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Final Review
Sunday, May 19, 2013
14:21
Demonstrative Pronouns
Hic, haec, hoc - this
nom hic haec hoc
gen
dat
acc
abl
Ille, illa, illud - that
nom ille illa illud
gen
dat
acc
abl
Is, ea, id -he/she/it (also doubles as 3rd person pronoun)
nom is
ea id
gen
dat
acc
abl
Relative Pronoun:
Qui, quae, quod
nom qui quae quod
gen
dat
acc
abl
Indefinite Adjective:
Relative pronoun + dam ending
EX: form Gen. Sg. Masc. _________________
Comparison
Positive:
-The 'normal' form of the adjective, ex. laetus,-a,-um or omnis,-is,-e
Comparative:
Adj. root + -ior (root comes from gen sg in 3rd declension)
Laetior
Felicior
EX: Form the comparative for acer, acris
Notes Page 1
EX: Form the comparative for acer, acris
Superlative:
Adj. root + -issimus
Laetissimus
Felicissimus
If ending in -r:
Celerrime
Pulcherrime
6 end in -l that do this:
Facillime
EX: form the superlative for saevus,-a,-um _______________________
Infinitives:
Present Active:
-A.K.A the 2nd principal part
-4 conjugations: -are, -ere, -ere, -ire
Present Passive:
Replace -re of pres act inf with -ri:
Form the Pres. Pass. Inf:
Amare _________________
Videre _________________
If the verb is 3rd conjugation, replace entirely with -i:
Form the Pres. Pass. Inf:
Currere _________________
Perfect Active:
3rd principal part with -isse:
Form the Perf. Act. Inf:
Amare _________________
Videre _________________
Perfect Passive:
4th principal part with esse:
Form the Perf. Pass. Inf:
Amare _________________
Videre _________________
Future Active:
Future act. Participle + esse:
Form the Fut. Act. Inf:
Notes Page 2
Amare _________________
Videre _________________
Participles:
Present Active:
2nd principal part -re +ns, ntForm the Pres. Part. in the nom. sg and gen. sg
Amare _________________
Perfect Passive:
A.K.A. the 4th principal part
Identify the Perf. Pass. Part.
Amare _________________
Future Active:
4th principal part with -ur- added in
Form the Fut. Act. Part. (nom. sg. Masc.)
Amare _________________
Videre _________________
Subjunctives:
Imperfect:
Active: 2nd principal part +active personal ending
Form the 3rd sg. Impf act:
Amare _________________
Passive: 2nd principal part +passive personal ending
Form the 3rd sg. Impf pass:
Amare _________________
Pluperfect:
Active: perfect act inf + active personal ending
Form the 3rd sg plpf act:
Amare _________________
Passive: 4th principal part + impf subj. of sum,esse
Form the 3rd sg plpf pass:
Amare _________________
Forms
Notes Page 3
Forms
• Relative Pronouns
In English, these are words like who, whom, whose, and which
As you notice all of these words start with wh- in English; in Latin, they often start with qu- instead
Also, just like we have endings like -o, -ose, or -ich in English to tell us more about how it is being used,
Latin does the same.
The relative pronoun is a 1st/2nd adjective, and as such, it will look like this in a dictionary:
qui, quae, quod (Masc., Fem., Neut. respectively)
Sometimes, the root changes from qu- to cu- :
cuius
(this is an odd gen. ending, see below)
re
This only occurs with the genitive and dative singular endings, see the chart in your book on pg 327 to review
cuius and cui
Because it is a 1st/2nd adjective, it uses all the declension endings available to those adjectives with a few
exceptions
(review your declension charts if you don't recall this! It's in the back of your book!)
The exceptions:
the dative/ablative plural
Because it is technically a 1st/2nd adjective, you would expect
quis
however, quis is an interrogative (a question word) meaning who? what? or which?
Thus, we need a different form for the dat/abl plural:
quibus
If you've been paying attention, this is the 3rd declension dat/abl plural. They have borrowed it here to avoid
confusion with quis
The genitive singular
Instead of the typical -i or -ae ending of the genitive, the relative pronoun uses -ius for the genitive singular
across all three genders
• Indefinite Adjectives
Indefinite Adjectives are words in English like certain, among others, and in Latin it fulfills the same function.
We form the Indefinite Adjective by taking the relative pronoun qui, quae, quod and appending the suffix -dam:
thus:
Quidam
Quaedam
Quoddam
the -dam ending never changes; however the qui component does change!
ex:
dat. sg. masc:
cuidam
For linguistic reasons, anytime the relative ends in -m, as with quem, the m converts into an -n:
ex: quendam
A related form: isdem, eadem, iddem is a form of the demonstrative + -dem, meaning the same
Notes Page 4
• Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs
Comparison is a term that is used to describe adjectives that show the degree of difference between two concepts
In English, we distinguish these by attaching -er and -est to our adjectives:
big, bigger, biggest
great, greater, greatest
The technical name for these are the Positive Degree, Comparative Degree, and Superlative Degree respectively
As you might imagine, Latin can do the same, and like English, it uses a series of suffixes to indicate which one is
being used.
The positive is the regular adjective form you have seen since Latin I:
molestus, -a, -um (a 1st/2nd adjective)
celer, celeris, celere (a 3rd declension adjective)
○
The comparative is marked in one of a few ways:
For most comparatives, you form them in the following way:
1st/2nd adjectives:
molestus -us +ior = molestior, -ior, -ius
3rd declension adjectives:
brevis -is +ior = brevior, -ior, -ius
felix + ior = felicior, -ior, felicius
(the x changes to the c you see in all other forms of felix)
For adjectives that end in -er, things occur is bit differently because of that final -r:
for 1st/2nd adjectives:
miser + ior = miserior, -ior, -ius
for 3rd declension adjectives:
celer + ior = celerior, -ior, -ius
As you should notice, the comparative forms are ALWAYS 3rd declension!
○
The superlative is marked in one of three ways:

For most adjectives, you add the ending -issimus, -a, -um to the root of the adjective:
□ for 1st/2nd adjectives:
molestus -us +issimus = molestissimus, -a, -um
□
for 3rd declension adjectives:
brevis -is +issimus = brevissimus, -a, -um


Now, for some adjectives which end in -er, instead of -issimus, the r doubles instead and we get -rrimus:
□
for 1st/2nd adjectives:
miser +rimus = miserrimus, -a, -um
□
for 3rd declension adjectives:
celer +rimus = celerrimus, -a, -um
In a similar fashion, there are six adjectives whose root ends in -l whose superlative forms as -llimus:
ex: facilis -is +limus = facillimus, -a, -um
the list of adjectives that do this:
Notes Page 5

the list of adjectives that do this:
facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, and humilis
(notice that these are all 3rd declension adjectives)
other adjectives whose roots end in -l form normally;
fidelis -is + issimus = fidelissimus, -a, -um
as you should note, all superlative forms are ALWAYS 1st/2nd adjectives!
• Historic Present
As the name suggests, this is a present tense verb that is used when retelling a story to give it more vividness.
In English, we would do something like: "so there I was, walking through the woods, when suddenly I see this bear
walking up to me..."
This phrase is obviously a bit contrived; normally we would use all past-tense verbs, and use voice inflection,
emphasis, and pacing to get across the idea.
Latin will use the present in a similar manner. Take this example:
"Multi homines huc illuc concursabant. Ab incolis omnia simul aguntur; infantes ex aedifico a matribus efferuntur;
infirmi e ianuis trahuntur; bona e fenestris eiciuntur; in via ponuntur cistae, lecti, ornamenta." (30, 5-7)
While we start with the imperfect concursabant, we switch for the next sentence to all present-tense verbs to convey
the vividness and quickened pace of events.
• The Passive Voice
As we've seen this year, the passive voice shows up everywhere. However, we can distill it down to two general
rules:


1. The present, imperfect, and future of verbs forms the passive by using the passive endings in place of the
normal personal endings
sg
pl
1st
-or
-mur
2nd
-ris
-mini
3rd
-tur
-ntur
2. For the Perfect tenses, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect, we create a compound form with a tense of
the verb sum, esse
And the 4th principal part, also called the perfect passive participle. The 4th p.p. can convey two thirds of the
information we need
and for any form that contains a perfect passive component, we will use a compound with the perfect passive
participle (4th p.p.)
However, the p.p.p. is a participle (verbal adjective), and so it does not have person or mood.
So, in order to grab these two components to make a real verb, we compound with the present tense of the verb
sum, esse 'to be':
ex: opto, optare
optatus est
Perfect Passive Participle + 3rd singular, indicative
thus it parses: 3rd, singular, perfect, passive, indicative
similarly, the pluperfect passive forms will use the imperfect forms of sum, esse.
ex: optatus erat
Perfect Passive Participle + 3rd singular, imperfect, indicative
thus: 3rd, singular, pluperfect, passive, indicative

as you may have noticed, perfect+imperfect = pluperfect. If you feel this is confusing enough, stop with this,
and jump straight to future perfect.
Notes Page 6
and jump straight to future perfect.
The pluperfect is a compliment to the imperfect. Just as the imperfect describes ongoing action or action just
before present time
the pluperfect describes (ongoing action or) action before another event in past time.
The ongoing action aspect only appears in the passive, which is why I have put it in parentheses.

Lastly, the Future Perfect Passive forms with the future of sum, esse.
ex. optatus erit
Perfect Passive Participle + 3rd, singular, future, indicative
Thus: 3rd, singular, future perfect, passive, indicative
For those with a taste for the complex, keep reading; otherwise, proceed to the next section
As you might notice, the form of sum, esse used in the perfect passive is the present active of that verb.
So, why does that not influence the tense and voice of this compound form?
Well, sum, esse is a rather special verb, just like in English, and it operate in some weird ways.
For these verbs, the first component, the p.p.p, takes precedent, and will dictate which voice we are in.
This is good, because the verb sum, esse has no passive forms, and while by default this means its forms are
active
it could also be said that sum, esse has no voice due to its unique nature.
If you will, the present tense of the verb sum, esse is the neutral tense. it carries the basic information needed
to be a verb.
Other tenses tend to be stronger, as they pass on additional information about when an event occurs, not just
the simple idea of an action.
In a sense, what is happening here is that the tense of the p.p.p. is overriding the tense information of the verb
sum, esse
because the present tense is weaker than the perfect tense in terms of the information transmitted.
As we see then, by adding other, stronger tenses of sum, esse, we will cause the tense of the overall verb to
alter,
as we now have two stronger tenses to work with. In these situations, the first tense is dominant, and is
modified
by the second tense. Hence, we have the pluperfect, and future perfect.
This is an imperfect way of viewing this issue, but for our purposes, it will work for now.
Deponent and Semi-Deponent Verbs
• Deponent Verbs
Deponent verbs in a nutshell: verbs that are passive in form, but active in meaning.
This means that on a synopsis sheet, you would only see passive forms for all the regular tenses of the verb.
Deponent verbs only have three principal parts, instead of the usual four. Why is this?
let's look at the principal parts of a regular verb to see what each does:
opto, optare, optavi, optatus
opto: 1st, singular, present, active, indicative
optare: present, active, infinitive
optavi: 1st, singular, perfect, active, indicative
optatus: Perfect passive participle
Now, which forms can be made passive?
opto -> optor
optare -> optari
optavi -> optatus sum
optatus -> X
By its definition, the p.p.p. is already passive, and by that nature can only be translated passively.
Thus, it isn't possible with a deponent, as the forms must be able to translate actively.
Notes Page 7
Thus, it isn't possible with a deponent, as the forms must be able to translate actively.
Thus:
conor, conari, conatus sum
As you may notice, the p.p.p. does remain in the perfect passive form, further reducing the need for the p.p.p. as a
4th part.
Now, take a look at the table on 334 and 339 for deponent verbs.
Notice that some forms look active?
Because deponents translate actively, they can have things like present participles.
However, if you recall, there is no present passive participle form.
So, when you have problems like this, the Romans just make up active forms for the deponent.
thus:
conor, conari, conatus sum
but:
conans <- active form, but built off of the deponent.
There are only a few forms like this:
The Singular Imperative
The perfect and pluperfect subjunctive
(there is no passive form of sum, esse, so while we have the participle form conatus, the form of sum determines
the voice here)
The present active participle
The future active participle
• Semi-Deponent Verbs
Ok, if you recall, deponents are passive in form, but active in meaning. As should come as no surprise, semiDeponents work exactly as the name suggests.
Semi-Deponents are active in meaning, but have forms that are a combination of active and passive.
Let us take a look at one of the examples:
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum - to be glad, rejoice.
As you can see, both the present stem and the infinitive look just like other active verbs. Where the difference
occurs starts with the perfect stem. As you can see, it is passive just as with other deponents, and it lacks a 4th
principal part.
Now, recall:
What tenses form off of the present tense?
A: Present, imperfect, future
What forms off of the infinitive?
A: Imperatives and present participles
What forms off of the perfect stem?
A: the three perfect tenses (perfect, pluperfect, future perfect)
What is the 4th principal part?
A: a verbal adjective and a participle (specifically: the perfect passive part.)
Thus, with all of this, we can say the following about semi-deponent verbs:
-Like regular Deponents, the Semi-Deponent verbs are active in meaning
-Because they have ban active present stem, the present, imperfect, and future tenses have active forms
-Because the infinitive is active, the imperative and present participle have active forms
-Because the perfect stem is passive in form, all the perfect tenses are passive in form.
-The first part of the perfect tenses functions in place of a 4th principal part.
The book does not dwell on the topic of the semi-deponents, as there is only a slight difference between them and
Notes Page 8
The book does not dwell on the topic of the semi-deponents, as there is only a slight difference between them and
regular deponents. Like deponents, they can only really be identified by either their dictionary form, or by their
translation.
Participles
• Present Participles
We have seen present participles several times, and I have been alluding to them for quite some time now. They are
honestly easier to deal with than the perfect passive participle, so I do not suspect you to have difficulty with them.
As the book will tell you, participles are verbal adjectives. That is, they are verbs that have been transformed into an
adjective. They retain some of their verbal characteristics, as you saw with the P.P.P (having been...). Here, we deal
with present participles in the active voice. There are no present passive participles thankfully, so this will be the
only type of participle in the present.
To give you a visualization, you will often find this listing for participles:
Active
Passive
Present Perfect
Future X
The basic participial idea is transmitted in the -ing in the literal forms of all participles. Thus, if we take the idea of
the perfect passive participle having been Xed and make it present active, we would end up with Xing. (hav- & been
& -ed transmit the idea of perfect and passive)
So if we see a present participle form, say, mittens from mitto, mittere - to send, we now need to attach the -ing to
its translation, yielding: sending as our participial form.
So how do we arrive at this form?
For regular verbs, we take the infinitive: (ex: ambulo, ambulare)
Ambulare
Next, we chop off the -re
Ambula
Next, we add -ns
Ambulans
Tada!
This is how your form the present participle. However, for the 3rd-io and 4th conjugation, we need to add a vowel in
there as well:
ex: audio
audire
audi
expected: *audins
In reality: audiens
Stems that end in i (3rd-io and 4th) often have issues with vowels, so just keep an eye out for that.
Now, because this participle works as a verbal adjective, it must therefore have case endings. While the P.P.P. is a
1st/2nd adjective, the present participle, with the -ns nominative ending is a 3rd declension adjective. There is a
table on pg 135 giving the breakdown of forms for the verb portare.
What you need to be especially aware of is the following: as a 3rd declension adjective, the nominative singular is
anomalous, and the rest of the forms will use a slightly altered stem.
One of the easiest ways to see this is to look at the nominative plural. so, for ambulo, we see the following:
ambulantes
Pay special note that in order to quickly recognize a present participle, you need to look for the -ant- or -ent- infix.
This will signal that you are dealing with a present participle.
Notes Page 9
This will signal that you are dealing with a present participle.
Now, as to special uses of the participle. The book reminds you that a adjectives can be used as if they were nouns.
They call these substantives. Let us look at an example the book gives you:
Subito exclamavit unus ex adstantibus, "cavete omnes!" (from chapter 30 text, line 18)
very literally: Suddenly one of standing near shouted, "Watch out everyone!"
...one of standing near... does not translate so well into English, and this translation assumes that it is functioning
as a normal adjective.
Because it is substantive, we can assume an implied person of object that is standing, thus we can render the
translation:
Suddenly one of those standing near shouted, "Watch out everyone!"
• Perfect Passive Participle
This is one of the most versatile and important forms in the Latin language.
Many other verb forms rely upon it to convey the perfect passive idea.
It is also called the 4th principal part, and is approximated in the 3rd principal part of deponents.
ex: traho, trahere, traxi, tractus <- regular verb
ex: conor, conari, conatus sum <- deponent verb
As participles are verbal adjectives, and the p.p.p. ends with -us, we can deduce that it is a 1st/2nd adjective:
tractus, -a, -um
by itself, it is translated "having been Xed"
ex: tractus "having been dragged"
for deponents, however, the p.p.p. is translated actively:
ex: conatus "having attempted"
Because there is no perfect active participle form, the p.p.p. of deponent verbs fulfills this function.
as above, the p.p.p. is used in the formation of the following forms:
The perfect passive indicative/subjunctive
The pluperfect passive indicative/subjunctive
The future perfect indicative
the future active participle (and by extension the fut. act. inf.)
perfect passive infinitive
• Future Active Participle
As I mentioned above with the present participle, we had this following diagram:
Active
Passive
Present Perfect
Future X
The future active participle, as you may have noted from the practice, is translated ...about to X... Unfortunately,
English does not have a clear way to render a future participle, so we are left with something that sounds like a
future idea (about) combined with an infinitive (to X). However, as you will see below, there is a marked distinction
between the future active participle, and the future active infinitive.
How do we form the future active participle?
1. start with the 4th principal part (ex. duco, ducere, dixi, ductus)
2. remove the case ending; ex: ductus -> duct
3. add the marker of the future participle, -ur- ex: duct-ur- -> ductur-
4. reattach the case ending; ex: ducturus,-a,-um
Notes Page 10
As with all other participles, the future active is an adjective, and thus can be used substantively (used as if it were
a noun)
As an adjective:
ex: legatus abiturus litteram parat.
The about to leave messenger prepares the letter.
As a substantive:
ex. discessuri arma parant
Those about to set out prepare their arms (weapons)
As you might expect, the -urus ending is pretty easy to identify, so simply remember that: -ur+case ending =future
participle
Now, as you may have also noticed, when you saw that participle on the practice, you may also have noted that it
was immediately followed by erat. While I'm not sure they expect you to recognize this, I will give this info to you
just to be safe (I promise that its not too bizarre)
Infinitives
• Present Active Infinitive
The present active indicative is the easiest of the infinitives, as it is a.k.a. the 2nd p.p.
thus:
doceo, docere, docui, doctus "teach"
the present active infinitive is translated the same as the English:
"to teach"
• The Present Passive Infinitive
Just as the present active infinitive is translated "to X", the present passive infinitive is translated "to be X"
The present passive infinitive is parked by a final -I, as compared to the active final -e
○
for the 1st, 2nd, and 4th conjugations:
drop the final -e off of the present active infinitive and replace it with -i:
ex: ambulo, ambulare, ambulavi, ambulaturus
ambulare -e -> ambular +i = ambulari
○
For 3rd conjugation, we simply drop the entire infinitive ending, and replace it with -i:
ex: traho, trahere, traxi, tractus
trahere - ere -> trah +i = trahi
• The Perfect Active Infinitive
Now, this topic, despite the short treatment they give to it in chapter 41, can be a bit confusing in terms of
translation. So let us look at the formation of it first.
To start, let's consider that we are dealing with something that is perfect, which means we are forming it off of
either the 3rd principal part (the perfect stem), or the 4th principal part (the perfect passive participle). Because we
are dealing with the active, we'll work with the 3rd principal part. take the following example verb:
dico, dicere, dixi, dictus - to say -> 3rd p.p. dixi
In order to form the perfect active infinitive, first we drop the -i that tells us what person the verb is (recall your
perfect tense endings if you don't understand this)
dixTo this, we add the active infinitive ending -isse
Notes Page 11
To this, we add the active infinitive ending -isse
dixisse
This is the way we create the perfect active infinitive for all regular verbs. Deponents, being passive in form, cannot
form the perfect active infinitive in this way. We will cover the perfect infinitive of deponents (and semi deponents)
at a later date.
Now, how do we translate them?
A regular infinitive is translated ...to X ex: dicere - to speak
A perfect infinitive somehow has to get this idea of past time into it's translation, and so we use the word have:
ex: dicere - to speak
Dixisse - to have spoken
• The Perfect Passive Infinitive
Just like the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect passives, the perfect passive infinitive is a compound form
ex: auditus esse "to have been heard"
• The Future Active Infinitive
how do you think you start forming the future Active infinitive Infinitive?
That's right, by using the participle (See Participles below for how it is formed)! More specifically, since the participle
can't convey that it is an infinitive, we simply use the infinitive of sum:
discessurus esse
Now, here is the great part: we will only be seeing this in an indirect statement for some time coming. Hooray!
Thus, we don't have to worry about how to translate it as an infinitive, because as you recall, infinitives in indirect
statement are translated like a finite verb. Thus, let's look at a quick example:
Titus dixit militos arma paraturos esse.
Titus said that the soldiers will prepare their weapons.
Now, if you are interested, here is how we translate these infinitives outside of indirect statement:
discessurus esse -to be about to set out
Not that bad all told.
The Subjunctive
Along with the Indicative and Imperative, the Subjunctive is a mood.
Whereas the indicative regards statements of fact, and the imperative direct commands
The subjunctive tells us that the clause is not a statement of fact, but rather some that could, would, should might,
etc. happen.
In Latin, the subjunctive fulfills an additional role, acting as the indicator of numerous dependent clauses,
some of which do not express the aspect of possibility which is characteristic of the subjunctive elsewhere.
the ones we have learned are covered further down in this document
Depending on how it is being used then, the subjunctive will either be translated like a normal verb
or with one of the "potential" words, like would, could, or should.
Because the subjunctive by itself indicates possibility, there are no future or future perfect subjunctives,
as the future by definition speaks of things which have not yet happened.
Thus, we have only four tenses to concern ourselves with:
Present
Imperfect
Notes Page 12
Imperfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
Each of these also occur in the passive as well as the active
• Present Subjunctive
The present subjunctive is all about vowel changes, and it is the only way we can differentiate between the present
indicative and subjunctive.
For this reason, it is important to know your conjugations! Each conjugation changes in a different way!
For those interested in a more in-depth look at what is happening here, keep reading, otherwise, jump to the
formulae for forming the present subjunctive.
What is happening with the present subjunctive is a stem change. Verbs in general consist of three parts: root,
stem, and suffix(es)
ex: optabamus
-mus is the suffix telling us the verb is 3rd singular
-ba- is the suffix (or infix if you prefer) that modifies the tense of the stem, and gives us the final tense of the
verb
opta- is the stem, here telling us the tense and mood of the stem
opt- is the root which tells us what the word means
by modifying each of these pieces, except for the root, we can generate all the permutations of the verb.
For the subjunctive, we modify the present indicative stem to the present subjunctive stem by changing the
vowel from a to e
optebecause we have changed the stem, we can no longer use all of the same infixes and suffixes the present
indicative stem used.
In fact, the present subjunctive stem can't take on any other tense infixes, and thus is used only for the present
subjunctive with the regular personal endings.
optemus
you can extend this logic to all other verb forms, although the jump to the participles requires some further
work, and we won't go there right now.
The stem-vowel of the verb changes to tell us we have entered the subjunctive:
1st conjugation: a changes to e: ambulat -> ambulet
2nd conjugation: a is attached to the e: docet -> doceat
3rd conjugation: i changes to a: ducit -> ducat
3rd-io and 4th conjugations: a is added to the i: venit -> veniat
As you may have noticed, for the 3rd and 4th conjugations the present subjunctive often looks like the future tense.
Luckily, the future tense is not too common in actual Latin, and the present subjunctive
frequently occurs inside a dependent clause where you cannot have a future tense verb
to get the passive, simply replace the active personal endings (-o, -s, -t, etc)
with the passive endings
be careful with the 1st singular however:
1st conj: ambulem + or = ambuler
2nd conj: doceam + or = docear
3rd conj: ducam + or = ducar
4th conj: veniam + or = veniar
• Imperfect Subjunctive
The imperfect subjunctive is perhaps the easiest of all subjunctives to form.
All we need to do is take the present infinitive (aka the 2nd principal part)
Notes Page 13
All we need to do is take the present infinitive (aka the 2nd principal part)
and add to it the regular personal endings:
ex: docere + mus =doceremus
○ Perfect passive subjunctive
docere + mur = doceremur
• Perfect Subjunctive
In the active, the perfect subjunctive unfortunately looks exactly like the future perfect indicative.
(with the exception of the 1st singular, see you book for that one)
However, in real Latin the future perfect is rare, and four out of five times these forms will be perfect subjunctives.
as a refresher, here is how to make these forms:
perfect stem (3rd p.p. - i) + future of sum, esse
ex: ambulo, ambulare, ambulavi, ambulaturus
ambulavi - i = ambulav (the perfect stem)
ambulav + erit
ambulaverit (3rd, sg, perfect/fut. perfect, active, subjunctive/indicative)
○ perfect passive subjunctive
All things perfect and passive use the p.p.p. and here is no exception.
thus, we will start with the p.p.p
ex: optatus
the p.p.p. is compounded with some form of sum, esse
and here, since the p.p.p. can't tell us mood, we must use the present subj. of sum, esse:
optatus sit
The present subjunctive of sum, esse is actually very regular:
sim, sis, sit, sumus, sitis, sint
If you wonder why we use the present subjunctive here, see the section above on the perfect passive indicative.
• Pluperfect subjunctive
Just as the imperfect subjunctive uses the present active infinitive,
the pluperfect subjunctive active uses the perfect active infinitive,
and to it we simply add personal endings just as with the imperfect
ex: docuisse + nt
docuissent
○
pluperfect passive subjunctive
again, we use the p.p.p here plus a form of sum, esse
just as with the pluperfect passive indicative, we will use the imperfect of sum.
However, we now need the subjunctive of that tense.
Luckily, the imperfect subjunctive of sum, esse forms normal: present infinitive + ending
ex: esse + t = esset
So, for a pluperfect passive subjunctive form:
doctus esset
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Impersonal Verbs
Impersonal verbs are verbs that don't take an object of any sort, and as a result exist only in a few forms.
The one you are most familiar with is licet "it is permitted"
verbs like this only exist in the 3rd singular and the infinitive, which makes them easy to remember.
Note however, that they exist in the 3rd person for all tenses, so you may encounter forms like:
licebat
licebit
liceat
etc...
There are few you have not learned, so simply be aware that they exist.
Time and place without a preposition
○ Place without a preposition
This is an odd little topic, as it shows a stylistic feature of Latin, and not a hard-and-fast series of rules.
If you recall, there are prepositions like ad or e/ex which indicate motion to or from something
Ad went with accusative and described motion toward a location
e/ex went with the ablative and described motion away from a location
By their nature, both the accusative and ablative fulfill these functions without a preposition
thus:
the accusative can be used to indicate direction toward a location
the ablative can be used to indicate direction away from a location
so, instead of using the prepositions in these sentences:
Marcus ad urbem venit.
Marcus ex urbe iit.
We can now do this:
Marcus urbem venit
Marcus urbe iit.
This may seem intuitive at times, but it is important to know if you come across an unexplained noun.
• The Locative
So, what happens when we want to say something is in a location?
Usually, we would just use an ablative with in. However, there is also a way of doing this without the preposition.
There was once, long ago, a whole case dedicated to telling the location of something.
However, by the time we come to Classical Latin, this case has been almost lost.
What remains of it is the following:
For the 1st and 2nd declensions:
The singular looks like the genitive
The plural looks like the ablative
For the 3rd declension:
The singular looks like the dative
The plural looks like the ablative
Time constructions without a preposition
Just as the ablative and accusative can be used without a preposition when describing location,
they can also work in a similar manner when talking about time.
The ablative is used for telling time when or within which:
prima luce - at dawn
Notes Page 15
prima luce - at dawn
The accusative is used for describing a duration of time:
dies continuos triginta - for thirty consecutive days
• temporal adverbs
There are three adverbs that are often used to help illustrate the distance of time:
post: distance of time after:
post tertium annum - after three years
ante & abhinc: distance of time before:
abhinc annos tres or ante hos tres annos - three years ago
These are not the only temporal adverbs; however these are the only ones you need to concern yourselves with for
now.
Ablative absolutes
One of the most useful constructions in Latin, and also one of the easiest to spot!
As the name suggests, this is an ablative construction;
and the absolute part tells us that it is self-contained.
What does this mean?
It means this ablative phrase is grammatically separate from the rest of the sentence.
Take this example:
his rebus factis, iter ad Germaniam fecimus.
"These things having been done, we made a journey to Germany."
if you notice, removing the ablative phrase in bold still leaves us with a complete sentence.
What the ablative absolute does is provide more information about the time or circumstances surrounding the main
sentence .
So, how do we form it?
let's look at the sample above:
his rebus factis
This phrase is comprised of an ablative subject (his rebus)
along with an ablative participle (factis)
Specifically, we use the perfect passive participle for the ablative absolute.
So, we can make a simple formula for how to build an ablative absolute:
Ablative subject + p.p.p. in the ablative = ablative absolute
That is a basic ablative absolute, and quite often this is all that you will see.
However, it is possible to see other words not in the ablative within the absolute construction.
his rebus ei fratri factis, iter ad Germaniam fecimus.
"With these things having been done for his brother, we made a journey to Germany.
Indirect Statement
Indirect statement is a very popular construction among the ancient Romans, as it allowed them to express thoughts
and report information without having to express .
Consider for a moment the use of the English word 'that'. How can we use it?
-As a pronoun : that person
How else can we use it? Aside from it's use as a pronoun, where do we see this word being used? Take a look above
at the introductory statement for this section. ...and is the way that they conveyed ideas...
-Obviously this is not a use of the word 'that' as a pronoun. Consider the following sentence as well:
Notes Page 16
"I thought that you said we were done working for the day!"
How is 'that' being used here?
How does that sentence compare to this one:
"You said we were done working for the day!"
Both of these sentences get across the same idea, but are obviously constructed differently. "I thought that..." steps
around the more direct way to get this idea across. Thus, we would call it an indirect statement.
Indirect statements are almost always associated with what you can term "head verbs", that is, verbs which are
associated with thinking, saying, hearing, looking, etc. Hence why we call them verbs of the head.
Latin can also create sentences with to convey this sort of indirect statement.
Fortunately, there are no new forms to learn for this (yay!)
This is a purely syntactic construction, which means you need to be on the lookout for the signs of this construction.
What it looks like:
dicit pueros ludum venire.
what do you see that is missing from the sentence following the dicit?
Look at what the words mean:
he says, boys, school, came
If this is an indirect statement, we would have to translate it like this:
He says that the boys come to the school.
Notice that there is no word in Latin for 'that'
This word is implied whenever we have an indirect statement (and some other constructions, seen below)
So, this then is the formula for the indirect statement:
Head verb + Accusatives + Infinitive
This is also referred to in some books as the accusative-infinitive construction.
Also note that in the example above, we used a present-tense verb, and a present infinitive
and not surprisingly, the sentence translated in the present tense.
Also not surprisingly, we can put this into other tenses.
Examples:
dixit pueros ludum venisse (perfects)
He said the boys came to the school.
Dicit pueros ludum venturi esse.
He says the boys will come to the school.
Note that in the last one the tense of the head verb and the tense of the infinitive do not match!
This is OK! You can use any combination of tenses so long as you can make sense of it.
Subjunctive clauses
We have encountered a few uses of the subjunctive in subordinate clauses this year, which fall into two broad
categories: those using cum and those that do not. Let's take a closer look:
Cum Circumstantial Clauses
A clause which describes the circumstances around the events of the main clause. An example:
Navis, cum quattuor dies navigavisset, ad litoram advenit.
The Ship, when it had sailed for four days, arrived at the shore.
Notes Page 17
The Ship, when it had sailed for four days, arrived at the shore.
Cum Causal Clauses
A clause which describes why the events of the main clause have occurred. An example:
Sextus, cum puer stultissimus esset, domum mittebatur.
Sextus, since he was the stupidest boy, was sent home.
Indirect Question
A clause which reports questions which were asked, using a verb of asking with interrogatives that set off the
reported question. An example:
Cornelius rogavit cur Sextus domum mitteretur.
Cornelius asked why Sextus was sent home.
Notes Page 18