Download Perception and cognition in human occupation

Memory
記憶力
授課老師：劉倩秀老師
課程名稱：腦功能職能治療與評估
10/18/2007
1. 記憶歷程之三階段:

Registration, Retention and Retrieval
2. 記憶儲存模型 (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971)

Sensory memory, STM, LTM
3. Working memory model
(Baddeley & Hitch 1974)
4. Long-term memory

declarative, procedural, prospective memory
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記憶歷程之三階段:
Registration, Retention and Retrieval
 The studies of memory that are based
on the processes that operate in the
long-term memory system have
identified three stages:
 Registration, or coding at the time of
learning;
 Retention, or storage over time;
 Retrieval of information when it is
required.
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 Registration:
 Information that is elaborated and processed
with meaning at the time of registration
increases the likelihood of later retrieval.
 We are more likely to remember someone’s
name if we also learn other personal details
about family and where he or she lives than if
we only register physical appearance.
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 Retention:
 Retention is a dynamic process.
 Stored knowledge is modified and updated by new
information entering from working memory over time.
 Once an item has been registered in memory,
subsequent forgetting
 Could be the result of decay over time
 Could be due to interference by later learning
 The loss of neurotransmitters has been linked to poor
registration and storage in memory, for example in
Alzheimer’s diseases (Kopelman, 1986)
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 Retrieval:
 Retrieval is affected by the context, and items
are more likely to be retrieved in the same
environment as they were learnt.
 External cueing is an important aid to retrieval
of items or events from memory.
 Recall of the name of a person
 Be cued by the first letter
 Other information about the person
 Recognition of the person from a group of names or
photographs
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 We are familiar this item in memory but we
cannot retrieve it.
 One explanation is that the current processing
does not match the stored information and fails
to cue the memory.
 Mood also affects retrieval.
 Learning in the altered state can be recalled
better in the same state.
 Depressed patients easily recall memories of sad
events and this can add to their depression
(Teasdale, 1983)
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Memory can be broadly divided into three systems:
1.
Sensory memory
 Sensory memory is the brief processing of
information received by the sense organs that lasts
only a few milliseconds before passing on to shortterm memory.
 Sensory memory is modality specific: visual (iconic),
auditory (echoic), tactile, olfactory, proprioceptive
2.
Short-term memory
 Short-term memory holds information from the
sensory memory for several seconds before it is
either transferred to long-term memory, or lost due
to interference from new items coming in.
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3. Long-term memory
 Long-term memory retains information
for periods of time from a few minutes
to many years.
 Forgetting in long-term memory may be
due to decay over time, or perhaps the
memory remains stored but cannot be
retrieved.
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記憶儲存模型 (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1971)
STM
感覺記憶
LTM
感覺登錄器
視覺
環境輸入
暫時的工作記憶
永久記憶儲存
庫
聽覺
. ..
控制歷程
本體覺
(複誦, 提取策略..)
反應輸出
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Short-term memory / working memory
 The original description of a short-term
store has been developed into a working
memory system where there is rehearsal of
items and some active processing for
meaning.
 Working memory has several components
which select and manipulate verbal, visual
and spatial information over several
seconds before passing on to long-term
memory and also to other cognitive
systems. (Baddeley and Hitch, 1970s)
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 其他心理學家,由不同角度探討LTM&STM
 著重於工作記憶扮演的角色
 工作記憶 (WM)
 為LTM的一部份,且包含STM
 WM是LTM中,近期被活化的部份
 包含短暫,稍縱即逝的STM及其內容
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Working memory model
(Baddeley & Hitch 1974)
 There are three main components of
working memory:
1. Visuospatial sketchpad ;
2. Central executive;
3. Phonological loop.
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1. Visuospatial sketchpad
 The visuospatial sketchpad stores visual
and spatial information entering from the
eye over a few seconds in time.
 This “inner eye” component of working
memory holds both spatial information
and visual images that cannot be
rehearsed verbally, such as size, shape,
colour and distance.
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 It can also be used to inspect and
manipulate visual images entering
from the eyes or from long-term
memory.
 In finding our way around, “snapshots”
of visual and spatial information are
held for a short time to allow us to
recognize landmarks.
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2. Central executive
 The central executive controls the processing in
the other components of working memory by
the allocation of attention to each one.
 The central executive is particularly important
when the cognitive demands of a task are high,
for example listening to a conversation while
reading the newspaper.
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3. Phonological loop
 The phonological loop stores speech-based
information in a phonological store (inner ear),
and verbally rehearses it in the same order
(inner voice).
 The verbal rehearsal, know as the articulatory
system, is repeated in the same order, like an
audiotape that is replayed for about two seconds
before it decays or passes on into long-term
memory.
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 In speaking and reading, several words
are held long enough make sense of the
words that follow.
 Words can enter the phonological store
directly from the ear, from rehearsal of
written or spoken words, and from longterm memory for names of objects or
people.
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Long-term memory
 The long-term memory system has
unlimited capacity and processes a large
variety of information.
 Items from working memory enter longterm memory where they are processed for
meaning and context.
 Stored memories in long-term memory are
retrieved into working memory before the
relevant response is activated, for example
speech or action.
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The three memory systems
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Summary of the structure of long-term memory
(explicit)
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(implicit)
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Procedural memory –how?
 Procedural memory is the subsystem
related to the performance of learned
skilled activity.
 All the motor and language skills what we
have learnt the part of procedural memory.
We remember how
 to swim;
 to ride a bicycle;
 to speak our first language without knowing the
complicated rules of grammar.
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 The knowledge of learned motor skills stored in
procedural memory is linked to the specific conditions
for the actions involved.
 Activation of the correct procedure depends on
matching of the input conditions from working
memory, and from decision-making.
 Skilled actions become more automatic with practice.
 Repetition of the particular condition / action pair in
procedural memory leads to easier and faster
activation.
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 Procedural memory is spared in most
patients with memory loss, so that motor
skills well learned before cerebral damage
are retained.
 This has important implications for the
return to work in memory-impaired
individuals.
 It may be called “knowing how”.
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Declarative memory – what?
 Declarative memory is the recollection of
knowledge of people, objects, places and
events, and that certain facts are true or
false.
 It can be called “knowing what”.
 Declarative memory has been divided into:
 semantic memory
 episodic memory
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 Semantic memory:
 is general knowledge of facts
 is knowing that Rome is the capital of Italy
 is knowing bananas are yellow
 Episodic memory




constitutes memories linked to a time and place
is record of particular events
knowing where you spent a holiday last year
knowing the first trip you made by plane
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 The distinction between semantic and episodic is
blurred and the two types interact in everyday
memory.
 Knowledge that began as episodic becomes
generalized into semantic memory over time.
 Learning to use a microcomputer
 May at first be associated with a particular model in a
college laboratory (episodic)
 After a time, the operation of computer becomes part
of our general knowledge of the world (semantic)
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 Autobiographical memory
 Autobiographical memory is another
component of declarative memory.
 Episodic and autobiographical both have
a context in time and space, but
autobiographical memory is linked to
specific life events which have
significance for the individuals.
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Prospective memory – when?
 Prospective memory is remembering what
to do and when to do it.
 It is explicit memory which requires
attention processing.
 Everyday routine tasks are mostly
automatic and they are performed with
minimal demands on prospective memory.
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 In non-routine actions, prospective memory
is needed to activate the plan at the right
time.
 An external cue to activate the plan, for example
a letter-box on the way home promotes you to
post a letter.
 In the absence of a cue, the attention demands
in working memory may affect the success or
failure of prospective memory.
 We forget to make an important phone call
when there are many demands on our attention.
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Memory problems
記憶問題
授課老師：劉倩秀老師
課程名稱：腦功能職能治療與評估
10/18/2007
Working memory deficits
 Working memory is the stage of memory
processing, which lasts a few seconds,
between the input of sensory information
from the environment and the registration
processing in long-term memory.
 It should be noted that working memory is
not the same as the term “short-term
memory” which is often clinically to mean
recent memory of the previous few minutes
or hours.
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Working memory deficits
- communication, finding route, shopping
 In speaking and reading, a few words at a time are
rehearsed subvocally in the phonological loop, before
output in speech or passing on to long-term verbal
memory.
 In following a route, visual images of landmarks are
held for a brief time in the visuospatial sketchpad and
compared with long-term visual memory for
recognition.
 The mental arithmetic which is part of checking the
change in shopping involves working memory to
manipulate and rehearsal small groups of numbers.
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 Deficits in working memory
 Patients cannot recall numbers or words
that are heard
 Patients can recall the same information
when it is presented visually
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 Assessment for working memory
 Digit span
 Functional assessment for working
memory
 Observation of functional activities
 handling money, using the telephone,
reading a newspaper, holding a
conversation
 Discussion with the family for more
informaiton
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Deficit in long-term memory
 Retrograde amnesia (premorbid
amnesia)
 Loss of some memories acquired before
onset
 Anterograde amnesia (postmorbid
amnesia)
 difficulty in learning and remembering
new information
 due to the loss of the contextual
processing at the time of registration
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 Korsakoff-type amnesia
 have a severely impaired long-term
memory
 they can hold a conversation and recall
numbers if there is no delay after seeing
them
 a kind of severe Retrograde amnesia
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 Loss of procedural memory
 retain the ability to perform skilled actions learnt
in the past, although memory aids are needed
for the parts of the activity that rely on semantic
memory.
 some patients may be able to learn new motor
works, although they are often unaware of the
changes
 陳述記憶(外顯):
 程序記憶(內隱):文字完成作業,以技能為主的作業,騎腳
踏車,完成拼圖
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 Loss of declarative memory
 Episodic memory loss
 cannot remember what he had for breakfast, or
that a relative visited yesterday, because daily
events cannot be coded in time and place
 inability to follow a TV program which demands
remembering what happened a few minutes
before,
 inability to to recall a conversation with a friend,
lead to social isolation from the family and
friends
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 Prospective memory loss
 inability to activate plans for action at
the correct time
 omissions occur in the daily routine
 the person may fail to get dressed, or
eat lunch or phone a member of the
family
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 Functional assessment for prospective
memory
 asking the patient to execute a
previously agreed action, for example
make a telephone call, at a specified
time in the future
 the interval between the request and the
action can be gradually increased from
minutes to hours or to the next day
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Compensatory strategies
 The outcome of memory assessment leads to the
choice of compensation strategies which enable the
memory-impaired person to function in their own
environment
 Internal strategies: mnemonics, paired associates and
visual imagery => limited application in daily living
 External strategies:
 diaries, wall planners => for prospective memory
 Alarm watches => promote for the initiation of tasks
 Audiotapes => promote for the sequencing of tasks
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Autobiographical memory
 a history which gives us our personal identity
 “we are what we remember”
 Component parts: people, places, objects, events (we
have experienced)
 involve recall of declarative memory for a unique
event
 flashbulb memory:
 specific memories of dramatic and emotional events
 episodic memory
 frequent rehearsal and retelling of the event may
account for the accuracy of recall rather than a
special mechanism
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Autobiographical Memory Interview
(AMI)
 semi-structured interview divided into two
parts:
 Personal semantic schedule
 recall specified facts from the past
 Childhood (names of teachers and school)
 Early adult life (name of first employer, date and
place of wedding)
 Recent life (holiday, journeys, hospitalizations)
 Score for accuracy
 Autobiographical incidents schedule
 recall of specific incidents from each of the
same life-periods
 Assess retrograde episodic memory
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Confabulation
 Confabulation is a feature of memory
impairment when the recall of
autobiographical memory is apparently
sensible, but untrue.
 Both the details and the context of a
memory are confused, and the relationship
of events in time is disrupted.
 Many dense amnesics do not confabulate,
and those who do may show normal recall
and recognition of semantic memory
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Memory function related to brain
areas
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