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Like Buddhism, Jainism originated from Hinduism and therefore some still regard it as a Hindu sect. Although not one of the world's largest religions in numbers (adherents estimated between 3 and 12 million), Jainism's practice of extreme asceticism and non-violence does make it of some interest to the casual as well as serious scholar of religion. Jainism Started in India during the 6th century BC at about the same time as Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, Jainism is somewhat of a paradox in the sense that a sect which began with the ideal of extreme asceticism and renunciation of material wealth has today become one of the wealthiest classes in India. Nevertheless, in spite of being geographically constricted to India where it is followed by a mere %%% of the population, Jainism has had some impact on the rest of the world. It is said that the Jain doctrine of extreme non-violence ("ahimsa") has played a major role in the lives and philosophies of such great and renowned men as Albert Schweitzer, Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. NOTE: Because Jainism originated from Hinduism and so many similarities remain between the two religions, it is easier to understand Jainism if one first gains at least a basic understanding of Hinduism (see article: "Hinduism"). ABOVE: A Jain temple in India. General beliefs Although the basic beliefs of Jainism regarding reincarnation, liberation of the soul and the nature of God is similar to that of its "mother-religion" (Hinduism), there are many areas where Jainism holds its own unique views and beliefs. In a nutshell, the basic philosophy of Jainism is that liberation of the soul and eternal bliss can be attained through a life of renunciation of worldly desires, non-violence and self-conquest. Eternal Souls Jains believe that all living creatures, including plants (even plankton), insects, animals and humans, have eternal souls. In addition, small clusters of invisible souls, called nigodas are inhabit the four elements: earth, wind, fire, and water. The soul or jiva ("a conscious, living being" or "living substance") only temporarily reside in the body which is regarded as an inanimate "container". They believe that there are an infinite number of jivas in the universe and that many jivas exist without bodies at any given time. The Jain view of the soul or jiva differs from Hinduism in that they believe that each jiva lives eternally independant from others whereas Hinduism holds that each soul is eternally part of Brahman (the “Absolute”, “World Soul” or the “force of existance” which "penetrates everything"). They believe that each jiva is responsible for everything that it does and that it will therefore bear the consequences of its own actions. The souls of all creatures are equal in value and should therefore be treated with compassion and respect. Jains are therefore compelled to not only treat all human beings with respect and reverence, but to treat all species of life in the same way. For this reason, Jains adhere to strict non-violence which, among other things, results in strict vegetarianism. (Also see paragraph "Liberated and Unliberated Souls" below.) Continious Reincarnation ABOVE: A painting depicting reincarnation. Like Hindus, Jains believe in the continious cycle of reincarnation ("samsara"). When a person dies, the soul or jiva is reborn into another body to live another life. Depending on the karma accumulated during the previous live (see next paragraph), a soul can be born into a human, animal, insect or even plant-body. The soul's mental state of mind (calm or in turmoil) can also have a positive or negative effect on the type of body and the conditions under which it wil be reborn. Unlike Hindus, Jains believe that each jiva has been associated with matter and has been part of the cycle of birth and death since the beginning of time. They therefore do not believe like Hindus that souls caught up in this cycle has somehow fallen from perfection (the knowledge of their being part of Brahman). Like Hindus and Buddhists, Jains also strive to be liberated from this cycle of reincarnation by attaining liberation ("moksha"). Jains believe that each individual is responsible for attaining liberation through its own efforts. There are no gods, angels or higher beings that can assist one on this path. The problem of Karma Jains believe that the quality and nature of each new life or embodiment is determined by karma (meaning "action") accumulated by the soul during previous lives. Unlike most other views on karma, Jains believe that karma actually is a physical substance and that karma-particles literally sticks to the soul as a result of its actions, words and even thoughts. They also believe that not only is the future embodiment of jiva determined by its karma, but that the quantity and nature of the karma sticking to the jiva determines whether it will be happy or unhappy and also effects events in its current life. Good or non-harmful karma (punya) is accumulated through good living and good deeds while bad or harmful karma (papa) is the result of bad living and bad deeds. Jains distinguish between four types of non-harmful and four types of harmful karma: Non-harmful (punya) Karma: • Vedaniya (feeling-producing) karma - determines whether the jiva has pleasant or unpleasant experiences. • Nama (physique-determining) karma - determines the physical characteristics of the new life as well as the spiritual potential of the new life. • Ayu (life-span-determining) karma - determines the duration of a being's life (within the limits of the species into which the jiva is reborn). • Gotra (status-determining) karma - determines the status or socil standing of a being within its species. Harmful (papa) Karma: • Mohaniya (delusory) karma - deludes the jiva and causes attachment to false beliefs, thereby preventing the jiva from living a correct life. • Jnana-avaraniya (knowledge-obscuring) karma - blocks the jiva's natural omniscience and interferes with the jiva's intellect and senses. Prevents the jiva from "understanding the truth". • Dars(h)an-avarniya (perception-obscuring) karma - interferes with the senses and distorts the jiva's perception. • Antaraya (obstructing) karma - obstructs the jiva's energy thereby hindering the jiva from doing good deeds. The only way for a jiva to attain moksha (liberation) is to become completely free of all karma. Accumilated karma can be removed from the jiva by living according to the Jain vows (see paragraph: "5 Great Vows" below). Other types of karma expire on their own after causing suffering whilst accumilating further karma can be avoided by correct living and correct thinking. Enlightenment and Liberation ABOVE: Hand-symbol of Jainism with swastika. Liberation of the soul can only be attained through the individual's own efforts. Therefore, there is no worship (of God or gods) or prayer. Jains distinguish between enlightenment and total liberation (moksha) of the soul. Enlightenment can be attained by becoming free of all harmful karma. An enlightened jiva is called an arihant and although it is still human, it has perfect knowledge and can no longer do any bad deeds which would result in accumulating harmful karma. An arihant can only achieve complete liberation through further embodiments during which all the non-harmful karma can expire. However, Jains believe that no-one can achieve enlightenment in the present era (during the 5th and 6th spokes of the current time cycle – see paragraph: "Jain Cosmology and Time" below). This includes even the most dedicated of Jain monks living at this time. When an arihant finally does become free of all karma thereby attaining liberation, it travels to the "supreme abode" - the highest level of the universe - where it lives eternally with other liberated jivas in a disembodied state of bliss. Liberated and Unliberated souls Siddhas - Liberated Souls Jain believe that some jivas have already achieved liberation (moksha) from the cycle of reincarnation and are therefore not reborn any longer. These souls are called siddhas and they have no physical bodies. Jains claim that siddhas are "perfect beings" that possess infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite power, and that they experience infinite bliss. Because of their belief in siddhas and the fact that siddhas are in a sense worshiped by Jains, some observers has mistakenly concluded that Jains does indeed worship gods. The fact is that siddhas differ from most conventional ideas of God or gods as they cannot create or destroy or intervene in the universe in any way whatsoever; they cannot be known in a personal relationship; they do not expect anything from human beings and humans cannot expect anything from them apart from being inspired by what they have achieved (liberation from reincarntion). Unliberated Souls Jains believe that all souls or jivas have the potential to become siddhas by attaining liberation from the cycle of reincarnation. All living creatures – as unliberated jivas - are categorized into five groups according to their state of development. Only humans are able to attain liberation directly, whereas jivas embodied into beings from lower categories first have to evolve (through reincarnation) to higher creatures. The categories of unliberated souls are: • Ekendriya - beings with only one sense (touch) including plants and the four elements: earth, wind, fire, and water. The elements are "inhabited" by small clusters of invisible souls, called nigodas. • Beindriya - beings with two senses (touch and taste) including some insects such as termites, earthworms, etc. • Treindriya - beings with three senses (touch, taste and smell) including other insects or stages of insect such ants, beetles and moths. • Chaurindriya - beings with four senses (touch, taste, smell and sight) including wasps, and scorpions. • Panchendriya - beings with five senses (touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing). This group is divided into four classes, namely infernal beings (jivas living in hell and therefore experiencing the greatest suffering); higher animals (all non-human animals above insects); human beings (the only form of jiva that is able to attain liberation directly); and heavenly beings (the happiest form of of jiva). Three Jewels of Jainism The Jain gaol of attaining liberation (moksha) of the soul is persued by following what is known as the "Three Jewels" of Jainism (also see paragraph: "Refuge in the Three Jewels" in the article: "Buddhism"). These "jewels" or guiding ethic principles of Jainism are right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The first two principles are very closely connected. Samyak darshana (right faith) Right faith does not imply blindly following certain teachings or doctrines. In stead, it means having clear and unhindred perception through all five senses (feeling, tasting, smelling, seeing, hearing). For this reason Samyak darshana is sometimes also translated as "right perception". To achieve this, the believer has to strive and work hard to find the "truth" and avoid preconceptions in order to perceive things clearly and correctly. Harmfull karma is the main hinderence here as it can cause false beliefs, hinder understanding and distort perception. Samyak jnana (right knowledge) Right knowledge primarily refers to having the correct knowledge of the "real universe" and having the correct mental attitude. Attaining this knowledge depends on having right faith (perception) and also on studying the Jain Scriptures. The correct mental attitude includes having a clear conscience and what Jains refer to as a "pure soul" - a soul (jiva) free from attachment and desire with complete peace of mind. Samyak charitra (right conduct) If a person has right faith and right conduct, he or she will be able to achieve right conduct. This means living according to Jain ethical rules, not harming other living beings and becoming free from attachment, desire and other impure attitudes and thoughts. Although a lot of emphasis is placed upon the physical elements of right conduct (eg nonviolence, vegetarianism, ascetism, etc), Jains believe that what you do physically is not more important than what you do mentally. Right conduct therefore includes mental conduct – right speach and thoughts. 5 Great Vows In order to help them achieve the goals of the "Three Jewels" and spesifically the jewel of right conduct (samyak charitra), Jains have five abstinences known as the "Five Great Vows". Two versions of these vows are followed – the strict "mahavrata" followed by monks and nuns, and the lesser "anuvrata" version followed by lay adherents. The first of these vows – non-violence – is sometimes decribed as the basic and most important principle of Jain living. Ahimsa (non-violence) ABOVE: A Jain monk with cloth mask to prevent him from accidentally swallowing and hurting insects. Jains believe that all living creatures as well as the four elements (earth, wind, fire, and water) have souls. A soul ("jiva") is eternal and sacred irrespective of its current embodiment (human, insect, plant, bacteria, etc) and should not be harmed under any conditions. For this reason, Jains take the vow of Ahimsa (meaning "to be without harm"). The term "harm" includes all possible types of violence such as physical violence, mental violence and verbal violence. Ahimsa further implies not only to do no harm to other souls, but to also protect every other soul from any form of violence or harm. Jains therefore strive to further such noble principles as justice, peace and freedom (as long as doing so does not involve violence). In their zeal to practice ahimsa, Jain monks and nuns take utmost care not to even accidently step on an ant or other insect. Some even wear masks of muslin cloths over their mouths to avoid from accidentally swallowing a flying insect. Mohandas Gandhi was perhaps the most famous advocate of ahimsa as a form of "passive resistance" to the occupying Brittish Empire in India during the 19th century. The American humans rights leader, Martin Luther King Jr, followed Gandhi's principles during the Black Civil Rights campaign of the 1960's. Christian missionary, doctor and philosopher Albert Schweitzer also had great respect for the principle of ahimsa. For most Jains, the practical implications of ahimsa also means adhering to a strict vegetarian diet. Remaining 4 Vows The remaining four vows are Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (not stealing), Aparigraha (non-posession or non-attachment) and Brahmacarya (chaste living). Satya is an undertaking to only speak "harmless truth" while Asteya means not to take anything that has not been freely given to you. Aparigraha or non-attachment means not having any worldy posessions while also severing all attachments to other people (including family and friends), rights, material things or places. The ideal form of Brahmacarya or chaste living is complete chastity. However, for most lay Jains it means to refrain from any form of sexual promiscuity. Glossary Aryans: The Indo-Aryan nations that settled in the Indus valley (modern India) around 1500 BC. Brahman – In Hinduism, the ultimate source of all that is (the visible and invisible world), and is at the same time part of everything and above everything. Also described as the impersonal “Absolute”, the “World Soul” or the “force of existance” which penetrates everything. The term is also used for the highest of the Four Castes in ancient India at the time of Shakyamuni. They served Brahma, with offerings; the keepers of the Vedas, i.e. priestly caste. Caste System: An Indian Hindu system of dividing society into four main castes and thousands of sub castes. These castes (orders in the social hierarchy) traditionally had strong social economical and even political implications. The only way in which your caste position could be changed, is if you fulfilled your "caste dharma" in your current life in order to attain a better position in your next life. Dharma: The Hindu and Buddhist concept of dharma refers primarily to the Cosmic Laws that sustain everything, but on individual level it includes the laws according to which every person must live. These laws or obligations are closely related to the caste in which a person is born. Dualism / Dualistic: Belief in two equal powers which can be opposing each other (competing dualism) or in balance with each other (balancing dualism). Karma: The word karma means "action". Within the context of samsara, it gains the meaning of the result of your action. Karma is therefore the belief that you deserved your current circumstances through previous actions. In Jainism, good karma is called punya while bad karma is called papa. Moksha: Liberation of the soul from samsara. Monism: A believe that “all is one” – an impersonal God that is part of everything and everything is part of God. Occult: A study and alledged 'science' of the hidden, secret, esoteric, demonic, paranormal and supernatural - not related to the true God of the Bible. Polytheistic: The belief in many gods or supreme/higher beings. Sannyasi: Hindu holy people who leave the earthly world in search of the true spiritual reality. Samsara: The eternal cycle of births and rebirths, which can happen in any life form. Upanishads: The last of the Vedic texts, in which a strong philosophical tendency appears Article by Manie Bosman (E-Mail [email protected])