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Chapter 15 The Age of Religious Wars and Overseas Expansion General Notes The Reformation and the overseas expansion changed dramatically the life of people between 1560 and 1648 Renaissance and Reformation inspired literature, art and music The overseas expansion connected Europe with Africa, Asian and both Americas Politics, Religion and War France and Spain ended the Habsburg-Valois Wars in 1559 with the Treaty of CateauCambrèsis Spain won Sicily, Naples and Milan, and a lot of influence in the Papal States and Tuscany The wars stopped being dynastic, leaving politics and religion to motivate people The wars in 16th and 17th century differed from Medieval ones – larger armies, cheaper equipment and support, and gunpowder made war more deadly The Peace of Westphalia, signed in 1648 marked the end of the medieval era The Medieval ideal of a single ruler and church was recognized as dead – many countries had several councilors next to their ruler, and the Protestantism kept opposing the Catholicism. Very few people that their lives had been changed The Origins of Difficulties in France (1515-1559) The first half of 16th century was time for recovery for France Peasants’ status improved and nobles’ declined Francis I (r. 1515-1547) made a big step into centralizing the country, placing the whole of France under the jurisdiction of the royal courts, with French, as official language Taxes were rough The Concordat of Bologna gave French rulers the power to appoint church officials, which kept France Catholic later on Clergy education was poor as anywhere else Lutheran and Calvinist ideas found a receptive audience Protestants were slowly growing in numbers Religious Riots and Civil War in France (1559-1598) French monarchy was weak in the end of 16th century Many French nobles adopted Calvinism to oppose the monarchy The Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre, caused by the Catholic Henry of Guise attacking Admiral Gaspard de Colgny, leader of the French Calvinists (Huguenots), led to the War of Three Henrys The civil conflict lasted 15 years and tried to eliminate Calvinism, throwing France into domestic anarchy Politiques, or moderates, saved France and established peace between the two churches, putting Henry of Navarre on the throne as king Henry IV (r. 1589-1610) Henry converted to Catholicism to save France The Edict of Nantes from 1598 gave Huguenots rights, preparing France for absolutism in 17th century The Netherlands under Charles V Netherlands were very important trade country Lutheranism was easily spread Philip, who inherited the Netherlands from Charles, caused tension because of his Spanish blood Charles, being a Flemish, was a lot more popular The Revolt of the Netherlands (1566-1587) Calvinism was far more dangerous for the Netherlands than Lutheranism Calvinists ruled the middle and the working classes In 1566 Calvinists from the poor classes rebelled against the “illegal” civil authorities and false church ideas The first target was Notre Dame, a great monument in Antwerp, after which the attackers turned against Brussels and Ghent, and north to Holland and Zeeland Philip II sent Spanish soldiers under the duke of Alva, to “pacify”, or eliminate as it was interpreted, the opposition The Council of Blood was created in Spain, similar to the Inquisition On March, 3, 1568, fifteen thousand men were executed The civil war between Catholics and Protestants and between Spain the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands, lasted between 1568 and 1578 In 1576 Prince William of Orange “the Silent” united the provinces The southern provinces, including Antwerp, fell under Spain’s rule, conquered by Philip’s nephew Alexander Farnese Calvinism was forbidden in the South The northern provinces united as the Union of Utrecht, proclaiming themselves independent from Spain, in 1581 The north was Protestant, and commercial aristocracy ruled, while the south remained Catholic with landowners holding the power The Union asked for queen Elizabeth’s help Elizabeth had three major reason to help the Low Lands – the English wool trade was a good source of money, that could stop with Spain’s influence; the murder of William the Silent was a big wound for the Protestantism and gave Farnese an advantage; the collapse of Antwerp meant Catholic invasion in English lands Philip II and the Spanish Armada Philip II appeared to be educated and traveling scholar, but a typical young man in his youth too Philip started devoting himself to the church more than the country Muslims and personal matters prevented Philip from concentrating on the Netherlands Philip, provoked by Pope Sixtus and Farnese, decided to launch an attack on England Disregarding the Ottoman danger, Philip commanded the attack, and the battle ended with a victory for England The constant flow of silver gave Spain the opportunity to prolong the war Philip III recognized the Union as a free country in the Netherlands after no change in the borders was made The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) Struggle between Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists endured in Germany during the 17th century Lutheran princes formed the Protestant Union in 1608 1. 2. 3. 4. The Catholics responded with the foundation of the Catholic League in 1609 Dynastic arguments supported the fight May, 23, 1618 marked the beginning of the Thirty Years’ War The war was divided to four phases: Bohemian (1618-1625), in Bohemia; Ferdinand vs. Frederick, Catholic League vs. Protestant Union Danish (1625-1629), named after Kind Christian IV of Denmark, whose poor leadership led to many victories for the Catholic opponents. *In 1629, the Habsburg emperor passed the Edict of Restitution, which let only Catholics and Lutherans to practice their religion, recovering any lost Catholic property since 1552 Swedish (1630-1635) – the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus aided the Protestants, winning two great battles, but receiving a mortal wound Adolphus’s death led to France joining on the side of Protestants, which marked the French phase (1635-1648) The war dragged French, Dutch and Swedes, supported by Scots, Finns and German mercenaries October 1648 was the end of the war The Peace of Westphalia marked the end of wars fought over religious conflicts The treaty reduced the emperor’s power greatly, but he remained with higher authority than the princes France gained land and prestige Sweden received German lands along the Baltic Sea The church role reduced greatly too, and the Pope no longer had rights over the German church North Germany remained Protestant, while the Southern states were Catholic Germany after the Thirty Years’ War The Thirty Years’ War was a disaster for Germany Late 16th and early 17th century brought an economic crisis to whole Europe, caused by the influx of silver The wars in the south blocked the Mediterranean trade Germany’s economy suffered a great deal from the war Discovery, Renaissance and Expansion The period 1450-1650 has been called the Age of Discovery, the Age of Expansion and Age of Reconnaissance For two centuries, the Europeans discovered more about the world than they did in the last thousand years Overseas Exploration and Conquest Viking voyages in the 9th and 10th centuries, up to Greenland and North America The Crusades in 11th-13th centuries led Europe east Turks threatened Europe Spain, France and England, centralizing their governments, were better prepared for the expansion Portugal’s taking of Ceuta marked the beginning of European exploration Prince Henry the Navigator played a leading role Portugal was taking land and gold in Africa, controlling the flow of gold to Europe Bartholomew Diaz reached Cape of Good Hope in 1487 Vasco da Gama reached India in his trip (1497-1499) King Manuel (r. 1495-1521) assisted Diaz to set up trading posts in India On April, 22, 1500, Portugal claimed Brazil By tradition, Portugal sent ships to India every March Portugal had to fight the Muslims for trade control Technological Stimuli to Exploration In 1350 the canon was fully developed Sultan Mohammed II proved the might of the canon against Constantinople Canons’ bad accuracy made them less useful for land warfare, but they were perfect for sea battles Old wind power-using galleys became hard to use Portuguese developed the caravel in 15th century Substitution wind with man power and solders with artillery was a big improvement for Portugal Magnetic compass, astrolabe and maps helped sailors travel further The Explorer’s Motives Not population overgrowth Old crusading beliefs – Spain, and Queen Isabella in particular, wanted to bring Muslims to Christianity. It was a part of the national ideal After Europeans realized they don’t have the resources to come to a victory over the Islam, they redirected their effort to the pagan people of Africa and America Ambition to increase economic and political power sent Spanish people to America The Government sponsored many voyages The Dutch dominated in European economy in 1650 Natural curiosity from the Renaissance pushed Europe even more Spices were a major factor Marco Polo stimulated the trade of spices between Asian and Italy, Venice most of all The rise of the Ming dynasty and the Ottoman empire blocked the trade with India and Chine in 14th century Spain and Portugal spread Catholicism, but their main goal was material profit The Problem of Christopher Columbus Historians claim Columbus had many flaws – he was cruel, ineffective governor of the Caribbeans, not the first to step on the American coast, and many more Spanish people considered the retaking of Granada from the Muslims, by Isabella and Ferdinand, one of the greatest achievements for the Christianity Columbus was driven by both secular and religious reasons Not able to find the spice markets of Asia, Columbus was looking for, he decided to establish a colony, enslaving the Native Americans Later Explorers News about Columbus’s discovery spread quickly over Europe Amerigo Vespucci was the first to define America as a New World In 1519 Charles V gave Ferdinand Magellan the task to find a direct route to the Asian source of spices, Moluccas, in the southeast Magellan’s trip was the first to prove that the world is round, sailing to the west In 1519 Hernando Cortès landed in Mexico Within 10 years, Cortès had taken over the rich Aztec Empire, and proclaimed Mexico City the capital of New Spain Spain controlled the many silver veins in Mexico Francisco Pizzaro repeated Cortès’s feat, in Peru, crushing the Incan Empire Antwerp became the biggest Spanish trade center The Dutch controlled India and the African and American trade, by the end of 16th century England and France didn’t establish in the New World until 17th century The economic effects of Spain’s Discoveries in the New World Spanish army, Catholicism and wealth influenced the whole Europe in the 16th, Golden Century of Spain Mexico and Peru supplied Spain with expensive metals Port Seville was the main trade center With the population increase and rising prices, Spanish people had a harder life Inflation Between 1560 and 1600, most of Europe experienced high prices, caused by the foreign silver and gold Middle class prospered, nobles were hurt, but the poor suffered the most The Columbian Exchange Relations became worldwide Migration of people led to exchange of flora, fauna and diseases White potatoes became very well spread in Europe Corn (maize) was the most favorable discovery Diseases brought to America declined its population very dramatically Europeans brought small pox to America, but took syphilis back home Colonial Administration Spain divided the new lands to 4 viceroyalties Audiencia was a court of 12 judges that was introduced to New Spain The intendatns were another group of people, whose task was to “supervise” the government of Spanish lands in America, and report directly to the kind in Madrid About 25% of Spain’s income came from America Changing Attitudes The new discoveries brought uncertainties among the Europeans, shaking the basics of the world they believed in Sexism, racism and skepticism grew The Status of Women Catholics and Protestants believed that the women should be subordinate to men People scorned unmarried women The ideal wife was obedient, silent and pious Same-sex marriages were not to occur A husband had to protect and supply the family A wife had to take care of the household Catholics did not see divorce as an option, but Protestants did Elizabeth Hardwick managed to elevate herself in the social ladder, after her 4 marriages Although the society accepted the prostitution, moralists were against it Marriage was the only option for upper-class women The Great European Witch-hunt Witches were associated with the Devil Educated, as well as ignorant men believed in witches Reformers’ extreme notions of the Devil’s power, and the religious wars contributed to the overall fear of witches Witchcraft was considered heresy Between 50,000 and 100,000 women were executed in the period 1560-1660, for witchcraft Writers have found religious (result of Renaissance, nobles wanting to fight the Devil), demographic (increasing number of single women, not under men’s supervision) and socioeconomic (famine, plague, starvation, inflation) reasons for the witchcraft Witch-hunts declined in the 18th century, as the fear of Devil’s power grew bigger European Slavery and the Origins of American Racism Italian merchants traded slaves The plague opened a great market for field hands Italy established slave trade in Africa, after the Ottoman empire blocked the Balkans as a source The population growth demanded more sugar, and soon after – Africans to work at the sugar plantations Europeans began enslaving Amerindians (or Native Americans) too Bartolomè de las Casas proposed Africans to replace the native Americans, because the latter died too fast Blacks in England were declared savage barbarians and heathens Islam was the largest world religion Arabic literature described blacks as primitive, and to a certain point, Christians agreed Literature and Art Literature, the visual arts, music and the drama developed and mirrored the social and cultural conditions that caused them The Essay: Michel de Montaigne Poor conditions made both Catholics and Protestants doubt that any one religion contained the absolute faith Skepticism was born of that The most famous and finest skeptic was the Frenchman Michel de Montaigne Montaigne received classical education, studied law and became judge When he was 38, Montaigne devoted his life to study Montaigne claimed to listed to everybody’s opinion, but gave them no more than the little he gave to his own Michel tolerated every nation and rejected the idea of barbarism Elizabethan and Jacobean Literature Latter part of Elizabeth’s reign and the first years of her successor James I, marked an improvement in literature, music, poetry, prose and drama, bring the Golden Age of England to the stage Several great works were considered leading to Shakespeare era Astrophel and Stella, by sir Philip Sidney (1554-1586) Faerie Queene, by Edmund Spenser (1552-1599) Tamburlaine and the Jew of Malta, by Christopher Marlouse (1564-1593) Shakespeare plays covered many genres, some of which were classical, historical and tragedy The Authorized Bible was another masterpiece, also knows as King James Bible, after the king who ordered and sponsored its creation Baroque Art and Music Baroque was considered unbalanced style by the critics The papacy wanted baroque artists to focus on small wealthy elite Catholic countries were more fond to baroque style, but it wasn’t entirely “Catholic style” Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) lead the baroque visual arts to their peak, studying and applying old masters’ ideas and techniques in his paintings Rubens had his own studio with many hired assistants Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) was one of the best baroque composers Middle class prospered in the 17th century more than anyone else