Download AN INTRODUCTION TO NUTRITION

Unit 3
AN INTRODUCTION TO NUTRITION
Including Food Issues
Objectives
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To give a definition of nutrition
To discuss the history of the study of nutrition
To discover food trends in Australia
To show the relationship between food and health
To outline the Dietary Guidelines for Australians
To recognise food fads and fallacies
DEFINITION
The science of food and its relation to health. It is a new, dynamic field, which
changes frequently as our knowledge both of foods and health increases 12.
Nutrition is a vital factor in sustaining health. It is not only about calories/kilojoules
and carbohydrates, fats and fibre, but is interrelated with a wide range of disciplines,
including agriculture, economics, sociology and medicine.
Nutrition studies the nature of food, what happens to that food before we eat it, why
we choose to eat certain foods and what happens to food in the body.
World Health Organisation (WHO) defines health as, “Health is a state of complete
physical, mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or
infirmity2.”
HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF NUTRITION
The Bible records the instruction given to the Children of Israel about the type of
foods that should be eaten and not eaten. Eight hundred years later Daniel and his
three friends asked for vegetarian food and water to replace the king’s meat and
wine3.
Hippocrates in 400 BC studied the relationship of eating and weight loss 3.
Until the nineteenth century, people knew very little about the science of nutrition.
They knew that food was necessary for energy, that the lack of foods caused certain
diseases – for example, the lack of fresh fruit and vegetables in sailors’ diets caused
scurvy12.
Dr. Lind, a British physician, carried out the first controlled nutrition experiment in
1747. He attempted to find a cure for scurvy. Dr. Lind treated twelve sailors who had
scurvy with six different dietary programs. He found that lemon or lime juice was
effective in helping sailors avoid scurvy3.
During the nineteenth century it was realised that food was made up of fats,
carbohydrates, protein and water. In the early part of the twentieth century, a new
era of nutrition discovery dawned as the structure of nutrients came to be understood
and vitamins and minerals were found to be vital. Vitamin B12 was discovered in
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1948 and several of the trace minerals were found to be essential in the 1950’s and
60’s. Discovery has continued12.
In the early Australian settlements, nutrition was often poor. The food consisted
mainly of grains and meat, in the cities at least there were a few fruits and vegetables
available. By 1890, poverty had increased and the diets of the poor deteriorated.
Vegetables became prohibitively expensive for many people; wholemeal flour was
replaced by white flour; white bread with dripping and golden syrup plus a mug of tea
became a common – but inadequate – meal. As sheep production increased, the
economy, based on wool improved, and more people could buy better food. The
dairy industry prospered and more vegetables were grown12.
Earlier in the last century, there was concern for the health of the nation resulting
from malnutrition. Nutrient deficiencies were common and food was not always
plentiful. Today the concern for health relates to over-nutrition. Food is very plentiful,
but diseases of affluence are common3.
Research is continuing into the complex composition and principles of our food
supply.
FOOD TRENDS
Over the last 40 to 50 years, the Australian diet has undergone a revolution.
Convenience foods now make up a large proportion of the diet, food manufacturers
are increasingly assuming the role once held by the housewife, or the provider of
food in the home. We continue to consume large quantities of animal foods and
sugar; the consumption of wine, poultry and margarine have increased; butter and
bread consumption have declined; fruit and vegetable consumption has increased,
although more fruit is now consumed in the form of juices. Items such as yoghurt,
frozen foods, canned and packaged cooking ingredients, soft drinks, sweetened
breakfast cereals; muesli and an extensive range of snack foods have appeared and
become very popular12.
Why we choose foods
We choose foods not only by their availability but also because of price, tradition,
taste habits (developed mainly in childhood), culture, social background, religion and
various prejudices. Our food choices are also influenced increasingly by
advertising12.
Selecting an adequate diet
The body is made up of thousands of different substances, amazingly, most of them
can be made within the body from other substances. But there are some we cannot
make: these are the essential building materials called ‘nutrients’, and they must be
supplied in food12.
The nutrients are proteins, fats, carbohydrates, fibre, vitamins, minerals and water.
They all have essential roles in the body’s chemistry and are vital, in the right
quantities for health12.
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We may know how much protein, fats and vitamins we need; but, ultimately, these
nutrition requirements must be translated into the various kinds of food. No single
food contains all the nutrients we need. Instead, a variety of different types of food
are needed to produce health and vitality – the characteristic signs of good
nutrition12.
Variety in choosing, cooking and serving food makes eating a pleasure and is far
more likely to result in a balanced intake of nutrients12.
FOOD AND HEALTH
Nutrition is now taking its rightful place at the top of the health priority list for
hundreds and thousands of Australians. Once a neglected subject – the subject of
hospitals and health farms – nutrition has blossomed to become a key issue of
concern for most Australians.
No longer are ‘health nuts’ or dieters the only groups interested in what they eat.
Today most people rank nutrition as important as taste, cost and brand name –
nutrition terms like ‘kilojoules’ ‘complex carbohydrates’ and even ‘junk foods’ were the
buzzwords of the Nineties. Why has nutrition asserted itself? People have
discovered when they eat well; they feel good and that a nutritious eating plan is the
best insurance for vitality and glowing health.
It is interesting that the medical profession, food companies, pharmacies,
universities, schools and even governments have accepted the importance of
nutrition. Nutrition has the support of major institutions in the country11. Australia had
no department of nutrition at any university until the first Professor of Human Nutrition
was appointed to Deakin University in Geelong, Victoria in 1977. Soon after, the
University of Sydney also established a nutrition department for teaching and
research. Today there are graduate courses in training nutritionists and dietitians in
most capital cities of Australia12.
Medical, pharmacy and dentistry students are being taught the importance of nutrition
to health, because nutrition can reduce our susceptibility to infection and even protect
against illness in later life.
The medical and scientific world is convinced that the Western diet is responsible to a
large degree for the high incidence of degenerative diseases – heart disease,
cancers of the bowel and stomach, diabetes type two, stroke, high blood pressure,
obesity, gall bladder disease and cirrhosis of the liver – which are all linked to
nutrition11.
A major nutritional concern in Australia is excess weight. The Australian National
Nutrition Survey (1995) showed that a growing number of people are becoming
overweight or obese. This survey found that 47% of women and 63% of
men in Australia are overweight or obese compared to 34% of women and 48% of
men in 1989. In contrast, approximately 1.4% of Australian adults are underweight 10.
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Fruit and vegetables are protective
More than 130 dietary studies have revealed that a regular consumption of fruit and
vegetables provides significant protection against many cancers. A recently
published study of 2400 Greek women noted that vegetable and fruit consumption
was independently associated with significant reductions in the incidence of breast
cancer, a cancer claiming the life of 44,000 women in the US every year 3.
Protection from whole grains and nuts
Many of the cancer-preventative phytochemicals found in fruit and vegetables are
very similar to those found in whole grains. These substances reduce the risk of
cardiovascular disease and cancer. The active substances are concentrated in the
bran and the germ, so that the health benefits of grains are maximised when the
whole grain product is consumed. Nuts also contain a variety of nutrients and
phytochemicals. A number of studies have shown that a regular consumption of nuts
decreases the risk of dying from coronary heart disease6.
To help reduce health risks, the Australian Government Health
Department has published dietary guidelines covering three age
groups: Children and Adolescents in Australia, Australian Adults,
Older Australians.
1. DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR CHILDREN & ADOLESCENTS IN
AUSTRALIA8,9
Encourage and support breastfeeding
Children and adolescents need sufficient nutritious foods to grow and
develop normally
 Growth should be checked regularly for young children
 Physical activity is important for all children and adolescents
Enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods
Children and adolescents should be encouraged to:
 Eat plenty of vegetables, legumes and fruits
 Eat plenty of cereals (including breads, rice, pasta and noodles),
preferably wholegrain
 Include lean meat, fish, poultry and/or alternatives
 Include milks, yoghurts, cheese and/or alternatives
– Reduced-fat milks are not suitable for young children under 2 years,
because of their high energy needs, but reduced-fat varieties should
be encouraged for older children and adolescents
 Choose water as a drink
– Alcohol is not recommended for children
and care should be taken to:
 Limit saturated fat and moderate total fat intake
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– Low-fat diets are not suitable for infants
Choose foods low in salt
Consume only moderate amounts of sugars and foods containing
added sugars
Care for your child’s food: prepare and store it safely
2. THE DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AUSTRALIAN ADULTS8,9
Enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods
 Eat plenty of vegetables, legumes and fruits
 Eat plenty of cereals (including breads, rice, pasta and noodles), preferably
wholegrain
 Include lean meat, fish, poultry and/or alternatives
 Include milks, yoghurts, cheeses and/or alternatives. Reduced-fat varieties
should be chosen, where possible
 Drink plenty of water.
and take care to
 Limit saturated fat and moderate total fat intake
 Choose foods low in salt
 Limit your alcohol intake if you choose to drink
 Consume only moderate amounts of sugars and foods containing added
sugars.
Prevent weight gain: be physically active and eat according to your
energy needs
Care for your food: prepare and store it safely
Encourage and support breastfeeding
3. DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR OLDER AUSTRALIANS8,9
1.
Enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods.
2.
Keep active to maintain muscle strength and a healthy body weight.
3.
Eat at least three meals every day.
4.
Care for your food: prepare and store it correctly.
5.
Eat plenty of vegetables (including legumes) and fruit.
6.
Eat plenty of cereals, breads and pastas.
7.
Eat a diet low in saturated fat.
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8.
Drink adequate amounts of water and/or other fluids.
9.
If you drink alcohol, limit your intake.
10.
Choose foods low in salt and use salt sparingly.
11.
Include foods high in calcium.
12.
Use added sugars in moderation.
Let’s consider some of the main points of these guidelines, focusing
particularly on those for the Australian Adult.
1. Enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods. Variety means that we choose to eat
a mixture of foods across the range of food types, (cereals, vegetables,
legumes, fruit, protein rich foods, dairy foods etc,) and a variety within each type
(e.g. cereals - wheat, corn, oats, rice, etc.) on a regular basis. Variety does not
mean rotating through the different brands of cornflakes!
The nutritious and healthy diet will have as its central and essential core:
 Eat plenty of vegetables, legumes and fruits
In using vegetables, legumes, and fruits it is preferable to use those without
added fats, refined sugars and added salt, and including where possible, the
edible skins and seeds
 Vegetables. All vegetables, fresh and frozen, including potatoes, sweet
potatoes, peas, beans, tomatoes, all leafy green vegetables, all root
vegetables, pumpkin, squash, cucumber, zucchini, peppers, onion, shallots,
garlic, sweetcorn, asparagus, mushrooms etc.
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Legumes. Includes all canned or dried bean products – baked beans, lentils
and lentil flour products (e.g. pappadams), soya beans and soya flour
products (e.g. tofu, bean curd) red kidney beans, haricot beans, chick peas,
pinto beans, butter beans, mung beans etc.
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Fruits. All fruits including citrus fruits, apples, pears, bananas, tropical fruits,
stone fruits and berries.
 Eat plenty of cereals, preferably wholegrain
 Cereals (includes bread, breakfast cereals, pasta, grains, etc). The
wholegrain forms of these foods without added fats, refined sugars and salt
are preferable. For foods such as breads - where the commonly available
forms contain added salt - reduced salt forms should be sought. There are
many varieties of breads - Wholemeal, mixed grain, white, rye, Lebanese
(unleavened flat) breads, bread rolls, bagels, pumpernickel etc. Some
other cereal varieties include oats, rice, corn, polenta, semolina, barley,
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tapioca, burghul, millet, quinoa, etc.) Try to have at least three different
varieties of grains in a day.
These foods form the major part of the healthy diet in terms of quantity,
weight, volume and number of serves of food. In themselves these foods are
not high in fat or energy. A variety of different foods eaten each day will be
more likely to supply all the nutrients necessary for health than a diet chosen
from only a few foods7.
There is good evidence from studies in various populations around the world
that people who habitually consume diets high in plant foods have lower risks
of coronary heart disease, non-insulin dependent diabetes and cancers of the
lung, colon, oesophagus and stomach7.
 Include lean meat, fish, poultry and/or vegetarian alternatives
These foods provide protein and other nutrients to ensure adequate growth
and maintenance. They should be eaten in moderate amounts.
 Include milks, yoghurts, cheeses and/or soy alternatives.
These foods are high in calcium which is essential for the proper functioning of
the body processes and the maintenance of the body skeleton. These foods
should be eaten in moderation, taking care to use reduced fat varieties, except
in the case of infants.
 Drink plenty of water.
Because the body is largely made up of water and most body processes use
water, it is essential that the body be kept well hydrated. To be properly
hydrated in a temperate climate, adults require some 2500–3000 millilitres of
fluid a day, depending on body size5. Some of this comes from the food we
eat. At least 6 – 8 glasses of water for the average adult is necessary to
maintain good hydration with more required for larger adults and in times of
strenuous exercise and high temperatures. Encourage an early habit of
drinking clear fresh water.
2. Take care to
 Limit saturated fat and moderate total fat intake.
Fat is the most energy dense of all the nutrients. There is evidence that
humans have less capacity for metabolic adaptation to excess intake of fat
(i.e. above energy expenditure) than of carbohydrates. Further, there are
some reports that show obese people prefer higher fat diets than lean people.
Obesity is a major nutritional disorder among Australians.
High fat levels have been shown to increase the risk of heart disease, gall
bladder disease, some cancers, and obesity. The average Australian diet
contains too much solid fat from animal and vegetable sources. It is better to
use liquid vegetable oils in place of solid fat. Remembering the total fat intake
needs to be kept at a moderate level7.
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 Choose foods low in salt.
The Working Party on Sodium in the Australian Diet concluded that populations
with the highest known sodium intake greater than 300mmol/day, (approximately
6000 mg) have a higher prevalence of hypertension and high morbidity and
mortality from cerebrovascular disease, while those with an intake of sodium less
than 50 mmol/day, (approximately 1000 mg) have a low prevalence of
hypertension and a low mortality from cerebrovascular disease.
It is important to be aware that much of the Australian dietary sodium intake
comes from staple foods like bread, baked goods, many breakfast cereals, most
cheeses, margarine and butter as well as obviously salty, pickled, and snack
foods7.
 Limit your alcohol intake if you choose to drink.
Australians especially drink more alcohol than is good for their health.
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Alcoholic beverages contain ethyl alcohol, a drug which depresses or slows
down the activity of the body’s central nervous system. It is classed as a
sedative-hypnotic along with barbiturates and minor tranquillisers.
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Alcohol is a substance produced from fermentation of fruits, vegetables or
grains.
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There are three main groups of alcoholic beverages: beer, wine and spirits 7.
 Consume only moderate amounts of sugars and foods containing added sugars.
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Sugars have formed an important part of the Australian diet for as long as
recorded history, at least in forms such as honey.
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Refined sugar (sucrose) has been available since European settlement.
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The term ‘empty calories’ is often used to imply that the food or ingredient
provides relatively insignificant amounts of essential nutrients, or is of low
nutrient density. Sugars, particularly sucrose and refined sugars are highly
purified substances, providing a readily available source of energy, but
virtually no other nutrients and remain a major part of the ‘empty calories’ in
the Australian diet.
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While moderate quantities of sugars are used in a variety of mixed nutritious
foods enjoyed in a healthy diet, there are also many foods common in the
Australian diet of low nutrient density in which added sugars comprise the
major ingredient7.
3. Prevent weight gain: be physically active and eat according to your energy
needs.
There are health problems associated with carrying too much body fat.
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Extra weight means more work, especially for the heart.
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An increase in body weight is accompanied by an increase in the amount of
blood vessels through which the blood must be pumped.
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Extra weight also means extra work for the lungs and the digestive system.
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Excessive weight may put an added burden on the back and legs – it’s like
carrying around a suitcase weighing five, ten or twenty kilos wherever you go!
The latest information shows that it seems just as important to consider where we are
carrying the fat on our body, in addition to how much we are carrying. Excess fat
around the tummy area, in particular, increases your risk of certain health problems.
People gain weight due to an imbalance between the energy gained from the food
they eat and the amount of energy their bodies actually use up during the day. The
energy that is not used during the day is stored as body fat. If this imbalance
continues over time, a person may become overweight.
Exercise burns up the energy provided by food and increases the rate at which
energy is used for the rest of the day, thereby helping to reduce fat stores 7.
4. Care for your food: prepare and store it safely. Despite having one of the
world’s safest food-supply systems, Australia has seen an increase in the number of
reported foodborne illnesses in the last 10 years. Correct handling of food during all
stages of its preparation and storage is essential in reducing the incidence of
foodborne illness8,9.
The following are the main causes of foodborne illness in Australia:
 inadequate cooking
 improper holding temperatures
 contaminated equipment
 unsafe food sources
 poor personal hygiene4.
The following are examples of foods that are normally considered potentially
hazardous1:
 raw and cooked meat or foods containing raw or cooked meat—for
example, casseroles, curries and meat pies
 dairy products and foods containing dairy products—for example, milk,
custard and dairy-based deserts
 seafood and foods containing seafood
 cooked rice and pasta
 processed fruits and vegetables such as salads
 processed foods containing eggs or other protein-rich food
 foods that contain any of the foods just listed—for example, sandwiches.
The foods most commonly implicated in foodborne illness in Australia are meat
and seafood4.
5. Encourage and support breast-feeding. Breast-feeding is widely recognised by
health authorities as the most appropriate method for feeding infants and to be
closely related to infant health.
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Breast milk from a healthy well-nourished mother is adequate as the sole source
of nutrients for full term infants from birth until 4 – 6 months of life.
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Aside from the nutritional suitability, colostrum and human milk are hygienic and
provide immunoglobulins and other anti-infective agents, which play an important
role in protecting the infant against infection and disease.
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Breast milk is also a convenient and inexpensive food source7.
The Dietary Guidelines provide advice to the general population about healthy food
choices, so that their usual diet contributes to a healthy life-style and is consistent
with minimal risk for the development of diet-related diseases. It is estimated that the
current economic cost to the nation of the principal diet-related conditions—coronary
heart disease, stroke and cancer—is about $6 billion a year, so the potential
economic benefit of an effective nutrition-based preventive strategy is enormous8,9.
The latest guidelines focus more on food groups and lifestyle patterns, moving away
from specific nutrients. They seek to promote the potential benefits of healthy eating,
not only to reduce the risk of diet-related disease but also to improve the community’s
health and wellbeing8,9.
Nutrition is a complex science and communication of its messages demands more
information and explanation than can be given in brief statements. The guidelines
summarise current nutrition knowledge and act as triggers to other, more
comprehensive education programs for consumers.
FOOD FADS AND FALLACIES
Magazine articles and advertisements in the media regularly appear making all kinds
of false or misleading claims about various food and dietary products. The claims are
made in a most appealing and convincing manner. New dietary supplements
constantly appear on the shelves of health food shops and supermarkets.
Enthusiastic promoters claim that these new dietary products can fight disease, slow
aging, promote rapid weight loss, regulate hormones, enhance one’s energy level or
perform some other desirable function. Books are published to spread the “good
news” about such wonderful products3.
What sells the item is often not based on quality or reliability but upon the success of
the salesman to convince the consumer that they cannot live without the item being
promoted. The consumer should be very cautious and avoid getting ripped off by
some over-zealous salesman or health promoter who falsely claims they possess
certain knowledge about health or pretends to have certain skills or qualifications.
Such a person is called a quack. And their deceptions are not always easy to spot3.
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Warning signs of quackery and fraud
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Watch out for products and practices promoted as a “Major breakthrough”,
“Revolutionary”, “Magic”, or “Miraculous”.
Be cautious of promotions that try to elicit an emotional reaction than present
clear information that helps you make an informed decision about the product.
When only anecdotal or testimonial evidence is used to support claims of a
product’s effectiveness, beware. Quotes from numerous satisfied customers,
even satisfied doctors and nurses adorn Websites, ads on TV and radio and in
magazines and newspapers.
Even quacks will claim to have scientific evidence supporting their therapies.
Watch out for the following:
a. Few or no references given to original research studies
b. Studies done by only one researcher
c. Studies done at obscure, unknown institutions
d. Studies reported in obscure or virtually unknown journals
e. Studies reported decades ago
f. Studies that have not been repeated
g. Funding of research by someone with a financial or professional stake in
the results
There are a few questions that need to be addressed as one evaluates the
merits or otherwise, of some new products or program being sold or promoted.
 Is it physiologically sound?
 Is there solid scientific data to support its use?
 Is it consistent with a healthy lifestyle?
 What do other health professionals say about it?
 Is it safe and reliable, with no extra freebies thrown in as an enticement to buy?
 What is the life history and credentials of the person pushing it?
If you can give positive responses to all the above questions then it may be worth a
try. The old adage is certainly true in this situation: “If in doubt, leave it out” 3.
How to pick a food/health quack
The food quack is readily recognisable.
Such a person:
 Always has something to sell. It may be pills, diet plans, ‘organically grown
foods’, special dietary formulae or supplements, or even special cooking utensils.
 Makes extravagant claims and guarantees speedy cures or rapid weight loss.
 Claims to have advanced medical knowledge but alleges persecution by qualified
medical people.
 Uses plenty of names of well-known people – professors, medical researches
(whole genuine scientific data may be misquoted or misapplied), or even film stars
– who are numbered among patients.
 Is master of the scare technique and tries to convince you that in your present
state, illness or death is just around the corner.
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Some of the current fallacies and fraudulent claims made about food include
the following3:
 Our food is vitamin deficient because the crops are grown on soils that are so
depleted.
 Bread and potatoes are fattening. (These foods are high in complex
carbohydrates and only become a concern when we regularly add fat to them.
They should be part of a nutritious variety of food, prepared in a health promoting
manner.)
 Foods labelled as fat free are the healthiest choice. (We do not recommend a
‘fat-free’ diet.)
 Honey is more natural and healthier than sugar. (Honey contains traces of some
minerals and vitamins. These are in such small quantities that it is not a practical
source, considering the number of calories supplied, honey should be treated like
sugar and only used in small quantities.)
 Bee pollen enhances one’s youth and energy. (There is no scientific evidence to
prove this, as a matter of fact there are people who experience allergic reactions
to bee pollen and related products.)
 Lecithin lowers cholesterol and cures heart disease.
 Carbohydrate foods and protein foods should not be mixed together as they
cause indigestion and weakness.
 Raw foods are best as they contain live enzymes.
 Dietary choices should be made based upon one’s blood type.
 Organic food provides better nutrition than conventional foods.
 ‘Natural’ vitamins are promoted as being better than synthesized ones3.
In today’s world, many people are out to make a small fortune as quickly
as possible. Consumers need to be wary of health quacks that prey on
the public with their innocent sounding sales pitches. Anything offered
as a cure-all, is simply not that3.
ORGANICALLY GROWN FOODS
One of the main themes of the health food movement is that foods today lack
nutrients because soils are worn out and have lost their vitality from the use of
‘chemical’ fertilisers. The claim is made that only organically grown foods, that is,
foods grown without the use of any agricultural chemicals and processed without any
food chemicals or additives, are of value to humans15.
There is no scientific basis for such claims, and to some extent they arise from a lack
of understanding of plant chemistry. Organic matter (compost) does have value for
soil by improving soil texture and bacteria, and is a good way of providing nutrients
for plants. But providing organic matter for huge Australian wheat farms and even for
vegetable farms is impractical at present15.
In any case all organic matter has to be broken down to inorganic substances by soil
bacteria before being absorbed by plants. Plants really do not ‘care’ where their
nitrogen, phosphorus and other minerals come from. The science of agriculture has
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determined what plants need, and the necessary nutrients can then be supplied in
optimal amounts by fertilisers15.
Claims that soils are depleted and that foods grown in them are deficient ignore the
fact that plants grow and in the process, make vitamins for that growth. Plants either
absorb the nutrients they need or they do not grow. If needed nutrients are in short
supply, there will simply be fewer plants15.
Organic Food Statement by Dr Mark Wahlqvist: Professor of Medicine, Professor
of Human Nutrition, President of the International Union of Nutrition Sciences.
While consumers may wish to choose foods which have used different farming
techniques in their production, so-called ‘organic foods’ are not nutritionally superior
to the regular counterpart farmed by conventional agricultural methods.
A study comparing the nutritional value of potatoes, broccoli, cauliflower and
tomatoes grown by conventional or organic farming methods showed that for
nutrients analysed, the organically grown vegetables were not superior to the
conventionally grown produce.
Similarly, the Institute of Technologists (US) concluded that there is no evidence of a
nutritional or otherwise health benefit of organic foods over those that are farmed
conventionally.20
What are organic foods?
An organic food is considered to be a food that has been grown without artificial
fertilisers, pesticides or herbicides. Australia Organic farming emphasises the
conservation of water, soil and energy, the use of renewable resources and natural
farming cycles16.
Are organic foods more nutritious compared to conventional foods?
To-date, research has not shown that organic foods are consistently more (or less)
nutritious than conventional foods. A report from the Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO), indicated that in several studies, even when some nutritional
differences were found between organic and conventional foods, they were of minor
importance to overall health. Further work in this area is required for a definitive
answer to the question of whether organic foods are indeed nutritionally superior or
equivalent to their conventional counterparts17.
Is organic agriculture better for the environment?
The main objective of organic agriculture is to achieve an ecological balance between
the soil and its natural inhabitants, food crops and animal life. For example, the use
of physical weed control (instead of pesticide and herbicide use) and animal and
green manure (crops grown off-season and ploughed into the soil prior to planting),
helps to maintain biodiversity and natural soil fertility18.
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Are organic foods free from pesticides and do they taste better than
conventional foods?
Even if all organic farming practices are followed, organic foods cannot be defined as
pesticide free, as the soil may still be polluted from previous farming. However,
organic foods are generally lower in levels of chemicals such as pesticides,
herbicides and fertilisers compared to conventional foods17.
Several studies have been done to investigate the taste and texture properties of
organic foods compared to non-organic foods. Some studies have found that there
may be slight taste and texture differences with specific foods eg apples, tomatoes
and carrots. Overall, research has not shown significant taste differences between
organic and conventional foods17.
The final verdict on organics
The overriding advantage to eating organically grown foods is linked to environmental
issues. Organic farming is kinder to the environment and is more likely to be
sustainable. Although some studies have shown that particular organic products may
taste better, the available scientific evidence suggests that there is no significant
difference between the taste and nutritional content of organic foods compared to
conventional foods. It is likely that in the near future at least, organic foods will
continue to cost more than conventional foods19.
PESTICIDES
Pesticides are dangerous substances, which can be harmful to humans in certain
quantities, but the levels of pesticides found in Australian fruits and vegetables are
very low and are continuing to decline. The Australian Government Analytical
Laboratories carry out regular testing of pesticide levels for the Department of
Primary Industry, because, contrary to popular belief in health-food circles, authorities
are concerned that the levels of potentially dangerous substances are kept low12.
Without the insecticides and preservation methods now used, we could expect great
losses of products experienced in the past (and still experienced in some developing
countries). It has been estimated that as much as 30% of the food produced in the
world is lost by moulds, insects and other organisms. In Australia such losses are
rare because of our advanced agricultural knowledge12.
In Australia, the National Food Authority undertakes Australian Market Basket
Surveys (which are aimed at assessing the potential health hazard due to pesticide
residues and other contaminants) and is part of an international study Global
Environmental Monitoring System, to monitor contaminants in the diet 16.
The most recent studies found that all estimated dietary intakes of pesticides and
other contaminants were within ‘safe’ limits. The National Food Authority concluded
that ‘Australians can be confident in the safety of the food they eat from the viewpoint
of pesticides and contaminant levels’20.
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Including Food Issues
SOME FAD, CRASH AND OTHER QUESTIONABLE DIETS13
Fit for Life
False Mayo Clinic Diet
Calories Don’t Count Diet
Drinking Men’s Diet
Rotation Diet
Israeli Army Diet
Grapefruit Diet
Blood Type Diet
Cellulite Diet
Body Type Diet
Health Hazards of Fad Diets13
Fatigue
Weakness
Depression
Nausea
Dizziness
Osteoporosis
Hair loss
Constipation
Elevated Blood Fats
Heart Problems
Scarsdale Medical Diet
Beverly Hills Diet
Lecithin, Vinegar Diet
Meal Replacement Diet
Irritability
Headache
Dry skin
Intestinal Ailments
Kidney Problems
The Hallelujah Diet by Rev. George H. Malkmus
George Malkmus cured his colon cancer, twenty years ago, by following a pure fruit
and vegetable diet and drinking lots of carrot juice. He claims that thousands of
people have been cured of a variety of diseases including cancer by following God’s
way to ultimate health.
God created a perfect body……… (This statement ignores the accumulative effect of
sin)
“You don’t have to be Sick!”14 Is one of the slogans used by George and his wife
Rhonda. “Disease and sickness are self-inflicted.”14 “Almost every physical problem,
other than accidents, is caused by improper diet and lifestyle! All we have to do to be
well is eat and live according to the way God intended.”14
(While in general this is true, there are exceptions. He claims that everyone who
goes on his diet regains perfect health. His statement is very discouraging to those
unfortunate ones who do not get better.)
“Here at Hallelujah Acres we teach a different way….God’s way! We teach that
the only nourishment God ever intended to enter our bodies of ours is raw fruit and
vegetables. Period! That is it!”14
“The only thing that is cell food is raw food.”14 “You cannot support life with
death.”14 “All cooked food is dead food.”14
(These comments are entirely wrong. He omits the necessity to cook grains and
legumes; these foods supply important complex carbohydrates, protein and fibre.
These foods need to be cooked! Their nutrition content is actually improved by
cooking. Various substances in our food are more available to the system when
cooked, eg starch, beta-carotene, a precursor of Vitamin A in carrots, plus other
phytochemicals in plant foods. Cooking destroys Trypsin inhibitor in soybeans, which
makes the protein more available.)
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Unit 3
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“ A little cooked food is added for incentive. A reward to keep us on the straight
and narrow, not for nourishment.”14
(There is excellent nourishment in cooked food provided it is balanced with raw food.
It is in fact an essential part of our health and wellbeing. While it may be feasible for
some people to live on all raw permanently, it is not easy. A diet that contains all raw
food is not suitable for growing children or people who are physically active or doing
a lot of manual work. Some who read or hear the statements made about the
Hallelujah Diet may in their enthusiasm discard all cooked food and run into serious
trouble.)
Summary
This is a small sample of the raw food diet that George Malkmus promotes. Raw
foods are important in the diet. Carrot juice and other fruit and/or vegetable juice can
be included - one glass per day is sufficient when the diet contains enough fruit and
vegetables. It is actually better to consume whole foods and add a glass of juice if
you feel like it, or you feel you need some extra nutrients. Grains are an important
part of our daily food intake and should not be omitted or reduced to less than 6
serves a day for adults.
COMMENTS ON SOME POPULAR DIET BOOKS
Fit for Life13

A collection of food-fad notions that promote misconceptions about ‘food
combining’ and ‘detoxification’ and mystically tying them in with weight loss.

The diet plan is nutritionally unbalanced being low in calcium, iron, zinc, and
vitamin B12. This could damage health if followed strictly for a long period.
Unrealistic changes in eating habits are required. Flatulence and diarrhoea are
mentioned as side effects.

Numerous unscientific and false statements indicate:
It is not what you eat that makes the difference, but when you eat it and in what
combinations.
1. Protein foods and carbohydrates eaten at the same meal will ferment and
rot, and not be absorbed by the body.
2. Toxic wastes from unabsorbed food make people fat – not excessive
calories.
3. No food other than fruit should be eaten before noon. Fruit should never
be eaten with or following any other food.
4. Digestion uses more energy than anything else you do.
5. Adults who use milk products do not absorb nutrients as well as other
adults who don’t.
6. The degree of flatulence and diarrhoea to be expected by up to 10% of the
people on this ‘detoxification program’ depends on the level of toxicity in
the body.
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Including Food Issues

Weight may well be lost on this diet, not because of the reasons given, but
because the diet regime avoids certain foods and limits the number of eating
opportunities.
Beverly Hills Diet13

This is perhaps the worst fad diet book ever written. The author deserves an
award in ‘creative physiology’ for her misguided unscientific beliefs on digestion
and absorption.

The diet is a potential hazard. There are medical reports of people suffering
severe diarrhoea, muscle weakness and dizziness in their first week on the diet.
Death is possible if blood pressure drops low enough to interfere with blood
circulation.

The diet is also a nutritional disaster. Poor variety of foods does not provide
adequate nutrients to maintain health. Body protein needs are not being met and
excessive muscle tissue is likely to be lost instead of fat. Hair loss is also
possible.
REFERENCES:
1. Australia New Zealand Food Authority;
SAFE FOOD AUSTRALIA: A GUIDE TO THE FOOD SAFETY
STANDARDS - 2nd edition Canberra: ANZFA, 2001
2. Butler T;
HEALTH PROMOTING CHURCHES
AdHealth 2000:7 (WHO 1998)
3. Butler T, Butler D, Stanton H;
VEGETARIAN COOKING DEMONSTRATOR’S MANUAL –
2nd EDITION
Adventist Health Department &
Sanitarium Nutrition Education Service. 1995:E1-10
3. Craig W;
NUTRITION AND WELLNESS
Golden Harvest Books Berrien Springs Michigan. 1999:117,
295 - 300
4. Crerar S, Dalton D, Longbottom H, Kraa E;
FOODBORNE DISEASE: CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE
SURVEILLANCE NEEDS IN AUSTRALIA
Med J Aust 1996;165:672-675
5. Food and Nutrition Board;
RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES – 10th edition
Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1989.
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Unit 3
AN INTRODUCTION TO NUTRITION
Including Food Issues
6. Fraser G;
THE COMPLEXITY OF NUTS:
REDUCING THE RISK OF HEART DISEASE
Program and proceedings Sanitarium International Nutrition
Symposium. "Nouveau Nutrition: Traditional Foods,
Contemporary Science". March 2000:28
7. National Health and Medical Research Council;
DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AUSTRALIANS
Australian Government Publishing Service Canberra. 1992
8. National Health and Medical Research Council;
DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR CHILDREN & ADOLESCENTS
IN AUSTRALIA - 2003
DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AUSTRALIAN ADULTS - 2003
DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR OLDER AUSTRALIANS - 1999
Australian Government Publishing Service Canberra.
9. National Health and Medical Research Council;
http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/publications
10. Sanitarium Nutrition Education Service;
HEALTHY WEIGHT, HEALTHY BODY
Sanitarium Health Food Company. February 1999
11. Saxelby C;
NUTRITION FOR LIFE
Hardie Grant Books South Yarra Victoria. 1999:5-8
12. Stanton R;
FOOD FOR HEALTH – 2nd EDITION
W.B. Saunders Artarmon NSW. 1983:4-5
13. Borushek A;
ALLAN BORUSHEK’S DIET MANUAL
Family Health Publications West Perth. 1988:7-10
14. Malkmus G;
GOD’S WAY TO ULTIMATE HEALTH
Hallelujah Acres Publishing, Shelby, NC. 1998
15. Stanton R;
FOOD FOR HEALTH – 2nd EDITION
W.B. Saunders Artarmon NSW. 1983:131-132
16. Twyford-Jones P, Doolan R;
THE INTERNATIONAL MARKET FOR ORGANIC FOOD
Information series QI97129
Rural Industry Business Services
Department of Primary Industries Queensland. 1998
17. Food and Agriculture Organisation;
FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY
AS AFFECTED BY ORGANIC FARMING. 2000
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Including Food Issues
18. Choice Magazine;
ORGANIC FOOD – IS IT REALLY BETTER?
September. 2000
19. Sanitarium Nutrition Education Service;
GOOD FOOD NEWS – June 2001
Sanitarium Health Food Company
20. Wahlqvist M. L; FOOD AND NUTRITION - Australia and New Zealand 2nd Edition
Allen & Unwin Pty Ltd Crows Nest NSW. 2002:112, 130
57