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PAG Terminology What it means: Date My example: noun Words that name people, places, things or ideas. A naming word used to name a person (proper noun), place (proper noun) of thing. E.g. Mrs Brown, Bridport, dog. noun phrase Two or more words that act as a noun. a dog (simple noun phrase) a cute little dog with pointy ears (expanded noun phrase) An adjective gives more information about (describes) a noun. A verb names an action. A word or group of words in a phrase which act as a noun, e.g. Lily wore a beautiful red dress. The group of words, ‘a beautiful red dress,’ is a phrase and functions as a noun in this sentence. adjective verb adverb tense (past, present) apostrophe comma A word that describes a noun e.g. a blue balloon. A verb describes what someone is doing, e.g. Jade walked to her friend’s house. The dog jumped up and down. My dad was thinking. A word that describes a verb, usually ending in –ly. For example, she ran quickly. An adverb gives more information about (describes) a verb. How, when, where and how often. This shows when the action takes place. A tense is the form of a verb that shows the time when an action takes place – past / present / future. This shows when either letters are missed out of a word (contraction) or when something belongs to someone or something (possession). E.g. I am singing (present tense). I walked (past tense). I will be going shopping (future tense). An apostrophe is a mark used to show that a letter has been left out. Example: he is can be written he’s. Apostrophes are also used to show ownership. Examples: the cat’s bowl, the cats’ bowls. This is used to show a break in a sentence, or to separate items in a list. A comma separates units of meaning in a sentence, e.g. Lana bought some apples, grapes, bananas and plums for her lunch. Sara, although she was tired, carried on cleaning. A comma can also be used: After transitional phrases like However, Consequently, or As a result (e.g., As a result, I now understand. ) After a long subject if it helps the reader (e.g., A, B, C, and D, are required to bake this cake. Before a speech sentence (e.g., She said, "I understand." “I understand,” she said. ) ) inverted commas These are used to show when someone is actually speaking. conjunction This links words, or groups of words. preposition A preposition shows how things are related….the position of something, the time something happens, or the way something is done. word family A group of words which are related to each other by spelling, grammar or meaning. clause A group of words in a sentence that contains a verb, and can be used as a complete sentence. subordinate clause A clause which gives more meaning to the main clause. (if, that, when, because, although). direct speech but does not make sense on its own. E.g. I like running although its hard work. This is where the actual words a character says is written by using inverted commas. present progressive The present progressive tense is used for an on-going action in the present. pronoun A subordinate clause adds detail to the main clause A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Caroline is looking for the latest brochure. Dan and Billy are fishing off the pier. determiner A determiner goes in front of a noun and its adjectives to help to tell you which person or thing the sentence is about, or how much or how many of them are. possessive pronoun Possessive pronouns show 'who owns it,’ (possesses it). Also, all possessive nouns i.e. Sarah’s dog was ill (Sarah’s) are possessive pronouns. adverbial This is a word or phrase which gives you more information about the verb – it doesn’t necessarily have to be an adverb. modal verb This is a helping verb (auxiliary) which is used to express possibility, as well as the future. relative pronoun This introduces more information about the noun. relative clause This is a type of subordinate clause, connected to the main clause by words such as: that, which, who, whom and whose. parenthesis The words inside brackets, commas or dashes. bracket A punctuation mark used to separate a word or phrase which has been added to a sentence as an afterthought. dash A punctuation mark used to separate a word or phrase which has been added to a sentence as an afterthought. Dashes are more informal than a pair of commas or brackets. cohesion How different parts of a piece of writing fit together. e.g. her/hers, his, my/mine, our/ours, your/yours, their/theirs. Parentheses are words, phrases or clauses inserted into sentences which are grammatically complete without them. The information, which can be removed and the sentence still make sense, goes inside the brackets. Example: Andrew (our best goalkeeper) saved the goal. Dashes (parentheses) can be used instead of commas in these types of sentences. Simply replace each comma with a dash. E.g. The flower – which was yellow – grew at the bottom of the garden. ambiguity Something that is open to more than one interpretation. subject This is the person or the thing that does the action of the verb. Often this is the noun that comes just before the verb. object The object says who or what is acted upon by the verb. Often this a noun which comes just after the verb. active This is where the subject is doing the action. passive This is where the subject is being acted on. What Is Passive Voice? A verb is said to be in the passive voice when its subject does not perform the action of the verb. In fact, the action is performed on the subject. Look at this example of the passive voice: Passive voice is a quality of a verb that describes when the subject of a sentence is acted upon by the verb. When the opposite is true (i.e., the subject of the sentence is acting out the verb), it is said to be in active voice. ellipses A punctuation mark which shows a word has been missed out, or a sentence is not finished. Ellipsis is leaving out words or phrases which are expected or predictable. The ellipsis ( . . . ) shows that words have deliberately been left out of a text and can be used to create mystery, suspense or a trailing thought. E.g. Sarah had been feeling very unsettled recently but she didn’t know why… semi-colon A punctuation mark that can be used in lists, or to show a break in a sentence. Often this is more important than using a comma. A semicolon contains a comma and a full stop. It is helpful to remember this. A semicolon is stronger than a comma, but not as final as a full stop. Semicolons are used to link sentences that are closely related. For example: The wood was silent and absolutely still; Little Red Riding Hood realised that she had not truly seen its beauty until now. colon A punctuation mark which introduces the part of a sentence to give examples or explanations. Also, using a colon adds precision to writing. You can think of a colon as the language version of an equals sign (=) in mathematics. The information on the left of the colon equals the information on the right. Colons are used to expand a sentence. A colon is used to introduce an idea that is an explanation or continuation of the one that comes before the colon. For example: There was only one thing the wolf wanted to do now: eat that juicy Little Red Riding Hood. The flaw in the wolf’s plan was clear to see: he looked nothing like Grandma. bullet points A punctuation mark used to organize a list to make it clear. Bullet points, like numbered lists, help to break down a set of key ideas or items so that the reader can see them all easily. We use bullets instead of numbers when the items in the list don’t need to go in any particular order. Why do we need punctuation in a bullet point list? Aren’t the bullet points the punctuation? Well, no – they’re just a way of laying out your information more clearly for the reader. However, the information on some bullet point lists needs to follow specific punctuation rules. You could put some individual facts about a topic into a bullet point fact box, for example in a report. Facts are usually given as statements in a sentence…using a capital letter and full stop. E.g. Fascinating Space Facts - Because of Mars’s lower gravity, you would weigh less there than you do on Earth. Questions are typically in sentences, so they need a capital letter and question mark. Questions for Queen Victoria o How many children do you have? o Which is your favourite palace? When you make a list of names, for example people in a team or countries of the world, each name must have a capital letter at the start. Netball team Jamie D Stefano A bullet point list is a really clear way to show a set of resources or equipment needed. These items are usually just words or phrases, so they don’t need sentence punctuation. If your list has a stem followed by a colon, each item needs a semi-colon except the last, which has a full stop. You will need: • tea bags; • milk; hyphen This is used to join two or more words, and to avoid any confusion over meaning. Hyphens join together words or parts of words. E.g. small-scale, re-formed. Hyphens are very useful as they can help to clarify the meaning of a word or phrase and avoid ambiguity in writing. E.g. Paula decided to resign from her job. Steve re-signed his contract. Hyphens are joiners. They join the words in a compound adjective (e.g., six-foot table, silver-service waitress), and they join the words in compound nouns (e.g., paper-clip, cooking-oil). They can also join prefixes to words (e.g., ultra-expensive, re-establish). Their main purpose is to show the joined words are a single entity (e.g., a single adjective or a single noun). They are also useful to avoid ambiguity (e.g., a hyphen makes it clear that a paper-clip is a clip for paper and not a clip made of paper). Why do we use hyphens? (1) To make it easier to read. (2) To showcase your writing skills a little. (3) To make the meaning of your writing clearer. More examples can be found at: http://grammar-monster.com/punctuation/using_hyphens.htm present perfect Perfect tenses add information to the verb in order to be more precise about when the action happened. I have walked down this street before. Present perfect: I have lived in London since I was born. have lived tells us that the action began in the past, but is still continuing in the present. In contrast, I lived in London indicates that the action is finished, and means I no longer live in London. She has swam in the sea. They have chatted since their meeting last Tuesday. fronted adverbials to be An adverbial is a phrase that tells us more about the verb. A fronted adverbial is placed at the START of the sentence with a comma at the end of it. It tells us how, why, when or where an action is done. When the singer stopped, everyone clapped The verbs that express a state of being take a little practice to spot, but, actually, they are the most common. The most common verb is the verb to be. Below is the verb to be in the different tenses: Subject Verb to be in Verb to be in Verb to be in the past tense the present the future tens tense I was am will be The 4 Present Tenses Example simple present tense I go present progressive tense I am going present perfect tense I have gone present perfect progressive tense I have been going You were are will be He / She / It was is will be We were are will be You were are will be They were are will be