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Biodiversity 5(3): 9-15, 2004. The Coastal Temperate Rainforests of Canada: The need for Ecosystem-Based Management habitat for several endemic taxa, including an unusual white form of black bear – the Kermode or Spirit bear (Ursus americanus kermodei). Although largely restricted to a few islands, the Spirit Bear is iconic of the entire region, which is popularly known as Great Bear Rainforest due to the abundance of the Spirit bears as well as other bears of great size (including grizzlies over a thousand pounds; Ursus arctos L.). Less conspicuous species of lichen, fungi and soil invertebrates comprise the majority of biota (Pojar 2003) and are critical for the maintenance of globally unique ecological processes such as the cycling of marine-derived nutrients distributed inland by migrating salmon and other anadromous fish (i.e., species that spend part of their life cycle migrating from the sea to fresh water to spawn). Grizzly bears, other carnivores, and scavengers including Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus L.) and Ravens (Corvus corax L.) carry large quantities of dead fish into the adjacent riparian forests each summer and fall – as much as 100 m upland of the streams, rivers and lakes where salmon spawn and die (T. Reimchen, personal communication 2002; Bilby et al. 2003). By tracking the distribution of the stable nitrogen isotope N15, which is prevalent in the bodies of migrating fish, scientists have detected a signature of this fertilizer effect in mosses, herbs, shrubs, insects, birds and the tree rings of mature trees (Gende et al, 2002; Hocking and Reimchen 2002; Bilby et al. 2003). This research indicates that the high species richness, productivity, and growth of riparian rainforests may depend upon the annual nutrient subsidy provided by migrating salmon, whose carcasses enrich F.M. Moola, D. Martin, B. Wareham, J. Calof, C. Burda, and P. Grames David Suzuki Foundation, 2211 West 4th Avenue, Vancouver B.C., Canada, V6K 4S2 [email protected] Abstract. The Central and North Coast and Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands regions of British Columbia (B.C.) contain the world’s largest remaining areas of intact coastal temperate rainforest. The region has been the focus of intense conflict among environmentalists, forestry companies, First Nations and other interests over the management of these high conservation value old growth forests. Recently completed land use planning processes have recommended increasing protection and improving forest practices on the rest of the landbase to more environmentally responsible methods defined by the guiding principles of Ecosystem Based Management (EBM). Based on an audit of logging plans (silvicultural prescriptions) approved between January 15, 2002 and February 24, 2003, The David Suzuki Foundation recently assessed current logging practices in the region. While forestry companies are not legally obliged to use the recommended EBM standards at this time, our assessment underscores how current logging practices fail to meet agreed-upon EBM standards. Firstly, clearcutting remains the dominant method of logging and where alternative methods have been attempted, in-block retention levels are low. Secondly, little effort has been demonstrated that would protect small fish–bearing streams (including salmonid bearing streams) or their tributaries within managed forest stands. A Kermode, or “spirit bear,” eating a salmon (Photo credit: Ian McAllister/Raincoast Conservation Society). INTRODUCTION A globally significant region at risk. The coastal temperate rainforests of British Columbia’s central and north coast and outer archipelago of Pacific islands (Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands) are globally significant, owing to the predominance of intact old– growth forests consisting of trees of immense size and longevity (Ricketts et al. 1999). These forests sustain some of the world’s largest remaining wild pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) runs, intact predator–prey systems regulated by large carnivores, and they are B I O D I V E R S I T Y 5 ( 3 ) 2 0 0 4 9 an otherwise nutrient poor habitat (Gende et al. 2002). It is as though migrating salmon and other anadromous species extend the roots of these rainforests far into the Pacific Ocean. Great Bear Rainforest—Spiller Channel. (Unless otherwise noted all photos provided courtesy of the David Suzuki Foundation). Unlike comparable temperate rainforests to the south (e.g., Vancouver Island), the inaccessibility of the region, rugged topography, and high labor costs have spared many forested valleys from being logged to date. The most recent data indicate that about 9% of the total forested landbase of the region has been logged thus far, almost exclusively by large-scale clearcutting (Martin, unpublished results). Even though most of the remaining forested land base is severely constrained to further logging (Pojar et al. 1999), most of the unprotected, biologically rich valley-bottom old growth forests have already been logged or are under cutting rights to several major forestry companies and First Nations. Furthermore, pressures from industrial forestry across the region are increasing as timber resources have been exhausted elsewhere in the province and new technologies, such as helicopter logging, provide access to old-growth timber once thought to be out of the reach of commercial interests (e.g., steep forested slopes). The productive valley bottoms and adjacent mid-slopes targeted by industry are also where most of the critical areas for biodiversity occur (Jeo et al.1999). For example, a recent report published by the David Suzuki Foundation (Martin et al. 2004) found that 70.1 % of the areas deemed most feasible for timber harvesting (i.e., the Timber Harvesting Landbase, THLB) include the most biologically valuable areas on the Central Coast - areas of considerable intactness and high aggregate conservation value (Rumsey et al. 2004). As the THLB spatially defines those locales that are most accessible to logging and where the biggest and most valuable trees are found, it may indicate pending threats to an area from future forest development. McCrory et al. (2003) found a relatively high overlap between keystone ecosystems (i.e., systems with an ecological impact disproportionately large relative to their abundance; Pojar 10 T R O P I C A L C 2003), such as black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis R.) old growth deer winter range, and commercial forest interests on the Central Coast. Owing to the high timber values associated with deer winter range, McCrory et al. (2003) predicted that as much as 82 % of this keystone ecosystem type in unprotected areas could be lost within 100 years if current logging rates prevail. As the abundance of old growth deer winter range is a limiting factor for Black-tailed Deer populations, reductions in this threatened habitat type are likely to have serious cascading effects on trophic relationships of which deer are a critical component (competition, herbivory, predation), most significantly predator–prey interactions involving gray wolves (Canis lupus L.) and other apex predators. SEEKING A SOLUTION While recent comprehensive assessments of biodiversity values in the Great Bear Rainforest and Haida Gwaii confirm an ecological imperative for conservation, it is also a region perceived by industry and government as a frontier with immense potential for economic exploitation through not only industrial forestry, but mining, aquaculture and offshore oil and gas development. Furthermore, the area contains the traditional territories of numerous First Nations, which hold legally recognized rights and title interests over the landbase and its resources, including timber. Definition of these rights is the subject of ongoing negotiations and legal proceedings. Thus it is not surprising that management and use of these rainforests has been the focus of intense debate, including international protest by conservationists and some First Nations. Nevertheless, on April 4, 2001 under the glare of television cameras and the din of native drumming - the British Columbia government and eight First Nations whose traditional territories encompass the region, signed a landmark agreement, the General Protocol Agreement, to protect some areas and explore options for radically altering forestry practices. At the same time, the B.C. government announced an interim landuse plan for the Central Coast (Central Coast Land and Resource Plan; CCLRMP) that recommended specific areas for protection and reiterated a similar commitment to explore options for changing forest management on the rest of the landscape. These two agreements signaled a high level of commitment to increasing protection beyond the status quo and represented an unprecedented opportunity to define options for realizing more sustainable logging and land-use practices on the unprotected landscape, under the guiding principles of Ecosystem Based Management (EBM). Informed by science, recommendations to the B.C. government for the designation of protected areas and EBM were developed through multistakeholder negotiations at land use planning tables. O N S E R V A N C Y salmon streams and their tributaries within managed stands. The full assessments (Martin et al. 2003, 2004) can be found at: www.canadianrainforests.org. Final protected area designations and the prescription for EBM are now dependent on the outcome of further negotiations between individual First Nations and the B.C. Government. Recently completed (June 2004) multi-stakeholder land use planning processes for the Central and North Coast Districts recommended protection for 21–24 % of the landbase (including existing parks), in which logging, mining, and hydroelectric development are prohibited, but other uses, such as hunting and traditional harvesting by First Nations are permitted. An additional 11–12 % of both districts are recommended for protection under the designation of “biodiversity areas,” which prohibit logging, but remain open to mining, tourism development, road building and various forms of commercial recreation. The sport hunting of apex carnivores, such as grizzly bears, will be permitted throughout the region except for a few small grizzly bear management zones where hunting is temporarily prohibited (Gilbert et al. 2004). Wolves and Blackphased Black Bears (i.e., not Spirit bears; U. americanus) can be hunted throughout the region, consistent with current government policy for the entire province. METHODS Ninety-six percent of forestland in British Columbia is publicly owned and is managed almost exclusively by the provincial government (Canadian Forest Service 2003). Before a company can log a forest on public land in the province it must provide the government with detailed information on how and where areas will be harvested and eventually re-forested. Companies provide this information in a document called a Silvicultural Prescription (SP). Under current forestry regulations, SPs must be approved by government before any cutting can take place and the company is legally required to carry out their logging practices exactly according to the plan. The management details included in SPs can be used to assess stand-level impacts of forestry on biodiversity. This information includes whether the forest will be clearcut or not, the forest cover retained after logging as retention, the size of the cutblock, and whether small fish streams (including salmonid systems) or their tributaries will be protected from the direct effects of logging (e.g., cutting of riparian areas). While the negotiated land use plans recommended a significant increase in the total area for protection, they have been criticized by conservation biologists who question their conservation efficacy in terms of the size and spatial configuration (Gilbert et al. 2004; Martin et al. 2004), representation of ecosystems (e.g., rare forest types) (Wells et al. 2003), inclusion of optimal habitat for focal species (particularly large carnivores) (Gonzales et al, 2003; Martin et al, 2004; Paquet et al. 2004), and degree of protection from all ecologically damaging human activities (e.g., sport hunting, mining and road building) (Gilbert et al. 2004). Collectively, the weaknesses in formal protection provide a strong ecological incentive for the cautious management of the surrounding matrix landscape under EBM. But despite the $3 million that was spent on developing EBM with the assistance of an independent science panel (Coast Information Team - www.cit.org), the land-use tables adopted few prescriptive elements of EBM, thus deferring the prescriptive details and implementation of EBM to Government, forestry companies and First Nations. This paper presents a review of 185 SPs that were approved by the BC government between January 15, 2002 and February 24, 2003 on the North and Central Coast, Queen Charlotte (Haida Gwaii), and the southern portion of the Kalum Forest Districts. A previously published assessment examined 227 cutblocks approved between April 4, 2001 and January 3 4 The David Suzuki Foundation has assessed all logging that has occurred outside of current and proposed protected areas in the Great Bear Rainforest and Haida Gwaii since the April 1st 2001 Agreement was signed (Martin et al. 2003, 2004). Although we used a suite of stand and landscape-level indicators in our logging reviews, this paper presents only those findings related to the amount of clearcutting, retention levels within cutblocks and degree of protection offered to small B I O D I V E R S I 2 1 T Y 5 ( 3 ) 2 0 0 4 11 Map of the study area showing forest districts. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Prevalence of clearcutting This photo (top) shows that the trees removed (the stumps in the foreground) are much larger than the trees left behind. It also shows that the trees left behind are being severely impacted by windthrow. The stand is the basic unit of forest management and for some species the effects of logging occur directly at this level (Roberts and Gilliam 1995).This is especially true for species that are sensitive to the direct impacts of disturbance (e.g., saprophytic and mycorrhizal vascular plants (Schoonmaker and McKee 1988) and/or recover slowly during secondary succession (e.g., epiphytic lichens) ( Price and Hochachka 2001). In an effort to maintain or “lifeboat” biodiversity within logged areas, the independent CIT science panel recommended that retention-based logging methods should be used to harvest trees rather than clearcutting. The panel suggested that a minimum of 15 % of the basal area of the pre-disturbance stand should be left standing in logged areas, though much higher levels would be necessary (up to 70 %) in landscapes or watersheds with higher ecological values (e.g., high quality fish habitat). Retention based logging has numerous ecological benefits for species over conventional clearcutting methods. These include: z Providing structural legacies of old growth habitat within regenerating stands (e.g. large standing dead trees, downed decaying logs). z Providing some assemblage of old growth forest cover to enhance connectivity within managed stands and watersheds. z Moderating sudden changes in microclimatic and other environmental conditions following canopy removal. Despite the ecological imperatives against conventional clearcutting, we found that it remains the most common method of logging on the coast (57 % of cutblocks) and where alternative logging methods have been attempted, retention levels are below the 15% minimum threshold Weyerhaeuser logging block, Haida Gwaii (bottom). Chart 1 Figures on opposite page: West Fraser logging block, Kalum Forest District (top). Western Forest Products logging block (middle) (showing a logging-related landslide), Central Coast Forest District. (Photo credit: Ian McAllister/Raincoast Conservation Society). This photo (bottom) graphically depicts 33 stream segments that do not not have protective streamside buffers. West Fraser logging block, Kalum Forest District. 15, 2003 (Martin et al. 2003) in the same area. SPs were obtained through the Freedom of Information Act. Both reviews covered a total area of approximately 11 million ha, along the Northwest Pacific coast from the Alaskan border south to Knight Inlet and from the summits of the coastal ranges west to the outer archipelago of Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Islands (see Map). Within this large area, approximately 6 - 12 % of the landbase contains commercial forests available for timber harvesting (Rumsey et al. 2004). While forestry companies were not obliged to use EBM standards during the review period, our assessment shows how far current logging practices are from EBM standards recommended by the CIT science panel. A detailed description of the methods used to analyze the SPs is available in the appendix of the full reports (Martin et al. 2003, 2004) and can be obtained at www.canadianrainforests.org. 12 T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C Y The paucity of data on the habitat requirements of most temperate rainforest species, particularly non-vertebrate taxa, complicates efforts to set prescriptive EBM thresholds at the stand scale. Nevertheless, the data that is available suggests that increases in forest canopy retention provide area-weighted benefits in terms of the abundance, diversity and composition of pre-disturbance species within logged areas. A recent unpublished review (Moola 2003) suggests that with higher in-block retention both the abundance and richness of late-seral species remains much more similar to pre-disturbance levels (Beese and Bryant 1999) and species are less susceptible to local extinction after harvesting (Sullivan and Sullivan 2001). Similarly, at the community level, ecosystems exhibit a much greater stability in composition after harvesting when a greater amount of retention is retained within logged areas (Deal 2001). The greater stability in composition is expressed as both a higher ability of ecosystems to withstand (high resistance) or recover (high resilience) from logging disturbance over time. recommend by the CIT science panel (see Chart 1). The complete or near total removal of the forest canopy by clearcutting does not provide adequate habitat in the form of late-seral structure on site, nor does it maintain the environmental conditions necessary to preserve late-seral species during the open-phase of stand development (Moola and Vasseur 2003). A sere is a series of ecological communities formed in ecological succession. Late-seral species across widely disparate taxonomic groups exhibit significant reductions in abundance when the majority of the forest canopy is removed at one time (Beese and Bryant 1999; Deal 2001). The most sensitive species to clearcutting include: a) species limited in their dispersal abilities (e.g., flightless arthropods, mycorrhizal fungi, amphibians); b) species with low reproductive potential (e.g., understory herbs, canopy arthropods) and c) species dependent upon forest interiors (e.g., leafy liverworts, epiphytic lichens). While most representative species of these groups are not regionally rare or currently threatened, their dependency upon late-seral microhabitats (e.g., downed decayed wood), as well as their life-history (e.g.,low growth and reproduction rates) predisposes them to extirpation after clearcutting and can preclude their recovery to predisturbance levels of abundance within typical rotation periods (Halpern 1989; Moola and Vasseur 2003). For example, clonal migration rates of less than 5 cm/yr have been reported from a wide variety of late-successional understory herbs in coastal rainforests of the Pacific Northwest (Antos and Zobel 1984; Lezberg et al. 1999). Dispersal of new genotypes in many late-seral plants is similarly restricted by the absence of morphological adaptations or vectors that can facilitate long-distance dispersal of seeds. Although little is known about the sexual migration rates of late-seral plants in managed coastal rainforest landscapes, studies in other temperate forests have found that most species have a low capacity for long-distance migration as seeds are dispersed only short distances from the parent plant (Hermy et al. 1999). These include plants whose seeds are dispersed by gravity or are ballistically disseminated over very short distances (Meier et al. 1995). The diaspores of many other forest species are distributed by animal vectors that are themselves dispersal limited, restricting the range at which deforested areas can be recolonized (Meier et al., 1995). For example, invertebrate vectors such as ants (myrmecochores, e.g. Viola spp.) (Meier et al. 1995) and frugivorous slugs (endozoochores, e.g. Ariolimax columbianus Gould) (Gervais et al. 1998) have restricted home ranges. Slugs in western Washington traveled between 5 m and 15 m daily, but the total area covered amounted to only a few square meters (Richter 1976). Despite their restricted ranges at the patch scale, slugs play a major role in plant dispersal and nutrient cycling (Meier et al. 1995; Gervais et al, 1998). B I O D I V E R S I Lack of protection for small salmon streams and their tributaries Due to their disproportionate influence on trophic structure, function and diversity, salmon are a keystone species in coastal temperate rainforests (Jeo et al, 1999; Gende et al, 2002). Salmon perform a critical role in T Y 5 ( 3 ) 2 0 0 4 13 lity of salmon habitat (Slaney et al. 1996; Jeo et al, 1999). Unlike other jurisdictions in the Pacific Northwest, legislation in British Columbia (Forest Practices Code and the recently introduced Forest and Range Practices Act) does not mandate protection of streamside forests (through buffers or riparian corridors) on small fishbearing streams (including salmonid systems; class S4) or their tributaries (classes S5 and S6). In contrast, the CIT independent science panel recommended a minimum buffer of one-and-a-half standard tree heights for streams and other riparian features that contribute to high quality fish habitat, including small occupied channels and their tributaries. Because buffers alone will not ensure the maintenance of key riparian functions in managed forests the science panel also recommend that between 30-70% of managed watersheds should be protected from incremental loss of old growth forest cover from logging. Chart 2 . Of the 185 sites we examined, 99% of small salmon streams (class S4) flowing through cutblocks lacked a full protective buffer (see Chart 2). Of these impacted streams, 42% were logged completely to their banks. Although 57% of stream segments were provided with partially logged buffers, riparian areas still remain at risk from the falling and hauling of cut trees through stream reaches, which is not prohibited under current legislation. Only 1% of small salmon streams were provided with full riparian protection in the form of an unlogged buffer. Pacific Salmon (top) (Courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, creator Timothy Knepp). Biologists with Chinook Salmon. (bottom) (Courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service). CONCLUSION the ecosystem both as an important food source for numerous terrestrial predators and scavengers and as an upstream vector in the distribution of marine-derived nutrients in both aquatic and terrestrial communities (Gende et al, 2002). Salmon are also particularly sensitive to habitat disturbance from forest development, including logging within or near occupied channels or within smaller source tributaries (Slaney et al, 1996). The logging of the riparian area around small fish-bearing streams or their tributaries can cause considerable damage to the bottoms and banks of these streams, thus potentially impacting salmon populations. This damage can arise from the landing of cut trees into and/or the dragging of cut logs through stream reaches. When riparian areas are logged, erosion and the deposition of sediment and debris (dead wood, gravel and mud) can limit the movement of fish and choke spawning areas. Removal of riparian vegetation can also negatively impact nutrient inputs, flow regime, and water temperatures that influence the qua- 14 T R O P I C A L The temperate rainforests of British Columbia’s north Pacific coast and outer archipelago (Great Bear Rainforest and Haida Gwaii) present one of the last opportunities worldwide to conserve wildlands that still support viable populations of all native species (including large carnivores), that maintain ecological and evolutionary processes within their natural range of variability, and that comprise the full suite of representative ecosystems (e.g., old growth forests) in their natural state (Noss 2000). However, the results of recent multi-stakeholder planning processes fail to offer enough area for conservation and suffer from serious flaws that may undermine the long-term ability to maintain these and other conservation attributes of critical importance. Of particular concern is the fact that completed landuse plans leave the most important habitat for key focal species, such as Grizzly Bears and Salmon, outside of formally designated protected areas (Martin et al. 2004, Paquet et al. 2004). We are in agreement with many conservation biologists who firmly believe that core protected areas are the “cornerstone of conservation” (pg. 197, Noss 2000). Hence, the identified problems in the protected areas (Gonzales et al. 2003, Martin et al. 2004, Paquet et al. 2004) need to be remedied. For this to happen, the following must occur: Identification and protection of buffer zones and corridors (Noss 2000). Expansion of protected areas that are too small to maintain viable populations of wide-ranging carnivores such as Grizzly Bears or Coastal Wolves (Gilbert et al. 2004, Martin et al. 2004). Legal protection of wide-ranging carnivores from all ecologically damaging human activities, z z z C O N S E R V A N C Y Lezberg, A.L., J. Antos, and C.B. Halpern. 1999. Belowground traits of herbaceous species in young coniferous forests of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Canadian Journal of Botany 77:936-943. Martin, D., F.M. Moola, B. Wareham, J. Calof, C. Burda, and P. Grames. 2004. Canada’s Rainforests: 2004 Status Report. David Suzuki Foundation, Vancouver. [Available at http:// www.canadianrainforests.org] Martin, D., F. M. Moola, B. Wareham, A. O’Carrol, C. Burda, I. McAllister, and P. Grames. 2003. Clearcutting Canada’s Rainforests: 2003 Status Report. David Suzuki Foundation, Raincoast Conservation Society, Forest Watch of B.C., Vancouver. [Available at http://www.canadianrainforests.org] McCrory, W.P., P. Paquet, and B. Cross. 2003. Assessing conservation values for gray wolf and Sitka deer - B.C. central coast rainforest. Valhalla Wilderness Society, New Denver. [Available at http:// www.savespiritbear.org] Meier, A.J., S. Power, Bratton, and D.C. Duffy. 1995. Possible ecological mechanisms for loss of vernal-herb diversity in logged eastern deciduous forests. Ecological Applications 5:935-946. Moola, F. M. 2003. Effectiveness of life-boating late seral species in green-tree retention harvests: a review, David Suzuki Foundation, Vancouver. 5 pp. Moola, F. M., and L. Vasseur. 2003. Recovery of late-seral vascular plants in a chronosequence of post-clearcut forest stands in coastal Nova Scotia, Canada. Plant Ecology 172:183 - 197. Noss, R. 2000. Maintaining the ecological integrity of landscapes and ecoregions. Pages 191 - 208 in D. Pimentel, L. Westra, and R. Noss (Eds). Ecological integrity: integrating environment, conservation and health. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Paquet, P., C. T. Darimont, R. J. Nelson, and K. Bennett. 2004. A critical examination of protection for key wildlife and salmon habitats under proposed British Columbia Central Coast Land and Resource Management Plan. Raincoast Conservation Society, Victoria. 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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The authors would like to thank Dorothy Bartoszewski, Panos Grames, Dave Taylor and Jean Kavanagh who contributed to the full study (Martin et al. 2004). Numerous other individuals and organizations assisted with funding, field work, data analysis and reviews. The list of names can be found at www.canadianrainforests.org. REFERENCES Antos, J. A., and D. B. Zobel. 1984. Ecological implications of belowground morphology of nine coniferous forest herbs. Bot. Gaz. 145:508-517. Beese, W.J., and A.A. Bryant. 1999. Effect of alternative silvicultural systems on vegetation and bird communities in coastal montane forests of British Columbia, Canada. Forest Ecology and Management. 115, 231 - 242. Bilby, R.E., E.W. Beach, B.R. Fransen, J.K. Walter, and P.A. Bisson. 2003. Transfer of nutrients from spawning salmon to riparian vegetation of western Washington. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 132:733 - 745. Canadian Forest Service, C. F. 2003. State of Canada’s forests: 2002 2003. Cat. 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