spear
“From a practical viewpoint the boy will be able to find the spear”
70
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (common set – potential adverb matrix)
(mawlatupaja – probability/morality/high degree/negative)
Pifuposajis mawlatupaja qasa kala paqa piajus
Pi – fu – posa – jis mawlatupaja qasa kala paqa pi - ajus
sub
obj
hit /strike general prob/mor/highdeg/neg warrior animate
nclass3 nclass3
direct
dissm
object
man nclass3 sick
noun
agreement
“On moral grounds this warrior is certainly not going to strike the sick man”
(kaluxamekawu – probability/personal actuation/low degree/interrogative )
Joadefojejis kaluxamekawu qoso adesawu
Jo – ade – foje
sub
obj
fetch/take
nclass4 nclass5
- jis
general
kaluxamekawu
qoso
prob/pers.act./lowdegr/interr
squirrel
adesawu
food
“Is there a small chance that the squirrel could take the food?
71
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (common set – potential adverb matrix)
(kupa – obligation/aptitude/neutral degree/positive )
Atufofosejis kupa
Atu – fo – fose - jis
sub
2nd
Pers
Sing
obj
nclass7
do
general
kupa
oblig/aptitude/neudegr/positive
“You must/need to do this as you can”
(mawuvepaja – obligation/morality/high degree/negative)
Pifumifojis
mawuvepaja
Pi – fu – mifo - jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass3
dissim
help
general
tuji
sa tiwu
mawuvepaja
oblig/morality/highdegr/negative
paqa
man
satiwu
enemy
“Morally the man must certainly not assist his enemy”
72
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clause relational adverbs)
Clause Relational Adverbs
Clause relational adverbs in Latropeth cover the work of subordinate conjunctions in European
languages but are classified as adverbs morpho-syntactically. They convey a relationship between
the present clause in which they sit and an adjacent clause in a complex sentence.
The main clause relations conveyed are causal, concessive, conditional, temporal and spatial. The
first three are straight forward in use. The latter two are part of a related system of forms derived
from the set of Latropeth demonstrative pronouns.
Two Clauses with Causal Relationship
Causal relationships are conveyed with nijo kaju
The causal component is conveyed in the second clause.
73
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clause relational adverbs)
eg
Joajusjis nojem , joadepuwejis nijo kaju niju adexele
Jo – ajus – jis
sub
sick
nclass4
general
nijo kaju
niju
causal clause rel
adverb
water
nojem,
deer
ade
jo
sub
nclass4
-
-
ade - puwe
obj
nclass5
drink
- jis
general
xele
nclass5
bitter/spoilt
noun agreement
“The deer is sick because it drank some bad water”
74
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clause relational adverbs)
Two Clauses with Concessive Relationship
Concessive clause relationships are conveyed with mawikala
eg
Joadepuwejis nojem niju adexele, jomawajusjis mawikala
Jo
-
sub
nclass4
jo
ade - puwe
obj
nclass5
– maw -
sub
nclass4
negation
drink
- jis
general
ajus – jis
sick
general
nojem
deer
niju
water
ade
-
xele,
nclass5
bitter/spoilt
noun
agreement
mawikala
concessive
“The deer drank some bad water but it is not sick”
“Although the deer drank bad water, it is not sick”
75
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clause relational adverbs)
Two Clauses with Conditional Relationship
Conditional clause relationships are conveyed with
(pewi) kawi /( pewi) xosu (literally “right hand” / “left hand” )
The clause containing (pewi) kawi conveys the condition that determines the outcome conveyed by
the clause containing (pewi) xosu. The verb form in the clause with pewi (xosu) often incorporates
the irrealis prefix lasa as in the
eg
Joadepuwejis pewi kawi nojem
jolasaajusjis pewi xosu
Jo
-
sub
nclass4
ade - puwe
obj
nclass5
drink
niju ade - xele,
water
- jis
general
pewi
niju adexele,
kawi
hand
right
deer
( = determiner of outcome )
jo – lasa - ajus – jis
nclass5 bitter/spoilt sub irrealis
noun
nclass4
agreement
nojem
sick
general
pewi
xosu
hand
left
(=outcome)
“If the deer drinks the bad water, it will be sick”
76
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clause relational adverbs)
Clauses with Temporal/Spatial Relationship
Temporal and Spatial clause relationship adverbs are formed with baho - “time” and bowa - “place”
affixed to demonstrative pronoun forms. The below grid shows the forms;
Demonstrative
Pronoun
Temporal
Clause Relation
Spatial
Clause Relation
Base
Adverb
Adverb
bava “that”
bahobava “after some time” bowabava “well further on from”
(distant)
bese “that”
bahobese “after/later”
bowabese “further on from”
(over there)
vahes “that”
baho vahes “straight after” bowavahes “just ahead of/after”
tajam “this”
baho tajam “now”
bowa tajam “at the
same place where”
bowamaju “just behind”
“that”
bahomaju “just
(behind/unseen)
before”
lekam “that back there” baho lekam “before” bowa lekam “further back
(behind/unseen)
from”
jeva
“that”
bahojeva “some time before”
bowajeva “well
(far back/unseen”)
further back
from”
maju
77
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clause relational adverbs)
eg
(temporal clause relational adverbs)
Pitenijojis punim nasu tuji, pitenijopasomjis baho lekam pipala
Pi – te – nijo – jis
sub
nclass3
pi
obj
nclass2
– te
sub
nclass3
go
punim nasu tuji
general
front
– nijopasom - jis
obj
nclass2
return
river
woman
baho lekam pipala
general
before
camp
“The woman went to the river before she returned to the camp”
Pijotowejis paqa mawu qoso , pijofosenamjis baho vahes
Pi – jo – towe – jis
paqa mawu qoso,
sub
nclass3
pi
obj
nclass4
– jo
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass4
eat
general
– fosenam - jis
cook
general
man
meat
squirrel
baho vahes
straight after
“The man ate the squirrel meat straight after he cooked it”
78
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clause relational adverbs)
(spatial clause relational adverbs)
Pijoukijis toqa boje, pijoikijis bowabava
Pi – jo – uki – jis
sub
nclass3
pi –
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass4
find
general
jo – iki – jis
obj
nclass4
see
general
toqa
boy
boje,
cougar/mountain cat
bowa bava
well further on from
“The boy found the cougar well further on from where he had seen it ”
Pitemafabikajis
kusu, jowijis bowa tajam emem tije nojem
Pi – te – mafabika – jis
sub
nclass3
Jo –
obj
nclass4
obj
nclass
fall (over)
wi – jis
sit
general
general
bowa tajam
at the same place
kusu ,
girl
emem tije
on
grass
nojem
deer
“The girl fell over in the (same) place where the deer were sitting in the grass ”
79
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clause relational adverbs)
Use of taje with Embedded Clauses Governed by a Verb
Where an embedded clause is governed by the verb itself Latropeth uses the clause relational adverb
taje. In the example below the verb sujejis “tell” often governs an embedded clause as it does in
English;
Pifosujepijis paqa ema tiwu, adetemafanijoposabowajis taje damu
Pi –
fo – suje –
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass7
ade
sub
nclass5
– te
obj
nclass2
tell
pi
indirect
obj
nclass3
-
jis
general
paqa
ema
tiwu,
man
indirect
object
to follow
friend
– mafanijoposabowa - jis
fall (crash to ground)
general
taje
clause
relational
adverb
damu
tree
“The man told his friend that the tree fell (crashed to the ground).”
80
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (further adverbs from the common set)
Further Adverbs of the Common Adverb Set;
degree/importance/positive and negative emphasis
paju – to a great extent/excessive/to a sufficient extent
jimu– positive emphasis
mawa – negative emphasis
kawe – importance
xiwu – unimportance / inconsequentiality / negligibility
eg
Piamubaukijis jimu paqaba
Pi – amuba – uki – jis
jimu
paqaba
sub
nclass3
positive
emphasis
man(all)
obj
1st
Pers
Plur
find
general
“They all found us which is good ”
81
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (further adverbs from the common set)
Piadetowejis payu
toqa kuhu nojem
Pi – ade – puwe – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass5
drink
general
toqa
boy
paju
excessive/
sufficient
kuhu
blood
nojem
deer
(depending on the context)
“The boy drank too much deer blood ”
“The boy drank/has drunk enough deer blood ”
habituality/aspect/context of action
pasu – generic / habitual
pawa – no longer/change of situation
lamexuka – imminent action “about to”
foje – progressive/continuous “keep on doing”
fojeposa – iterative “keep doing again and again”
nija - reflexive
82
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (further adverbs from the common set)
eg
Joadepuwejis pawa
nojem
niju
Jo
- jis
pawa
nojem
niju
no longer
deer
water
-
sub
nclass4
ade - puwe
obj
nclass5
drink
general
“The deer is no longer drinking the water”
“The deer has stopped drinking the water”
emotion /hortation/detachment/ skepticism
pewa – hortation /encouragement
towa – disbelief or skepticism on the part of the speaker
muiki – reported speech /relaying from other source
fama – fear or trepidation
nisa – amazement
saqi – misfortune; “unfortunate”
mafa – in vein
83
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (further adverbs from the common set)
eg
Piamubajalejis fama paqaba
Pi – amuba – jale – jis
fama
sub
nclass3
fear
trepidation
obj
1st
Pers
Plur
hear
general
paqaba
man(all)
“They all hear us I fear ”
Amubakalatuadetowejis pewa adesawu
Amubakalatu – ade – towe – jis
pewa
sub
1st
Pers
Plur
incl
hortative
obj
nclass5
eat
general
adesawu
food
“Let’s eat (some food) ”
84
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (further adverbs from the common set)
Footnote: Alternatively pewa often appears as a prefix pewa-/pew- on the verb complex which is
often reduced in informal spoken discourse to wa-/w- . Both of these variations are illustrated here;
Pewamubakalatuadetowejis adewsawu
Wamubakalatuadetowejis adesawu
“Let’s eat (some food) ”
Common Prounoun + Verb Nucleus Adverbs
In conversational Latropth a set of adverbs with a form based on a personal pronoun + verb nucleus
are commonly used. These forms can also be used in isolation based on the context;
Structure
pronoun + iki
Form
(eg amuiki , atuiki)
Meaning
“belief/uncertainty”
used in a similar
fashion to
I think/think so in
conversational English
85
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (pronoun + verb nucleus adverbs)
Structure
Form
Meaning
pronoun + qoja (eg amuqoja, atuqoja) “agreement/approval”
pronoun + lasa (eg amulasa, atulasa)
“want/desire”
pronoun + kala
“additional”
(eg amukala, atukala)
Footnote:atuqoja is also incorporated in constructions conveying politeness. See section on the
imperative mood further below
eg
Pitenijojis amuiki nijo punim nasu
pi – te – nijo – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass2
go
general
amuiki
belief/uncertainty
nijo
movement
punim
face
nasu
river
“I think he/she went to the river”
86
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (pronoun + verb nucleus adverbs)
Jotenijojis amulasa nijo punim nasu nojem
Jo – te – nijo – jis
sub
obj
go
nclass4 nclass2
general
amulasa
nijo
want
movement
punim nasu nojem
face
river
deer
“I want the deer to go to the river ”
(use in isolation)
Amuiki
“I think so ”
Atukala
“you too/you as well”
87
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (pronoun + verb nucleus adverbs)
Interrogative Forms of Pronoun + Verb Nucleus Adverbs
All these adverb forms have equivalent interrogative forms with the prefix kal(a)-;
kal(a) + pronoun + iki (eg kalatuiki)
kal (a) + pronoun + qoja (eg kalatuqoja)
kal (a) + pronoun + lasa (eg kalatulasa)
Kal (a) + pronoun + kala (eg kalatukala)
eg
Pitenijojis kalatuiki nijo punim nasu ?
pi – te – nijo – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass2
go
general
kalatuiki
belief/uncertainty
interrogative form
nijo
punim
nasu
movement
face
river
“Do you think that he/she went to the river”
88
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clarifying ambiguous meanings with kutaje)
Clarifying Ambiguous Meaning with kutaje
Where sentences have adverbial components or are otherwise complex ambiguity can arise;
eg
Pifaikijis tumi paku tuji nos
pi – fa – iki – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass8
see
general
tumi paku
outside
tuji
nos
woman
rain
“The woman sees the rain outside”
This can be interpreted as the woman being inside seeing the rain outside or as the woman outside
seeing the rain. Association to the adverbial can be shown in these cases with the use of the special
preposition kutaje preceding the relevant noun;
89
Parts of Speech- Adverbs continued (clarifying ambiguous meanings with kutaje)
eg
Pifaikijis tumi paku kutaje tuji nos
pi – fa – iki – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass8
see
general
tumi paku
kutaje
tuji
nos
outside
association
to adverbial
woman
rain
nos
“The woman outside sees the rain”
cf.
Pifaikijis tumi paku tuji kutaje nos
pi – fa – iki – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass8
see
general
tumi paku
tuji
kutaje
outside
woman
association
to adverbial
rain
“The woman sees the rain (which is) outside”
90
8) Parts of Speech – Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers
Personal Pronominal Verb Prefixes
Personal pronouns appear as verb prefixes in Latropeth. These prefixes cross reference the relevant
persons and like noun class prefixes appear in positions relevant to each other which depend on
whether the protagonist is subject, object or indirect object.
Where there is a subject and object but no indirect object present in the clause the prefix order is
subject – object (as with noun class verbal prefixes).
When an indirect object is present all three prefixes for subject, direct object and indirect object
appear together preceding the verb root and in the order subject – indirect object – object .
As noted earlier this is different to the order of verb affixes where full noun forms are present in the
clause in which case the indirect object affix is placed after the verb nucleus.
There are only specific forms for first and second person pronouns. For the third person the relevant
noun class prefix is used depending on the noun class of the corresponding noun.
First person plural includes both an inclusive (“we all”) form and a non inclusive (“we not including
you”) form though increasingly in spoken Latropeth the morphologically simpler non inclusive form
is being used to cover both;
91
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (pronouns)
First person
singular
Amu(-)
plural inclusive
Amubakalatu(-)
plural non inclusive Amuba(-)
Second person
singular
plural
Atu
Atuba
eg
Amujoikijis qoso
Amu – jo – iki – jis
qoso
sub
1st
Pers
Sing
squirrel
obj
nclass4
see
general
“I see the squirrel”
92
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (pronouns/compound forms)
Joamuikijis
qoso
Jo – amu
– iki – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
1st
Pers
Sing
see
general
qoso
squirrel
“The squirrel sees me”
Compound Personal Pronoun Prefixes
When two personal pronominal verb prefixes are combined together (as would occur for example
where both the subject and object or the subject and indirect object where there is one are both
personal pronouns) then a special compound form is used. In a clause where subject, direct object
and indirect object are all personal pronoun prefixes the third prefix (for the direct object) is
unaltered;
Amatu -
Subject is first person singular and object/indirect
object is second person singular.
* Amuatu is ungrammatical
93
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (pronouns/compound forms)
Atamu-
Subject is second person singular and object/indirect
object is first person singular.
* Atuamu is ungrammatical
Amatuba- Subject is first person singular and object/indirect
object is second person plural.
* Amuatuba is ungrammatical
Atamuba- Subject is second person singular and object/indirect
object is first person plural exclusive (us not including you)
*Atuamuba is ungrammatical.
Atamukatu- Subject is second person singular and object /
indirect object is first person plural inclusive (we including you)
*Atuamubakalatu- is ungrammatical
Amubatu- Subject is first person plural exclusive (we not including you) and object/indirect object
.
is second person singular
* Amubaatu is ungrammatical
94
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (pronouns/compound forms)
Amububa- Subject is first person plural exclusive (we not
including you ) and object/indirect object is second
person plural.
*Amubaatuba is ungrammatical
Amukatu- Subject is first person plural inclusive (we including
you) and object / indirect object is second person
singular.
*Amubakalatuatu is ungrammatical
Amukatuba- Subject is first person plural inclusive (we including
you) and object/indirect object is second person
plural.
*Amubakalatuatuba is ungrammatical
Atubamu-
Subject is second person plural and object/indirect
object is first person singular .
* Atubaamu is ungrammatical
Atububa-
Subject is second person plural and object/indirect
Object is first person plural exclusive
* Atubaamuba is ungrammatical
95
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (pronouns/compound forms)
Atubamukatu- Subject is second person plural and object/indirect
object is first person plural inclusive (us including you)
* Atubaamubakalatu is ungrammatical
eg
Amatuikijis
Amatu
compound
verb prefix
sub 1st pers sing
obj 2nd pers sing
iki
-
see
jis
general
“I see you”
Atamuikijis
Atamu
compound
verb prefix
sub 2nd pers sing
obj 1st pers sing
iki
see
-
jis
general
“You see me”
96
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (pronouns/compound forms)
Atubamuikijis
Atubamu
compound
verb prefix
sub 2nd pers plural
obj 1st pers singular
iki
-
see
jis
general
“You (plural) see me”
Amukatuikijis
Amukatu
compound
verb prefix
sub 1st pers plural (incl)
obj 2nd pers singular
iki
see
-
jis
general
“We (including you) see you”
97
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (pronouns/compound forms)
In the following example there is an indirect object personal pronoun included. The subject –
indirect object – object arrangement noted above is illustrated. In this case the compound form
denotes the combination of subject and indirect object;
Amatufosujejis
Amatu
-
fo
compound
direct object
verb prefix
nclass7
st
sub 1 pers singular
obj 2nd pers singular
(indirect object in this case)
-
suje
tell
-
jis
general
“I tell you it ”
98
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (possessives)
Possessives in Latropeth
Non Pronominal Possessives
Possessives are formed by placing a substantive reference to the possessor directly after the noun
phrase referring to what is possessed or after the noun phrase preceded by the preposition ikis
(usually contracted to ‘kis in informal speech);
eg
adesawu tuji / adesawu ikis tuji
“The woman’s food”
Pronominal Possessives
The personal pronoun prefixes are placed after a noun phrase in isolated form to convey possession.
These can also be preceded by ikis in similar fashion to the non pronominal possessives described
above. As with non possessive use of the personal pronoun forms there is no third person form. For
the third person an explicit noun phrase is required;
99
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (possessives)
eg
Qavu atu
“Your hairpiece” (You singular)
Kesu amuba
“Our bowl” (Us not including you)
Kesu ikis amubakalatu
“Our bowl” (Us including you)
Jemo atuba
“Your spear” (You plural)
Jemo paqa
“The man’s spear”.
100
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (possessives)
Association versus Possession
It is important to note that the above forms convey true possession. When association rather than
possession is being conveyed the preposition ku (literally “beside”) is used.
Ku is also used with verb morphology to convey the equivalent of English to have where association
rather than possession is being conveyed.
Eg
tuja ku amu
“My father”
tuja ku qasa
“The warrior’s father”
(! to say tuja amu or tuja ikis amu implies that you own your father)
101
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (possessives)
(clausal)
Amupikujis nijotise nasu tiwu
Amu – pi – ku –
sub
1st
Pers
Sing
obj
nclass3
association
jis
general
nijotise
across
nasu (kala) tiwu
river
friend
“I have a friend across the river”
Footnote: a phrase with ku is always used when referring to body parts;
Luwa ku amu
“My eye”
*to say luwa amu or luwa ikis amu is not idiomatic Latropeth
102
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (demonstrative pronouns)
Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns are common in Latropeth. There are six demonstrative pronouns
corresponding to six frames of reference relative to the speaker. These were shown above in the
section on temporal and spatial clause relational adverbs which are based on the pronoun forms. The
forms tajam and vahes are especially common and are often used in a similar fashion to the definite
articles of European languages;
bava
“that (distant) “
bese
“that (over there”)
vahes
“that”
tajam “this”
maju
“that (behind/unseen)”
lekam
“that (back there behind/unseen)”
jeva
“that (far back/unseen)”
103
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (demonstrative pronouns)
eg
Adekalapajajis wom damu tajam
Ade
sub
nclass5
- kalapajajis - jis
grow
general
wom
fast
damu tajam
tree
this
“This tree is growing fast”
Numbers
Latropeth has a base 5 numbering system but speakers from this neolithic/pre-state culture rarely
count beyond 20. Numbers beyond 10 can be formed in a predictable way as described further
below. The numbers can be used in isolation as nouns or they can follow and qualify nouns as
determiners.
The numerals up to the base of 5 are formed from the words for the limbs and the head. These repeat
after the base of 5 is reached with qavi or a multiple form of qavi included depending on how many
times the base has been passed while counting upwards.
Ordinals are formed by preceding the numeral with posa.
104
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (numbers)
Latropeth Numerals 1-10 (Cardinal)
Vem “leg”
One
Vemvem “leg leg”
Two
Sejo(vemvem) “arm leg leg”
Three
Sesejo(vemvem) “arm arm leg leg”
Four
Emsesejo(vemvem) “head arm arm leg leg” Five
Qavi Vem
Six
Qavi Vemvem
Seven
Qavi Sejo
Eight
Qavi Sesejo
Nine
Qavi Emsesejo
Ten
105
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (numbers)
Footnotes:
1)for vemvem “two” the first m is silent, the spelling here reflects the historical derivation.
2)from the above it can be seen that sejo “arm” is contracted to se when duplicated in counting.
3)emem “head” is always contracted to em in counting.
4)for the forms 3-5 the vemvem in parenthesis is often omitted in informal speech.
5)for the forms 8-10 vemvem was present historically but is now always omitted.
6)qavi means “cycle” and marks the base of 5 being passed once.
7)numbers beyond 10 can be formed in a predictable way by repetition of qavi for each time the base
of 5 is passed counting upwards and using the same secondary components as follow qavi in 6-10.
Note however that every second repetition of qavi is contracted to qa;
106
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (numbers)
eg
Qaqavi Sesejo
Fourteen
Qaviqaqavi Emsesjo
Twenty
Qaqaviqaqavi Vemvem
Twenty Two
Qaqaviqaqaviqaqaviqaqaviqaqavi Sejo Fifty Three
Forms beyond 20 are increasingly ackward but they are rarely required at the current stage of
neolithic Latropeth culture.
eg
(cardinal numbers qualifying nouns)
Damu sejovemvem
“three trees”
Nasu qaviqaqavi vem
“sixteen rivers”
107
Parts of Speech- Pronouns/Possessives/Numbers continued (numbers)
(ordinal numbers formed with posa)
Baho posa vemvem
“The second time”
Xiha posa qavi vem
“The sixth hut”
108
9) Parts of Speech – Prepositions
Prepositions are a distinct lexical class in Latropeth and are used to specify the spatial/conceptual
relationship between two NPs or between a VP and an NP (forming an adverbial)
Many of the prepositions are derived from terms for body parts as is common in languages generally.
A list of the common prepositions follows;
Preposition
/ Basic Meaning /
(derivation)
Prepositional Meaning
punim
“face”
“in front of/facing/by the edge of”
(conceptual) “in regards to”
emem
“head”
“above/on (a horizontal surface)”
tumi
“foot”
ela
luwa
“stomach/abdomen”
“eye”
“below/under”
“inside/within/in
(a confined structure)
“in (a liquid)”
“by/from” (with respect to source)
109
Parts of Speech- Prepositions continued
ku
xobo
pasam
nijotise
ema
“side/flank”
“back”
“enclosure/perimeter”
“go + trail”
“stop”
“next to/beside/on (a vertical surface)”
“behind”
“around/surrounding”
“across”( often combined with emem)
“up to/as far as”
(conceptual) “by X time”
ikis
“attract/lure”
“towards”
lam
“eject/excrete”
“away from”
kijeluwa
wuhi
“point” + “eye”
“person”
“between”
(commutative) “with (a person)”
110
Parts of Speech- Prepositions continued
eg
Amujodasiikijis punim damu qoso
Amu – jo
Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
– dasiiki - jis
Obj
nclass4
watch
punim
general
in front of
damu
tree
qoso
squirrel
“I watch the squirrel in front of the tree ”
Piwijis ku damu paqa
Pi –
Sub
nclass3
wi - jis
sit
general
ku
beside
damu
paqa
tree
man
“The man sits beside/by the tree”
111
Parts of Speech- Prepositions continued
Pitebaqinijujis nijotise (emem) nasu kusu
Pi
– te - baqiniju - jis
Sub
nclass3
obj
nclass2
swim
nijotise (emem) nasu kusu
general
across
river
girl
“The girl swims across the river”
Prepositional forms can also appear as a verb nucleus to form a predicate that conveys a location.
eg
Adepunimjis damu
Ade
Sub
nclass5
– punim front
jis
damu
general
tree
“The tree is at the front ”
112
Parts of Speech- Prepositions continued
The relationships conveyed by some common English prepositions are covered by other structures in
Latropeth. In the example below the use of with in English as an instrumental preposition is covered
by a clause in Latropeth with the verb subojis (“use”). This requires a separate clause;
eg
Pijoposaluvijis paqa nojem, Pinisubojis jemo
pi – jo
– posaluvi - jis
Sub
Obj
nclass3 nclass4
pi – ni
kill
general
– subo - jis
Sub
Obj
nclass3 nclass6
use
general
paqa
man
nojem,
deer
jemo
spear
“The man killed the deer with a spear ”
113
10) Passive Voice
There are three types of passive voice in Latropeth with each conveyed by specific verb prefixes;
1)The perfective / stative passive (the book is sold out) is indicated with puha
2)The dynamic passive (the book is being sold) is indicated with taje
3)The inceptive passive (The book begins to be sold) is indicated with posa.
The passive is very flexible in Latropeth where objects , indirect objects, obliques and locatives can
all be passivised , making up for a lack of flexibility in Latropeth relative clause formation.
When the subject of the passive is derived from a syntactic argument which is not the direct object
in the equivalent non passive clause there is also a specific verb suffix incorporated (see the
examples below). The agent of the passive when expressed occurs in a prepositional phrase
introduced with emem.
114
Passive Voice continued
eg
(agentless dynamic passive - direct object passivised)
Jotajetowejis jomawu
jo – taje - towe – jis
jo-mawu
sub
nclass4
(animal) meat
dynamic
passive
eat
general
“The meat is being eaten”
(perfective/stative passive with agent – direct object passivized)
Jopuhatowejis jomawu emem qasa
jo – puha - towe – jis
jo-mawu
emem qasa
sub
nclass4
(animal) meat
agent
stative
passive
eat
general
warrior
“The meat is/has been eaten by the warrior”
115
Passive Voice continued
(agentless inceptive passive – direct object passivized)
Joposatowejis jomawu
jo – posa - towe – jis
jo-mawu
sub
nclass4
(animal) meat
inceptive
passive
eat
general
“The meat starts to be eaten”
(agentless dynamic passive – indirect object passivized )
(! note the suffix ikis following the verb root )
(! the direct object of the equivalent active clause follows the derived subject of the passive clause
and is proceeded with ku )
Jotajemifiikisjis nojem ku sa.
jo – taje sub
nclass4
dynamic
passive
mifi – ikis -
jis
nojem
ku
sa
give
allative
general (animal) meat introduces
apple
reference
direct
used where
object of equivalent
indirect object is passivised
active clause from which
the indirect object was passivized
“The deer is being given the apple”
116
Passive Voice continued
(inceptive passive with agent – oblique passivized )
(! note the suffix subi following the verb root )
(! the direct object of the equivalent active clause follows the derived subject of the passive clause
and is proceeded with ku )
Niposalamesubijis quwe ku fehe emem paqa
Ni - posa – lame - subi sub
nclass6
inceptive
passive
cut
instrumental
reference
jis
general
quwe
sharp stone
ku
fehe
fruit
emem paqa
agent
man
“The sharp stone starts to be cut the fruit with by the man”
(This translates into English awkwardly due to derivation of passive subjects being more restrictive
in English ).
117
Passive Voice continued
(agentless perfective/stative passive – locative passivized )
(! note the suffix emem following the verb root)
Tepuhatoweememjis xiha
Te – puha sub
nclass2
stative
passive
towe – emem eat
locative
reference
jis
xiha
general
house / hut
“The house is now eaten in (has now been eaten in)”
118
11) Interrogative Mood
Polar questions are formed in Latropeth by preceding the equivalent indicative clause with kala.
Non polar questions are formed with kala optionally placed at the beginning of the clause and kala
repeated at the end of the clause along with extra information referring to place / time / manner etc.
which equate to the concepts referred to by English where, when, how etc.
The sentence initial kala is often omitted in non polar interrogatives and as described further below
it is always omitted in non polar embedded interrogatives.
Interrogative Forms in Isolation
(temporal)
kala baho (kala + “time”)
when ?
(locative)
kala bowa (kala + “place”)
where ?
(motion away from speaker)
kala nijo bowa (kala + “go” + “place”)
(motion towards speaker)
kala lam bowa (kala + “from” + “place”)
where to ?
where from ?
119
Interrogative Mood continued
(substantive)
kala fojo
(kala + “thing”)
(progressive)
kala nijo
(kala + “go”)
(causative)
Kala nijo kaju
(manner)
kala feju
what (thing?)
what (event/action?)
(kala + “go” + “start/initiate”)
(kala + “colour/detail”)
why ?
how/in what way ?
(means)
kala iki fose (kala + “see” + “do”)
how/by what means ?
(specification)
kala + X (where X is a noun/NP)
which ?
(degree)
kala paju (+ X)
(where X is an predicate adjective) how + adjective ?
(where X is an adverbial)
to what degree ?
120
Interrogative Mood continued
eg
(polar interrogative)
Kala jofuikijis kumu vala ?
Kala
jo – fu – iki – jis
Interrog
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass4
dissim
see
kumu
general
vala ?
fly
spider
“Does / Did the fly see the spider?”
(temporal interrogative – kala baho - “when?”)
(Kala) jofuiikijis kumu vala kala baho?
(Kala)
Interrog
jo – fu – iki – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass4
dissim
see
general
kumu vala
fly
spider
kala baho ?
interrog
time
“When did the fly see the spider?”
121
Interrogative Mood continued
(locative interrogative - kala bowa – “where ?”)
(Kala) jofuikijis kumu vala kala bowa ?
(Kala)
Interrog
jo – fu – iki – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass4
dissim
see
general
kumu
vala
kala bowa
fly
spider
interrog
place
“Where did the fly see the spider?”
(motion away from speaker interrogative
-kala nijo bowa – “where to ?”)
(Kala) jotebaqijis kumu kala nijo bowa ?
(Kala)
Interrog
jo – te – baqi – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass2
fly
general
kumu
fly
kala
interrog
nijo bowa
to
place
“Where is the fly flying to?”
122
Interrogative Mood continued
(motion towards the speaker interrogative
-kala lam bowa- “where from?”)
(Kala) jotebaqijis kumu kala lam bowa ?
(Kala)
Interrog
jo – te – baqi – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass2
fly
kumu
kala
fly
interrog
general
lam bowa
from
place
“Where is the fly flying from?”
(substantive interrogative – kala fojo – “what thing ?”)
(Kala) jofoikijis kumu kala fojo ?
(Kala)
Interrog
jo – fo – iki – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass7
see
general
kumu
fly
kala fojo ?
interrog
thing
“What did the fly see?”
123
Interrogative Mood continued
(progressive interrogative – kala nijo – “what action/event ?)
(Kala) jofosejis kumu kala nijo ?
(Kala)
Interrog
jo – fose – jis
sub
nclass4
do
general
kumu
kala
fly
interrog
nijo ?
action
“What is the fly doing?”
(causative interrogative - kala (nijo) kaju- “why?”)
Kalatu/atufofosejis tajam kala nijo kaju ?
Kalatu/atu – fo – fose – jis
Interrog
sub
2st
Pers
Sing
obj
nclass7
do
general
tajam
kala nijo kaju ?
this
interrog causative
“Why did you do this/that?”
124
Interrogative Mood continued
(manner interrogative – kala feju - “how ?”)
Kala jobaqijis kumu kala feju ?
Kala – jo – te – baqi – jis kumu
Interrog
sub
obj
nclass4 nclass2
fly
general
fly
kala
feju ?
interrog manner/demeanour
“How/in what way is the fly flying?”
(means interrogative – kala iki fose - “how ?”)
Kala joadeukijis kumu adesawu kala iki fose ?
Kala
Interrog
jo – ade - uki – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
find
nclass5
general
kumu adesawu kala iki
fly
food
fose ?
interrog means
“How/by what means did the fly find the food?”
125
Interrogative Mood continued
(specification interrogative – kala X - “which ?”)
where X refers to the noun/NP
Kala joadeukiema kumu adesawu kala kumu ?
Kala
Interrog
jo – ade - uki – ema kumu adesawu kala kumu ?
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass5
find
perfective
fly
food
interrog
specification
fly
“Which fly has found the food?”
126
Interrogative Mood continued
(interrogative of degree)
kala paju (with a predicate adjective / stative verb in the clause)
OR
kala paju+X
(with a general verb in the clause
and where X is an adverbial)
Kala jopajajis kumu vahes kala paju ?
Kala – jo – paja – jis
Interrog
sub
nclass4
big
general
kumu vahes
fly
that
kala
paju ?
interrog
degree
“How big is that fly?”
127
Interrogative Mood continued
Kala joadetowejis nojem kala paju wom ?
Kala – jo – ade – towe – jis
Interrog
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass5
eat
nojem
general
deer
kala
interrog
paju wom ?
degree
fast
“How fast is the deer eating ?”
Where kala is used at the beginning of the interrogative clause and there are personal pronoun single
or combined prefixes on the verb the final - a of kala is dropped and kal is prefixed directly onto the
verb complex.
eg
(kala + atu > kalatu)
Kalatufofosejis tajam kala nijo kaju ?
Kalatu
Interrog + sub
2st
Pers
Sing
–
fo – fose – jis
obj
nclass7
do
general
tajam kala nijo kaju ?
this
interrog causative
“Why did you do this/that?”
128
Interrogative Mood continued
Interrogatives involving Potential Adverbs and Pronoun+Verb Nucleus
Adverbs
Potential adverbs (see the potential adverb set above) and pronoun + verb nucleus adverbs (see
above) have their own interrogative forms which are simply substituted in the clause for their non
interrogative equivalent to convert them to interrogative mood.
eg
(interrogative potential adverb)
Joadefojejis kaluxamekawu qoso adesawu
Jo – ade – foje
sub
obj
fetch/take
nclass4 nclass5
- jis
general
kaluxamekawu
prob/pers.act./lowdegr/interr
qoso
squirrel
adesawu
food
“Is there a small chance that the squirrel could take the food?
129
Interrogative Mood continued
(interrogative pronoun+verb nucleus adverb)
Pitenijojis kalatuiki nijo punim nasu ?
pi – te – nijo – jis
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass2
go
general
kalatuiki
belief/uncertainty
interrogative form
nijo
movement
punim
nasu
face
river
“Do you think that he/she went to the river”
Embedded Interrogatives
Syntactically embedded questions in complex sentences take the same form as standard
interrogatives except that kala does not appear at the beginning of the embedded clause.
The embedded clause tends to come after the main clause. When appearing before the main clause
the embedded clause is usually preceded by emem. When appearing after the main clauses in its
usual position it is less commonly preceded by emem. When the embedded interrogative clause is
used prior to the main clause, the main clause is often followed by the phrase kala tajam which is an
anaphoric reference back to the embedded question.
130
Interrogative Mood continued
eg
(embedded substantive interrogative clause following the main clause -the most common
arrangement)
Mawiamufofujis, jofoikijis kumu kala fojo.
Mawi
amu -
negative
sub
1st pers
singular
fo - fu –
obj
know
nclass7
jo –
fo – iki – jis
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass7
see
gener al
jis,
general
kumu
fly
kala fojo
interrog
thing
“I don’t know what the fly saw”
131
Interrogative Mood continued
(embedded substantive interrogative clause preceding the main clause with emem – less common
and more marked arrangement)
Emem jofoikijis kumu kala fojo, mawi amufofujis (kala tajam).
Emem jo – fo – iki – jis
fronted
sub
embedded nclass4
interrog clause
mawi
amu -
negative
sub
1st pers
singular
obj
nclass7
see
general
fo - fu – jis
obj
know
nclass7
kumu
kala
fojo,
fly
interrog
thing
( kala tajam )
general
“What the fly saw I don’t know”
132
12) Additional Uses of the Particle kala
Kala has many uses beyond forming interrogatives. The use being employed depends on its syntactic
position and or semantic/pragmatic context in conversation. Following is a list of is further common
uses of kala;
(an adverb meaning “also” when following a verb directly)
eg
Amuadewisjis kala leva adexele.
Amu – ade – wis – jis
Sub
1st
Pers
sing
obj
nclass5
smell
general
kala
leva
also
berry
ade -
xele
noun
agreement
nclass5
rotten
“I also smell the rotten berries”
133
Additional Uses of the Particle kala continued
(forming abrupt imperatives when attached to the end of a verb in the second person and replacing
the aspect marker jis - see section on the imperative mood)
eg
Atu – te – nijo – kala
(bowa vahes)
“Go Away !”
(implying mindful obedience in an official context or religious devotion in a religious context when
attached to the end of a verb in the first or third person and replacing the aspect marker jis)
eg
Amufomifokala
Amu – fo Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
obj
nclass7
mifo
administrate
–
kala
with mindful obedience
(in response to an order from a chief for example)
“I will attend to the official matters as you request”
134
Additional Uses of the Particle kala continued
(a separator to help distinguish constituents in a list of more than one of the same grammatical
category)
eg
Farahukalakusejojis kede
Fa – rahu - kala - kusejo
Sub
nclass8
loud
separator
close
– jis
general
kede
bear
“The bear was loud and close”
(appearing before a direct object NP to help distinguish it from the subject NP when the object is
animate)
eg
Pifujalejis paqa kala qasa.
Pi – fu – jale – jis
paqa
Sub
nclass3
obj
nclass3
dissim
hear
general
man
kala
(animate direct object)
qasa
warrior
“The man hears the warrior ”
135
Additional Uses of the Particle kala continued
(as a hortative interjection attached to the end of the verb root with no subject/object prefixes and in
isolation)
eg
Posakala “let’s begin !”
Towekala “let’s eat !”
(duplicated with a temporal reference “every”)
eg
Kala baho kala baho
“every day”
136
13)Imperative Mood
True imperatives in Latropeth are formed with a second person singular or plural personal pronoun
prefix on the verb and by attaching -kala as a suffix following the verb root and in place of the
aspect validation marker jis/ema. True imperatives are abrupt in tone and generally only used in a
situation where there is marked social or religious asymmetry in the status between speakers;
eg
Atutenijokala (bowa vahes) !
Atu - te - nijo – kala
sub
2nd pers
singular
obj
nclass2
go
imperative
(bowa vahes) !
movement away from
speaker
“Go away !”
Atubaadefojekala sa !
Atuba - ade - foje –
sub
2nd pers
plural
obj
nclass5
fetch
kala
imperative
sa
apple
“(You all) fetch the apples !”
137
Imperative Mood continued
In most cases a hortative construction with the adverb pewa or related verb prefix pew-/wa- is used
instead of a true imperative. Pewa/pew-/wa- was covered above in the section on the Latropeth
Common Adverb Set.
eg
(with hortative adverb pewa from common adverb set)
Atubaadefojejis pewa sa !
Atuba - ade - foje – jis
sub
2nd pers
plural
obj
nclass5
fetch
general
pewa
sa !
hortative
apple
“(You all) fetch the apples !”
“Could you all fetch the apples.”
138
Imperative Mood continued
(with hortative verb prefix wa- variant)
Watunifojejis jemo !
Watu - ni - foje –
hortative +
sub
2nd pers
singular
obj
nclass6
fetch
jis
jemo
general
spear
!
“Fetch the spear!”
“Could you fetch the spear !”
Footnote: The same hortative construction with pewa/pew-/wa- is used with the adverb atuqoja to
form polite requests. Where the freestanding adverb pewa is used it follows atuqoja following the
verb.
eg
Atuadefojejis atuqoja pewa sa !
Atu - ade - foje – jis
atuqoja
sub
2nd pers
singular
obj
nclass5
fetch
general
polite request
pewa
sa !
hortative
apple
“Could you please fetch the apples ?”
139
Imperative Mood continued
Watunifojejis atuqoja jemo !
Watu - ni - foje – jis
hortative +
sub
2nd pers
singular
obj
nclass6
fetch
general
atuqoja
polite request
jemo !
spear
“Could you please fetch the spear ?”
140
14) Relative Clauses
Latropeth uses a pronoun anaphor strategy for relative clauses. The relative clause follows the main
clause directly and incorporates a pronoun that makes an anaphoric reference back to the head noun
in the main clause. In the relative clause the pronoun appears in the same position syntactically as
the equivalent noun would in a standard clause. The pronouns employed in relative clauses come
from a commonly used set of eight pronouns not yet introduced which are formed from the relevant
noun class prefix + sawu. The pronoun used corresponds to the noun class of the head noun in the
main clause;
Pronouns used in relative clauses
noun class 1 noun class 2 noun class 3 noun class 4 noun class 5 noun class 6 noun class 7 noun class 8 -
dasawu
tesawu
pisawu
josawu
adesawu
nisawu
fosawu
fasawu
141
Relative Clauses continued
Only subject and object positions can be relativised in Latropeth. Where English relativises non
direct objects, obliques etc, Latropeth uses the flexible passive voice to derive a subject for these
positions which can then be relativised.
eg
(with subject relativised)
Amupiikijis moqu, faadetowejis fasawu sa
Amu – pi - iki – jis
sub
1st
pers
sing
fa
sub
nclass8
obj
nclass3
–
ade
obj
nclass5
see
-
moqu,
general
towe
eat
elder
-
jis
general
fasawu
sa.
pronoun
reference
to head noun
in main clause
nclass8
apple
“I see the elder who eats the apple”
142
Relative Clauses continued
(with object relativised)
Amuadeikijis sa, faadetowejis moqu adesawu
Amu – ade - iki – jis
sa,
sub
1st
pers
sing
apple
fa
sub
nclass8
obj
nclass5
–
ade
obj
nclass5
see
-
general
towe
eat
-
jis
moqu
general
elder
adesawu.
pronoun
reference
to head noun
in main clause nclass5
“I see the apple which the elder eats”
143
Relative Clauses continued
(with relativised subject derived from indirect object through passive)
Pijoikijis tuji joso, jotajemifiikisjis josawu ku sa emem paqa.
Pi – jo - iki – jis
tuji
joso,
sub
nclass3
woman
animal
jo
obj
nclass4
–
sub
nclass4
emem
agent
see
general
taje - mifi
dynamic
passive
give
-
ikis -
jis
passive
of indirect
object
general
josawu
ku
pronoun
reference to
head noun in
main clause nclass4
sa
apple
paqa.
man
“The woman sees the animal to which the apple is being given by the man”
144
Relative Clauses continued
(with relativised subject derived from locative through passive)
Amutenijojis punim nasu, jotepuhanijoememjis
dasawu emem nojem
Amu
–
sub
1st pers
singular
te
nijo – jis
-
obj
nclass2
jo –
te -
sub
nclass4
obj
nclass2
dasawu
pronoun reference
to head noun
in main clause
nclass1
go
puha -
nijo
stative
passive
go
emem
agent
punim
general
face
- emem -
nasu ,
river
jis
passive of
general
oblique object
(locative)
nojem
deer
“I go to the river, which is gone to by the deer”
145
Relative Clauses continued
Sometimes for emphasis or clarification the head noun is explicitly repeated in the relative clause
followed by the demonstrative determiner vahes “that” appearing at the end of the relative clause.
eg
Amuadeikijis sa, piadetowejis tewo adesawu sa vahes.
Amu – ade - iki – jis
sa,
sub
1st
pers
sing
apple
pi
obj
nclass5
– ade
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass5
see
general
- towe - jis
eat
general
tewo
possum
adesawu
sa
vahes.
pronoun
apple
reference to
head noun in
main clause nclass5
that
“I see the apple which the man eats”
(literally “I see the apple which the man eats that apple”)
146
15) Causative Constructions
Causative constructions are formed by prefixing fose “make / do” onto the verb complex . The
same structure is used as a permissive “let/allow”.
The following chart shows the relationship between how the subject in an intransitive, transitive or
multitransitive clause changes syntactic position as a causee when causation is added to the
proposition.
Non Causative: Intransitive / Transitive / Multitransative
Subject
Subject
Subject
Causative:
Causee
Direct
Object
Causee
Indirect
Object
Causee
Oblique with
emem
147
Causative Constructions continued
eg
(causee is intransitive subject in the non causative clause)
Jopuhajis joso “The animal stands”
(causee is direct object in equivalent causative clause)
Pijofosepuhajis paqa joso
Pi
sub
nclass3
–
jo - fose – puha - jis
obj
nclass4
causative
stand
general
paqa joso
man
animal
“The man makes / lets the animal stand”
148
Causative Constructions continued
(causee is transitive subject in non causative clause)
Jodapuwejis joso niju “The animal drinks the water”
(causee is indirect object in equivalent causative clause)
Pidafosepuwejojis paqa niju
Pi –
da
sub
nclass3
obj
causative
nclass1
- fose
– puwe
drink
- jo
indirect obj
nclass4
-
jis
general
paqa niju ema
joso
man
animal
water
indirect
object
“The man makes / lets the animal drink the water”
149
Causative Constructions continued
(causee was multitransitive subject in non causative clause)
Piademifijojis toqa sa ema qose
“The boy gives the squirrel an apple”
(causee is oblique with emem in equivalent causative clause)
Piadefosemifijojis paqa sa ema qose emem toqa
Pi – ade
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass5
- fose causative
mifi – jo
give
indirect obj
nclass4
sa
ema
qose
emem toqa
apple
indirect
objct
squirrel
agent
- jis
general
paqa
man
boy
“The man makes / lets the boy give the squirrel an apple”
150
16) Temporal Orientation
Reference to time in Latropeth in terms of instance, duration and habitual occurrence traverses
different parts of speech and different constructions. The below summary is divided into general, ,
cultural, frequency/habitual, duration, sequential/ordinal and clausal. These phrases can in most
cases be used adverbs or noun phrases.
General
Today – dasabahotayam
Tomorrow - kinu
The day after tomorrow – kikinu
In 3 days – ema dasa sejovemvem
Yesterday – kunim
The day before yesterday – kukunim
3 days ago – tumi dasa sejovemvem
This Morning – kinu baho tajam
This Evening/Night – kuji baho tajam
Tomorrow morning – kinu emem kinu
Tommorow evening / night – kinu emem kuji
In 3 days in the morning – ema dasa sejovemvem emem kinu
Yesterday morning – kunim emem kinu
Yesterday evening / night – kunim emem kuji
151
Temporal Orientation continued
3 days ago in the evening/night – tumi dasa sejovemvem emem kuji
Now – baho tajam
Before – baho tumi
Afterwards - bahobese
Meanwhile – baho (nijo) duwe
A long time ago – tumi besa
A long time ago - tumi bebesa
Later - bahobese
In a while – (ema) bahobese
In a long while / time / much later – (ema) bahobesa
(At) dawn – baho kalakinu
(At) dusk – baho kalakuji
Daytime (general) – baho dasa
Nighttime (general) – baho kuji
Midday (roughly middle of the day) – baho kijeluwa
Year – qavi (fapaja)
Latropeth Week - qavi fakawu (fapewi)
152
Temporal Orientation continued
eg
Amutenijojis baho kuji xiha
Amu – te
Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
– nijo
Obj
nclass2
-
go
jis
baho kuji
xiha
general
at night
hut
“I walked to the hut at night ”
Kalafakusejojis baho kuji ?
Kala
Interrogative
–
fa
– kusejo
Sub
nclass8
close
-
jis
baho kuji
general
night
“Is the night close? ”
153
Temporal Orientation continued
Cultural
Yulang week (5 day cycle) ;
Baho falosetom posa vem – hunt day one
Baho falosetom posa vemvem – hunt day two
Baho famifo – camp official matters day
Baho famina – day of religious worship / celebration
Baho fadipaja – social/leisure day
eg
Amutenijojis Baho Falosetom Posa Vemvem xiha
Amu – te – nijo - jis Baho Falosetom Posa Vemvem xiha
Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
Obj
nclass2
go
general
Hunt Day Two
hut
“I walked to the hut on Hunt Day Two ”
154
Temporal Orientation continued
Frequency / habitual
Always – (baho tajam) sawu nijoba / bahi X bahi (where X is a noun phrase)
Never – (baho tajam) sawu nijomawi / mawi X mawi (where X is a noun phrase)
Sometimes – baho tiji / tiji X tiji (where X is a noun phrase)
Usually/generally – pasu (from the common adverb set – see above )
( the alternatives janu and jatu are also very common)
Sporadically/occasionally (every now and then) kala baho kala baho
Every Day – kala dasa kala dasa
Every Night – kala kuji kala kuji
eg
Amutenijojis kala dasa kala dasa
Amu – te – nijo - jis
Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
Obj
nclass2
go
xiha
kala dasa kala dasa xiha
general
every day
hut
“I walk to the hut every day ”
155
Temporal Orientation continued
Pitenijojis (baho tajam) kusu vahes sawu nijoba xiha.
Pi – te – nijo - jis (baho tajam) kusu vahes sawu nijoba xiha
Sub
Obj
nclass3 nclass2
go
general
always
girl
that
always
hut
“That girl always goes to the hut ”
Duration
For a day – baho nijo dasa
For a night - baho nijo kuji
For a short time – baho nijo bese
For a long time – baho nijo besa
All day – baho nijo dasa paju !
All night – baho nijo kuji paju !
Some of the day – baho nijo dasa tiji
Some of the night - baho nijo kuji tiji
Some of the time – baho nijo tiji
Most of the time – baho emem/emem kuma
156
Temporal Orientation continued
eg
Amuadetowejis baho nijo dasa emem xiha lekam
Amu – ade – towe - jis baho nijo dasa emem xiha lekam
Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
Obj
nclass5
eat
general
for a day
at
hut
that (behind)
“I ate all day at that hut behind me ”
Sequential / Ordinal
First (time) – baho posa vem
Second (time) – baho posa vemvem
Next time – posa lamexuka
Last time (previous) - baho posa tumi
Last time (final) – baho posa ema
A few times – baho posa tiji
157
Temporal Orientation continued
eg
Amutenijojis baho posa vem xiha
Amu – te – nijo - jis
Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
Obj
nclass2
go
general
baho posa vem
first time
xiha
hut
“I went to the hut for the first time ”
158
Temporal Orientation continued
Clausal
(for details on temporal orientation between clauses see section on temporal clause relational
adverbs above)
eg
Pitenijojis punim nasu tuji, pitenijopasomjis baho lekam pipala
Pi – te – nijo – jis
punim nasu tuji
sub
nclass3
front
pi
obj
nclass2
– te
sub
nclass3
obj
nclass2
go
general
– nijopasom - jis
return
general
river
woman
baho lekam
before
pipala
camp
“The woman went to the river before she returned to the camp”
159
17) Spatial/Directional Orientation
Simple spatial deixis can be conveyed with the demonstrative pronoun forms described on the
section above on pronouns;
(bowa -) tajam / vahes / bese / bava / maju / lekam / jeva
eg
Joadetowejis
nojem
Jo – ade – towe Sub
Obj
nclass4 nclass5
eat
vahes
jis
nojem
general
vahes
deer
that
“That deer is eating ”
Jofojepuhajis
Jo –
Sub
nclass4
bowa tajam
fojepuha – jis
is located
general
xaki
bowa tajam
here
xaki
frog
“The frog is here ”
160
Spatial/Directional Orientation continued
Spatial/Directional orientation with reference to verbs of motion
A prepositional object such as would be required with various English verbs of motion eg. go to the
shop does not occur in Latropeth as verbs of motion are always transitive with the direct
object conveying the destination of the movement.
The destination of movement is not always explicitly stated in an NP but the verb still takes the
prefix te implying a direct object.
eg
Amutepilujis
Amu – te
Sub
1st
Pers
Sing
xiha
– pilu
-
Obj go in straight line
nclass2
jis
general
xiha
hut
“I walked straight to the hut ”
161
Spatial/Directional Orientation continued
In contrast if an NP specifies location rather than destination of movement with respect to a verb of
motion than it appears in a prepositional phrase with emem / em’.
eg
Atuteuqijis
Atu – te
Sub
2nd
Pers
Sing
Obj
nclass2
emem
– uqi
walk
xiha
-
jis
emem
xiha
general
in
the hut
“You are walking in (within the confines of) the hut ”
162
Spatial/Directional Orientation continued
Adverbial spatial references are often added to a clause involving a verb of motion. This includes
references that specify whether movement is towards or away from the speaker as follows;
bowa vahes nijo + object (specifying destination)
conveys movement away from speaker
bowa tajam nijo + object (specifying destination)
conveys movement towards the speaker
The verb nijo for example can translate as “go” or “come” and in the examples below the adverbial
information clarifies the orientation of the movement.
eg
pitenijojis
pi – te
bowa vahes nijo
– nijo - jis
Sub
Obj
nclass3 nclass2
go
general
nasu punim bafa
bowa vahes nijo
movement away from speaker
nasu punim bafa
river
front
boy
“The boy goes to the river ”
163
cf.
pitenijojis bowa tajam nijo
pi – te
– nijo - jis
Sub
Obj
nclass3 nclass2
go
general
nasu punim
bafa
bowa tajam nijo nasu punim bafa
movement towards speaker
river
front
boy
“The boy comes to the river ”
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169