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Transcript
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY Ancient civilizations and cultures were closely bound with religion. Religions evolved as a set of beliefs regarding the nature and purpose of the universe. Gradually they became organised systems of beliefs binding groups of people into a close-knit society. Religion has played an important part in the lives of the Indian people from the c\earliest times. But religion in India has never been static; various movements have developed with new ideas and in response to evolving socio-economic situations. There is a long tradition of religious pluralism, an important part of cultural pluralism in India. Almost all major religions of the world are professed in this country. There are four religions which trace their origin to the Indian subcontinent—Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Religious beliefs and systems that ‗arrived‘ from outside are Islam and Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Baha‘i. The earliest civilized inhabitants of India worshipped a mother goddess and horned fertility god. They worshipped sacred trees and animals, and ritual ablutions apparently had an important part in their religious life. Much else is not known about the Harappan people‘s religion. As the salient features of the Harappan religion appeared in a new form at a later date, it may be assumed that it never died but was practiced by some people , gradually developing from contact with other doctrines and cults, until it gathered enough strength to reappear and influence the old faith of the Aryans. HINDUISM Originally the word Hindu did not have a religious connotation, but merely denoted the people in a geographical area –around the river Indus. Later the word assumed a religious connotation, to some extent under Mughal rule but more firmly under British rule. Hinduism derives its basic ideas and tradition from the Vedas, considered as sruti, ‗that which is heard or revealed‘. While one school believes that the Vedas 1 are without beginning, another avers that they were revealed to ancient sages—the rishis. The earliest Veda is the Rigveda, which is incidentally the oldest religious composition in the world still looked on as sacred. It was probably composed between 1500 and 900 B.C. It consists of over 1,000 hymns, a collection of prayers to gods like Agni, Vayu, Varuna, Indra, Mitra, Soma, Ushas and others, most of whom were deification of natural forces. The three later Vedas are more specialized. The Samaveda is a collection of certain verses of the Rigveda for melodic rendering. The Yajurveda emerged a century or two later than the Rigveda, and contains sacrificial formulae to be pronounced by the priests who performed the manual part of the sacrifice. The Atharvaveda deals with magical incantations and medicines. Each Veda has a Brahmana appended to it explaining the mantras and rituals. The Aranyakas and Upanishads are appendices to the Brahmanas: while the Aranyakas are mystical teachings meant for meditation in forests, the Upanishads (Vedanta) are speculations on Being and Reality. The early ‗Brahmanical‘ or Vedic religion had no temples or images. Sacrifices were performed on open altars and offerings were made to the gods with meat, fat, milk, butter and soma. This rite of homa(havan) was basic to Vedic religion. Gradually, however, the religion assimilated the practices and ways of other cults and earlier inhabitants. Thus the ‗puja‘ form of worship to an image or symbol of divinity was incorporated. A synthesis of Aryan and non-Aryan ideas took place and this power of assimilation is partly the reason for the ability of Hinduism o survive over time even without it being of a ‗missionary‘ nature. While Hinduism has often been described as a way of life, allowing plenty of flexibility in forms of worship and gods, the fundamental goal of Hindus is to achieve moksha, or libearation form the cycle of existence. Until the attainment of moksha, human beings are subject to rebirth. The Hindu view of life does not preclude worldly pleasure: kama (pleasure, including sexual pleasure) and artha (prosperity) are recognized as ends in life, though they are to be subordinated to the higher end of dharma (righteousness). According to the Upanishads there are four stages in life through which the seeker after truth has to pass. He has to live first as a brahmachari (celibate student), then as a grihasta (a householder), as a vanaprasta (a hermit) and lastly as a sanyasi (an ascetic). The pilgrim who sets out on the journey of life has to 2 acquire, one by one, all values—knowledge, wealth, love, service—but he should regard them as intermediate stages and pass through each with his mind fixed on the final destination and his feet moving towards it. This destination is the realization of unity or moksha (salvation). Karma is the fundamental law of the moral world. Every act, good or bad, performed by humans has an impact on their personality. Conscious acts gradually grow into unconscious habits and become part of their character. Character, in its turn, determines action followed by its consequences. This is a vicious circle in which our mind is involved. The only way to get out of it is to elevate the individual mind through renunciation, self-sacrifice and the service of our fellowbeings free form the compelling force of karma. The greatest heritage of the Vedic Hindu age is the idea of unitism in the Upanishads –generally known as the philosophy of the Vedanta. Moreover, the concepts of the four stages of life, and those of karma and sansar, have not only become an important part of the religious faith of the Hindus but have pervaded Indian poetry and literature. The challenge of Buddhism and Jainism to the Vedic Hindu religion was a stimulating and refreshing inspiration to the minds of Hindu thinkers who now left the beaten track and ventured on new paths of speculation and reasoning. Philosophical thinkers made their own original speculation on metaphysical problems and founded their own systems known as the six systems of Hindu philosophy. Four of these, Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisheshika, were not influenced by the Vedas, while the Purva Mimamsa and the Uttara Mimamsa were based on the teachings of the Upanishads. But the highest achievement of the Hindu mind in this age is another philosophy expounded in the Bhagavad Gita, which is a part of the epic Mahabharata. The Bhagavad Gita is a supplement to the Upanishads. It has tried to make a synthesis of three ways of attaining salvation –the way of knowledge through speculation and ascetic discipline, the way of faith and devotion, and the way of action. The mainstay of popular Hinduism is the later Vedic literature. The Puranas, which some claim to have been written between the third and the seventh centuries AD. The eighteen Puranas include, among others, the Matsya, Markandeya, Naradiya, Garuda, Kurma, Skands, Vayu and Vishnu Puranas. The ithihasa (epic) are two –Ramayana by Valmiki and Mahabharata by Veda Vyasa. These drew 3 their inspiration from the pre-Aryan folklore. The Bhagavad Gita is considered a later interpolation in the Mahabharata. The important factor that activated new movements was ‗bhakti‘, the single souled devotion of the worshipper to a personal god, with the postulation of some moral link. This stimulus led to the evolution of different religious sects like Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, all of which came to be regarded as components of orthodox Brahmanism. The worship of Yakshas and Nagas and other fold deities constituted the most important part of primitive religious beliefs, in which ‗bhakti‘ had a very conspicuous part to play. Early literature as well as archaeology supplies us with ample evidence about the prevalence of this form of worship among the people. The folk cults centred on the Nagas and the Yakshas appear to have survived in the orthodox brahmanical fodl in the grab of the worship of the elephant-headed deity Ganesha, whose hybrid figure was an amalgam of the potbellied Yakshs and the elephantine Naga. A sutra in Panini‘s Ashtadhyayi refers to the horsewhippers of Vasudeva (Krishna), whom epic and Puranic traditions describe, as a head of the Sattvata race. The Chandogya Upanishad speaks of Krishna, a pupil of sage Chora Angirasa, who was a sun worshipping priest. The large number of people who worshipped Vasudeva exclusively as their personal god were at first known as Bhagvatas. The Vasudeva-Bhagvata cult was a steadily growing religious movement absorbing within its fold other Vedic and brahmanic divinities like Vishnu and Narayana. The history of the Vaishnava movement from the end of the Gupta period till the first decade of the 13th century AD is concerned mostly with South India. Vaishnava poet-saints known as ‗Alvars‘ peached loving adoration for Vishnu and their songs were collectively named prabandhas. The wave of Vishnu bhakti was supplemented on its doctrinal side by a class of Vaishnava teachers, known as the Sri Vaishnava Acharyas. The most famous of the 12 Alvars were Nammalvar and Tirumalisai Alvar, while those noted among the early Acharyas were Yarnunacharya and Ramanuja. 4 The Alvars represented the emotional side of South Indian Vaishnavism and the Acharyas, its intellectual aspect. Unlike Vaishnavism, Shaivism had it origin in antiquity. Panini, in his sutra on the formation of words like Shaiva, referred to a group of Shiva-worshippers of his time (5th century BC). Patanjali in his commentary on one of the sutras of Panini describes a class of Shiva-worshippers named by him as Shiva-Bhagavatas. He also described briefly the forceful and outlandish ritualism of these worshippers of Shiva, In contrast to the extreme forms of Shaivism, moderate types of the creed appeared in northern and central India in the early medieval period. The secluded valley of Kashmir became the venue of the Pratyabhijna and Spanda Shastra schools founded respectively by Vasugupta and his pupils Kallata and Somananda 9th century AD). The Shaiva movement in the south flourished at the beginning through the activities of many of the 63 saints known in Tamil as Nayanars. Their appealing emotional songs in Tamil were called Tevaram stotras, also known as Dravida Veda and ceremonially sung in the local Shiva temples. The Nayanars hailed from all castes. The brahmin, Tirujnana Sambandhar, for instance, had the greatest respect for his much older contemporary, Tirunavukkarasu (Appar), another Shiva bhakta but belonging to a low caste. The emotional Shiva bhakti successfully preached by the Nayanars and other Shaiva-saints was supplemented on the doctrinal side by a large number of Shaiva intellectuals, whose names were associated with several forms of Shaiva movements like Agamanta, Sudha and Vira-Shaivism, Worship of the female principle (Shakti) and of Surya did not attain the importance of the other two major brahmanical cults at any time during the period under review. As stated, the mother aspect of the divinity was venerated in the pre Vedic times. In the Vedic age, though gods played a more important part in the contemporary mythology, respect was also shown to the female principle as the divine mother, the goddess of abundance and personified energy (Shakti). The author of the Periplus (c. first century AD) refers to a class of such worshippers of the goddess in her virgin aspect as Kanyakumari in his brief 5 account of Comari, the southernmost port-town of India, But there is no doubt that most of the extant works connected with the Tantric form of Shakti worship were composed in later times. Modern Hinduism, i.e., what we today regard as Hinduism, may be dated from the days of Shankara (eighth century AD) who expounded the theory of Advaita or monism. He reformed Hinduism of the degeneration that had ‗set in and gave it a new philosophy. He restored Devi worship to its purity and is said to have put down the Kapalikas who indulged in human sacrifice to appease god Bhairava. In the 12th century AD came Ramanuja with his Visishthadvaita or qualified monism. He laid emphasis on bhaktimarga rather than deliverance through Vedic rites. Madhva in the thirteenth century propounded the dvaita philosophy or dualism. The renovation begun in the south by these reformeis. was carried forward by several saints and sages from oth,r regions in what later came to be called the Bhakti Movement The propounders of bhakti emphasised on the devotion to a personal god as a means of attaining moksha, as against the pathways of action (karma) or knowledge (gyan). The influence of Islam led to the revival of anticaste and monotheistic ideas. The famous propounders of the bhakti movement were Ramananda of Allahabad, Vallbhacharya of Varanasi, Namadeva of Maharashtra, Mirab of Rajasthan, Eknath, Tukaram and Ramdas from Maharahtra, Surdas, the blind poet from Agra, Lalla of Kashmir, Kabir of Varanasi and Chaitanya of Bengal. Extreme dependence of people on the priestly class and of the riestly class on irrational practices made religion synonymous with bigotry and orthodoxy. It was an ironical aspect of Hinduism, that while it tolerated all external religions with a fair amount of indifference, it came to be intolerant vithin its own orbit towards anything which did not conform to established ritualistic details. It was in this context that social evils like infanticide, child marriage, burning of widows, caste rigidity and untouchability and seclusion of women crept into the Hindu society. And with the advent of Western liberal ideas in the nineteenth century, 6 there followed phase after phase of various reform movements in India to renovate the society and rationalise religious thought. Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Movement Raja Rammohan Roy had studied Persian and Arabic, and it was the inner meaning of Hinduism and Islam that drew him to monotheism and that led to his aversion for idolatry. A. brahmin himself, he peeped into the inner substance of brahmanical Hinduism to discover the existence of one omnipotent being. According to him, the refined ideals of Vedanta were the eternal source of Hindu spiritualism. ―To turn the mind of India to the truths of Vedanta became the primemotive of Rammohan Roy.‖ On August 20, 1928, he founded the Brahmó Sabha, which stood for the ―worship and adoration of the eternal unsearchable and immutable being‖. It admitted no image, statue or sculpture, carving, painting or the likeness of anything. Thus Rammohan began the first great religious reform movement of the 19th century. Since religion was the most dominating force in the Indian society, reform of religion meant ‗also the reform of society to an extent. Rammohan endeavoured to rouse opinion against the evil practice of sati which was later abolished. A pioneer of modernism, Rammohan realised the value of Western education and etab1ished two English schools. After his death, Devendranath Tagore took over the leadership of the Samaj in 1843. He took up a bold front on two aspects. Inside Hinduism, his was the reformist movement on the ancient moorings of religion as embodied in the Vedas. Outside, he expressed his ruthless opposition to the Christian missionaries for their criticism of Hinduism and attempts at conversion. Gradually there came about a philosophical transformation of the Brahmo Samaj movement, regarding the question of ‗infallibility of the Vedas‘. The younger members of the Sabha led by Keshabchandra Sen began to advocate more radical social changes. Child marriage, polygamy and kulinism 7 were denounced; emancipation of women and widow marriage was strongly advocated. Finally, in 1866, Keshabchandra Sen and his followers left the parent body and formed the Brahmo Samaj of India. There after the parent organisation came to be known as the ‗Adi Brahmo Samaj‘. A second schism took place in 1978 as Keshabchandra Sen gave his daughter in marriage when his daughter was only 14 years of age. This generated a controversy and a new organisation named ‗Sadharan Brahmo Samaj‘ was formed. After this schism the Brahmo movement lost much of its earlier novelty and purpose. Ramakrishna, Vivekananda and the Hindu Spiritual Awakening If the Brahmo movement of Ramamohan Roy was the outcome of external influences emanating from the enlightenment and rationalism of the modern West, the movement represented by Ramakrishna and his disciples was the result of an inner resurgence of the Hindu spirit to recover itself. According to Ramakrishna, devotion to God was the supreme goal of the mind. The devotion could be expressed through unbounded love. Here, he was at one with the medieval saints of the bhakti school. God could he formless or with a form, it was for man to realise God in any manner. Ramakrishna broke down the barriers which separated various Hindu cults and took them together towards an inward search for the reality. This is a trend described at times as ‗neo-Hinduism‘. Among those who became his disciples, the most celebrated was ‗Narendra Nath Dutta‘, better known as Swami Vivekananda. The Hindu spiritual concepts were interpreted by Vivekananda in the light of modern rationality and progressivism. Side by side he aimed to associate spiritual attainments with the vigour of mind and body. In America, at the Parliament of Religions at Chicago, he stated that Hinduism was not really what the Westerners saw in its outward form, but something more vital and more real. 8 One of the most remarkable endeavours of Vivekananda was to bring spirituality out of its philosophical and unintelligible scriptural seclusion to the mind and heart of the common people who toiled in their worldly existence. Vivekananda organised the disciples to Ramakrishna into an order and formed the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897. This was set up to engage in threefold activity, namely, spread the meaning of Vedantic spiritualism far and wide, strive for a synthesis and harmony among various faiths and cults, and regard the service of mankind as service to God. The Prarthana Samaj The Prarthana Samaj was founded in Maharashtra in 1867 with inspiration from Keshabchandra Sen. Mahadev Govind Ranade was its chief leader. The main difference between Brahmo Samaj and Prarthana Samaj was that, whereas the Brahmos assailed Hinduism by forming an organisation more or less outside the Hindu orbit, the members of the Prarthana Samaj remained in the fold of Hinduism. Rationalisation of Hindu socio-religious habits was the main objective of the Samaj. The Arya Samaj The Arya Samaj wanted to revive Hinduism from within, It also aimed to recover the lost values of Aryanism. The founder of this movement was Swami Dayananda Saraswati. Dayananda Saraswati believed that the Vedas were the source of all truth and supreme knowledge. He also stated that it is the first duty of the Aryas to read the Vedas. The members of the Arya Samaj were required to devote themselves to the physical, social and spiritual welfare of their fellowmen. At the same time, the spread of proper education and a campaign against ignorance or illusion were regarded as objectives of the Samaj. On a more militant platform, the Arya Samaj condemned the Brahmanic rites and rituals, idol worship and superstitious practices. It also strove to bring to the untouchables the status of the Hindus belonging to the upper castes. On the external side, the Samaj threw open the doors of the Hindu society to the non-Hindus. 9 Dayananda himself initiated the Suddhi movement by which non-Hindus could be converted to Hinduism. The Theosophical Society The word ‗theosophy‘ comes from two Greek words, theos and sophia, meaning ‗God‘ and ‗wisdom‘. It was in the USA in 1875 that Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott laid the foundation of the modern Theosophical Society. And it was in 1886 that the Theosophical Society of India was founded. Annie Besant championed the cause of theosophy in India, One of the objectives of the Society was to study and preach Aryan philosophy and religion. The fundamental faith of the theosophists thus was based on Hindu concepts. Apart from the philosophical and spiritual discourses, which the. Society carried on, its valuable contribution to the Hindu awakening came from its literary and research activities. Hindu scriptures were published and translated. The Society also encouraged reforms and framed educational schemes to carry them out. Socio-religious Reform Movements in South India The socio-religious reform movements that originated in the south in the British period aimed to eliminate the ‗adverse‘ rituals while improving the quality of life of the people in general. One of the important movements was the Veda Samaj founded in Madras City in 1864 by Sridharalu Naidu and Keshabchandra Sen. ‗The Samaj accepted the theistic ideals of the Brahmo Samaj. Viewing marriage and other rituals of Hinduism as destitute of religious significance, the Samaj was against sectarian views. It stressed on doing away with caste distinctions, and opposed polygamy and child marriage while supporting widow remarriage. The movement started by Swami Narayana Guru was aimed at emancipation of castes and putting an end to caste discrumnation. Swarm Narayana Guru transformed the agitation of the Izhavas, who were considered untouchables in Kerala society, into a socio—religious reform movement, He wanted to improve 10 the social position of the Izhavas who faced restrictions in dress, customs and religious practices in society. His message of social change was carried out by volunteers who moved from one place to another, asking the people to abandon the did unacceptable customs. JAINISM The jina or jaina means ‗the Conqueror‘. According to Jain tradition their religion is quite old, even anterior to Aryan Brahmanism. The Yajurveda mentions Rishabha, Ajinatha and Aristanemi. One of the Puranas describes Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana. Mahavira (6th century BC) is said to be the historical founder of Jainism. There were 23 Thirthankaras (prophets/gurus who were all kshatriya) before him, Rishabha being the first and Parshvanatha, the twenty-third. Mahavira was a kshatriya, son of Siddhartha, the head of the Jnatrika clan, and Trishla, born in Kundagrama (in Muzaffarpur, Bihar). At the age of 30, he renounced his family, became an ascetic and set out in search of truth. In the thirteenth year of his asceticism, on the tenth of Vaishakha, outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained enlightenment. Fromthat time onwards, he was called jaina or jityendriya (conqueror of his senses), nirgrantha (free from all bonds) and mahavira (the brave) and his followers came to be known as Jam. At the age of 72 he attained kaivalya (nioksha) at Pava, near Patna. Jainism rejects the idea of a creator of the world as well as the authority of the Vedas, though it does not oppose the caste system. However, Mahavira said that humans may be good or bad according to their actions and not on account of their birth. The Jams believe in karma and in the transmigration f the soul. Salvation or nirvana comes on getting rid of the cycle of birth and rebirth, and can be attained by leading a pure life guided by the three-fold path of right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. Right conduct involves 5 abstinences, namely, noninjury (ahimsa), not to lie (satya), not to steal (asateya), non-possession (aparigralta) and control over the senses (brahmacharya). The teachings of the Thirthankaras were compiled in twelve Arigas which were written down at Vallabhi in the fifth century AD. 11 The Jams believe that fasting is a means of austerity. It ke1ps to control the demands of the body and helps to keep the mind focused on the upliftment of the soul. The Jains believe in eight symbols. These are: 1. Swastika signifying peace and well-being; 2. Shrivatsa, a mark manifested on the centre of the Jina‘s chest, signifying a pure soul; 3. Nandyavartya,, a large swastika with nine corners; 4. Vardhamanaka, a shallow earthen dish used as lamp suggesting an increase in wealth, fame and merit due to a Jina‘s grace; 5. Bhadrasana, or throne, which is considered auspicious because it is sanctified by the blessed Jina‘s feet; 6. Kalasha, a pot filled with pure water signifying wisdom and completeness; 7. Minayugala, or a fish couple signifying victory over sexual desires; and 8. Darpana, the mirror that reflects one‘s true self. The Jams later split into two groups—the Digambaras (sky-clad or naked) and the Svetambaras (clothed in white). In belief, there is little difference between the two sects. Digambara monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes, like other possessions, increase dependency and desire for material things. As women are not permitted to be nude, the Digambara sect female renunciates wear white and are referred to as Aryikas. So it is the males who can have full monastic life and attain moksha. Svetambara monastics, on the other hand, wear white seamless clothes for practical reasons, and believe that nothing in the scriptures speaks against wearing clothes. Women are accorded full status as renunciates and are often called sadhvi. It is the belief of Svetambaras that women may attain liberation and that the Thirthankara Mallinath was female. While the Digambaras believe that Mahavira remained unmarried, the Svetambaras believe Mahavira married and a daughter was born to him. The Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambar mendicant Kundakunda (c. 2nd century AD) contains the earliest record of the beliefs of the Digambaras. Indian culture has been deeply influenced by Jainism in ideas such as ahimsa, and in the development of language, literature, art and architecture. 12 BUDDHISM The Buddha, variously termed Sakyamuni or Thathagata, is considered the founder of Buddhism. He was born as Siddharthas to Suddhodhana, the ruler of the Sakyan republic, and his wife Maya, on Vaisakha Purnima in the Lumbini gardens near Kapilavasthu (in Nepal) in the 6th century BC. His family name was Gautama. He married Yashodhara, and had a son Rahula. But the life of luxury left him dissatisfied, and he was troubled by the signs of sickness, old age and death that he observed in. the worldly life. At the age of 29, he decided to leave the palace in search of peace and understanding of the world‘s ills. At the age of 35, again on a Vaisakha Purnima, he attained enlightenment at what is now renowned as Bodh Gaya, in Bihar, and came to be known as the Buddha. He gave his first sermon in the deer park at Sarnat before his first disciples. After more than forty years of wandering about, giving discourses and spreading his spiritual thought, the Buddha attained mahaparinirvana at Kusinara (now in Uttar Pradesh). The philosophy of Buddhism is to avoid the extremes of life, whether it is addiction to worldly pleasure or a life of painful asceticism and self-mortification. The Buddha did not concern himself with metaphysical controversies. Repudiating the idea of God, he emphasised on moral progress which was independent of any creator of the universe. The essence of Buddhism lies in the realisation that life is transient, what transient causes sorrow is, and where sorrow and change prevail, the idea of an immortal or permanent soul is meaningless. Despite this questioning of the existence of an immortal soul, the Buddha seems to have accepted the idea of transmigration. The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism are: the existence of suffering; suffering is caused by trishna; suffering can cease; there is a path that leads to the cessation of suffering. The path to nirvana or cessation of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path—a middle way, avoiding all extremes—comprising steps that progress from morality through concentration to wisdom. The steps are: (i) right speech, kind and truthful; (ii) right action, honest and peaceful; (iii) right livelihood without hurting any living being; (iv) right effort involving self-control; (v) right mindfulness; (vi) right concentration and meditation on the meaning of 13 life; (vii) right thoughts worthy of the sincere and intelligent man; and (viii) right understanding, avoiding superstition. The Buddha brought about a change in the social thinking of the day by speaking up for equality and rejection of rigid rituals. His teachings made people aware of the importance of tolerance, ahimsa, service, compassion and personal morality. After the Buddha‘s death, four Buddhist Councils were held at which his teachings were compiled into Pitakas—Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidharna, referred in their combined form as Tripitaka. Their language is Pali. It was at the Fourth Council in Kanishka‘s reign that Buddhism split into the Hinayana and the Mahayana sects. The former considered the Buddha as a man and gave his teachings an ethical value; the Theravada doctrine emphasised the salvation of the individual. The Mahayanists laid emphasis on the Boddhisattva concept and on the salvation of all sentient individuals. They also subscribed to the theory of Eternal Buddhas who resemble the gods of theistic sects. Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana evolved from the interaction of Buddhist thought and Brahmanical speculations. Today, however, sectarian differences have been minimised to the extent that all schools emphasise on the universal teachings of the Buddha and work on the basis of dhamma. Indian culture got a fresh impetus from Buddhism in the intellectual, literary, artistic and architectural fields. Indeed, the missionaries of Buddhism spread India‘s culture beyond its boundaries to Myanmar (Burma), Sri Lanka, China, Laos, Thailand and other places. SIKHISM Guru Nanak (1469-1538) was an illustrious product of the Bhakti Movement in northern India. He founded a new religion, that of the Sikhs, the term ‗Sikh‘ being derived from the Sanskrit word sishya meaning disciple. Guru Nanak‘s efforts lay in trying to unite Hinduism and Islam through a creed that could express the devotion of both communities. God—termed 14 Vahiguru—is nirankar (shape1ess), akal (timeless), and alakh (sightless). Nanak stressed that God must be seen from ‗the inward eye‘, or the ‗heart‘, of a human being; it is through meditation that devotees may progress towards enlightenment. The rigorous application of meditation permits communication between God and human beings. In Sikh belief, the influences of ego, anger, greed, attachment, and lust—known as the Five Evils—are believed to be specifically harmful. Those who fall prey to the Five Evils suffer separation from God, and can remedy the situation only after intensive and relentless devotion. Nanak said that the guru r teacher) is the voice of God and the guide for knowledge and salvation. It is with the guru‘s grace that the seeker meditates honestly on the shabad or the ‗word‘ which leads to the end of ego. And the shabad is the guru who is indistinguishable from God and they are one and the same thing. One gets connected with the guru only with the accumulation of selfless search of truth. The human body is just a means to achieve the reunion with Truth - which is beyond the realm of time and death. With the achievement of this truth, a person can understand the essence of current and past holy books of all religions. He was against idolatry and spoke against superstitious beliefs whether of Hindu or of Islamic origin, teaching people to distinguish between superstition and true religious values. He emphasised the irrelevance of outward observations such as rites, pilgrimages, or asceticism, Nanak‘s own inspiring poems and songs were compiled in the Adi Granth. He retained the Hindu ideas of the soul‘s immortality, transmigration and karma. But he conceived of the Godhead as one. Nanak spoke of equality of human beings and did not recognise distinction of caste or creed. He initiated the community kitchen of Guru ka Langar. After Nanak came nine gurus. The tenth (and last), Guru Gobind, brought to an end the guru system and organised the Sikhs into a brotherhood of soldiers. He instituted the ceremony of pahul or baptism in water stirred by a dagger, undergoing which - ceremony a person would belong to the Khalsa (the pure) and would be entitled to use the honorific ‗Singh‘ after his name (and ‗Kaur‘ for females). The Khalsa are enjoined to wear the five Ks—kesh (long hair), kanga (comb), kachcha (shorts), kara (iron bangle) and kirpan (short sword). 15 The primary source of scripture for the Sikhs is the Guru Granth Sahib. The Guru Granth Sahib and the Adi Granth— literally, The First Volume—are often used synonymously. However, the Adi Granth refers to the version of the scripture compiled by Bhai Gurdas under the supervision of Guru Arjan Dcv in 1604. The Guru Granth Sahib refers to the final version of the scripture created by Gobind Singh in 1678. It consists of the original Adi Granth vith the addition of Guru Tegh Bahadur‘s hymns. The Guru Granth Sahib is considered the final spiritual authority of the Sikhs. All words in the Guru Granth Sahib constitute ‗Gurbani‘ words, thus making the Gurrnukhi language which has two components—spoken Gurmukhi words (in the form of Gurbani which originated from different languages) and the Gurmukhi script. ISLAM The term ‗Islam‘ is of Arabic origin, meaning ‗submission‘, and the followers of this religion founded by the Prophet Muhammad are Muslims—those who submit (to God). According to Muslims, God sent a number of prophets to mankind to teach them how to live according to His law. Jesus, Moses and Abraham are respected as prophets of God. Muslims believe that the final Prophet was Muhammad. They also believe that Islam has always existed, but for practical purposes, date their religion from the time of the migration of Muhammad. The word of God was revealed to Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel and his messengers and it is embodied in the Quran. Muslims base their laws on their holy book, the Quran, and the Sunnah. The Sunnah is considered to be the practical example of Prophet Muhammad. The basic tenets of Islam are belief in the one God, Allah; belief in Muhammad as the final prophet and messenger of God; and belief that the life on earth is a period of testing and preparation for the life to come after the Judgment Day when everyone shall be recompensed by God according to the actions performed. The followers of Islam are bound to certain duties: the five ritual prayers every day; a weekly Juma prayer on Friday noons; a dawn-to-dusk fast in the month of Ramzan; a pilgrimage to Mecca for the annual congregation of hajj at least once in a lifetime; and payment of zakat (charity) to the poor and needy. 16 There are two mains sects in Islam: Sunni and Shia. The division between Sunnis and Shias is the largest and oldest in the history of Islam. Both sects agree on the fundamentals of Islam and consider the Quran as their holy book, but there are differences mostly derived from their different historical experiences, political and social developments, as well as ethnic composition. These differences originate from the question of who would succeed the Prophet Muhammad as leader of the emerging Muslim community after his death. Sunnis argue that the Prophet chose Abu Bakr to lead the congregational prayers as he lay on his deathbed, thus suggesting that the Prophet was naming Abu Bakr as the next leader. The Shias‘ evidence is that Muhammad stood up in front of his companions on the way back from his last Hajj, and proclaimed his son-in-law, Ali, the spiritual guide and master of all believers. It was only later that these terms came into use. Sunni means ‗one who follows the Sunnah‘ (what the ‗prophet said, did, agreed to or condemned). Shia is a contraction of the phrase ‗Shiat Ali‘, meaning ‗partisans of Ali‘. It is necessary that the word ‗successor‘ is not taken to mean that those leaders that came after the Prophet Muhammad were also prophets; both Shia and Sunni agree that Muhammad was the final prophet. All Muslims are required to pray five times a day. However, Shia practice permits combining some prayers into three daily prayer times. A Shia at prayer can often be identified by a small tablet of clay from a holy place (often Karbala), on which they place their forehead whilst prostrating. The majority of Muslims in India are Sunni. Islam came first to India with Arab traders on the west coast, but spread with the conquest of the north-west areas. There are four schools of jurisprudence— Hanafi, Shafei, Maliki and Hambali. The coming of Islam brought about, a fusion of two vibrant cultures, and Indo-Islamic styles in art and architecture, music and literature evolved. A peculiar interaction between Islamic thoughts and the bhakti movement of medieval India is said to have contributed to the Sufi movement in India. Muslim Socio-Religious Reform in India The Muslim socio-religious reform movements wanted to motivate the Muslims towards following the Islamic ideals in the real sense. Prominent among 17 these movements were the Ahmaddiya movement, the Faraizi movement, the Tariqahi-i-Muhammadiyah movement and the Aligarh movement. The Ahmadiyya movement, started by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in Punjab, wanted to create a community that would he the upholder of true Islam. The Mirza proclaimed a mission as the restorer and mahdi (guide). He spoke against the influence of Christian missionaries in the region. The Faraizi movement founded by Haji Shariatuallah in the nineteenth century implemented and imposed the mandatory religious duties in Islam. It called for a return to faraiz or the obligatory duties of Islam. It emphasised that Muslims should attend daily prayers, fast during Ramadan, pay zakat and perform the Haji pilgrimage. It was against worship at shrines of Islamic saints and rituals such as some of those performed at the birth of a child and the wailing by Shias on occasions like the Muharram, The prominent leaders of the movement included Dudu Miyan and Naya Miyan. Founded by Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi, the Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah movement was an armed movement to create a proper Islamic state. The movement called for the removal of some customs and rituals of ‗Roman, Persian and Hindu origin. Sayyid Ahmad Khan‘s Aligarh movement believed that the Muslims should be educated in such a way that they should serve the community and work as honest-and public-spirited leaders with the English government of the day and protect the interests of Muslims. The educational movement wanted to create an administrative elite class that would govern in cooperation with the British rather than focus on the Ulama. Sufism, or Tasawwuf as it is also known, is not really a sect of Islam, but an aspect or dimension of Islam. Sufi tariqas or schools can be found in Sunn, Shia and other Islamic groups. Sufism came to India in medieval times, even before the establishment of the Sultanate. The early Sufis traced their ideas to some verses of the Quran and traditions of the prophet, but gave them a mystic representation. According to one interpretation, the term, ‗Sufi‘ comes from suf or garments of 18 coarse wool worn by the Sufi saints. Another view is that it comes from safa; the ‗pious‘ people were called Sufis. The Sufis, who were organised into various silsilahs or orders, accepted the prophethood of Muhammad and the authority of the Quran but also absorbed a variety of ideas and practices from different sources such as Christianity NeoPlatonism, Hindu philosophical systems, Buddhism and Zaroastrianism. Sufi mysticism sprang from the doctrine of the unity of being which identified the creator and the creation. The Sufis had two objectives—their own spiritual development and the service of humanity. They attempted to bridge the gulf between orthodoxy and the religion of faith and devotion. They spoke the language of the masses and gave an impetus to cultural synthesis. The stages of spiritual development of the Sufis included repentance, abstinence, piety, poverty, patience, gratitude, fear, hope, contentment and submission to divine will The Sufis discouraged a materialistic outlook of life but they encouraged working for the necessities of life. They did not encourage complete renunciation of the world for attainment of spiritual personality. The Sufis in India, particularly of the Chisti and Suhrawardi orders, adopted music as a means to an end, as a way to remove the barrier between them and God and as a way to attain the supreme spiritual ecstasy. The Sufis were divided into several silsilahs. Some of these orders are briefly discussed here. Chishti Order Khwajah Muinuddin Chishti introduced the Chishti order in India. His ‗pantheistic approach‘ made a great impact on Hindus. His important disciples were Shaikh-Qutubud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki and Hamid-ud-din, The popularity and success of the Chishti saints in India was due to their understanding of the Indian conditions and the religious attitudes and aspirations of the Indian people. Chishtis did not practice renunciation in the literal sense, but their preachings amounted to adopting a detached view towards the world and having no 19 love for money, women, government service or honours. They gave priority to social service over all other forms of devotion. Suhrawardi Order Shihab-ud-din Suhrawardi was the founder of this silsila, which was introduced in India by his disciples Jalal-ud-din-Tabrizi arid Baba ud-din Zakariya. Unlike the Chishtis, the saints of this order led a comfortable life. They made ample provisions for their families and even employed teachers on handsome salaries for the education of their sons. Suhrawardi believed that there was no harm in possessing and dispensing of wealth, if the heart was detached. The order did not approve of the Chishti practice of bowing before the shaikh or in sama, i.e., listening to music and song as a means of stimulating the spiritual urge. Qadiri Silsila Founded by Shaikh Adbul Qadir Gilani, this silsila was introduced in India by Sayyid Muhammad Gilani, who migrated to India arid settled in Uchch near Multan. He had enough wealth and enjoyed a good deal of influence at the court. The most famous saint of this order was Shaikh Mir Muhammad or Miyan Mir. Shattari Silsila Shah Abdullah brought the Shattari order during the Lodhi period. The Shattari saints tried to bring Hindus and Muslims closer by laying emphasis on the similarity of their spiritual thoughts and practices. The Sufis of this order led a spiritual life in comfortable worldly surroundings. This order did not make much headway and the number of its followers was not very large. Firdausi Silsila Badr-ud-din introduced this silsila into India. He expounded that hunger is the root cause of all trouble. Any spiritual endeayour would not be fruitful if this basic need was not fulfilled. Naqshbandi Order Khwaja Bagi Billah introduced this order in India. Of all the Sufi orders, it was the nearest to orthodoxy. CHRISTIAN ITY Jesus Christ founded Christianity which spread throughout the Roman Empire where it was made the state religion in the 4th century AD. Later, the Church split into two broad groups—the Western under the People in Rome and 20 the Eastern under the Patriarchates of Antioch, Alexandria and Constantinople. Still later, the Roman Church was broken up by Protestantism, and in the Eastern Churches many communities set up their own Patriarchates. Christians believe, like the Jews, that there is one God who created the universe and cares for it. Jesus, son of God, was sent into the world as his chosen servant, the Messiah, to help people fulfil their religious duties. Most Christians view Jesus as God incarnate, the Saviour who died to save humanity from sin. Christianity teaches that after Jesus‘ earthly life, God‘s presence remained on earth in the form of the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost. The doctrine of the Trinity is the belief that there are three persons—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Christians see Jesus as continuous with the God of Judaism. A collection of Christian writings called the New Testament was added to the Jewish scriptures called the Old Testament and they together form the Christian Bible. Two practices important to Christian worship are baptism which celebrates an individual‘s entrance into Christianity and Eucharist (or Holy Communion) in which worshippers share bread and wine as a sign of unity with one another and with Jesus. Christians are said to have arrived in India during the first century after the birth of Christ. Evidence suggests that one of Christ‘s apostles, Thomas, reached India in AD 52 and settled in Malabar (Kerala). It is widely believed that he was martyred in Tami Nadu in AD 72 and he is buried in Mylapore, a suburb of Chennai, where the cathedral St. Thome (built in the 16th century) now stands. A rocky hill near Meenambakkam (Chennai) Airport is known as St Thomas‘ Mount. Syrian Christians arrived in Kerala in the 6th century AD in a major missionary movement. The Portuguese later brought a fresh development, introducing Roman Catholicism. The Jesuit, St. Francis Xavier, came to Goa in 1542 and, in 1557, Goa was made an Archbishopric. In the early stages, the churches were quite influenced by the caste system and the Kerala Christians adopted social rules very similar to those of high caste Hindus. It was only in the late 18th century that attempts were made to abolish discrimination on the basis of caste. Christian missionary activity was more limited in north India, though Jesuit missions came to Akbar‘s court in the late 16th century. But Protestant missions in Bengal from the end of the 18th century had a deep influence on cultural and 21 religious development. In 1793 the Baptist missionary William Carey came to Bengal. It was under his influence that the work of 19th century missions rapidly widened to cover educational and medical work as well. Converts were readily made in the tribal areas. Significantly, the Christian populations of the tribal hill areas of Nagaland, Mizoram and Assam stem from such late 19th century missionary movements. The influence of Christian missions in education and medical work was, however, greater than their influence as a proselytising force. Indeed, education in Christian schools stimulated reformist movements in Hinduism itself. Organisations like the Young Men‘s Christian Association (YMCA), Young Women‘s Christian Association (YWCA), and the Salvation Army still do valuable social work. Most main Protestant denominations in India are now part either of the Church of South India or the church or North India. The Syrian Christian Church of Kerala has reunited with the Roman Catholic See of Rome. ZOROASTRIANISM The founder of Zoroastrianism was the Persian prophet Zarathustra, who prob4bly lived, around 6th or 7th century BC. At the heart of Zdroastrianism is the belief in a struggle between good and evil. There is one eternal God, Ahura Mazda, wholly wise, just and good. Angra Mainyu, the spirit of evil, is wholly wicked. Followers of Zoroastrianism believe that good will ultimately triumph over evil, and that the last day will come. Fire plays a central part in Zoroastrian worship. Indeed, earth, fire and air are all regarded as sacred, while death is the result of evil. Dead matter pollutes all it touches, therefore where there is suitable space, dead bodies are placed in the open to be eaten by vultures (as at the Towers of Silence in Mumbai). However, burial and cremation are common nowadays. Zarathustra composed 17 gathas (sacred songs) and the Athuna Vairyo (a sacred chant) which are now studied as writings in an ancient language, Old Avestan. Other later writings form the collection of Zoroastrian holy texts called the Avesta. Translations of Avestan texts with glossaries and commentaries are called the Zend. 22 The first Zoroastrians arrived on the west coast of India in AD 936 on being persecuted and forced out of their native Iran by invading Islamic Arabs. They became known by their now much more familiar name, the Parsis. Although a minority even in cities where they are concentrated and religiously conservative, the Parsis have been a prominent economic and social influence. They adopted westernized customs and took advantage of the economic opportunities offered by colonial industrialisation. In India they have made eight A task Bahram—major fire temples. JUDAISM One of the oldest major religions of the world, Judaism teaches belief in one God. It is the religion of the Jews. Both Christianity and Islam developed from Judaism. The basic laws and teaching of Judaism come from the Torah, the first five books of the Hebrew Bible. The Talmud is a collection of legal and ethical writings, as well as Jewish history and folklore. The Jews believe God prqmised to bless Abraham, the ancestor of the Jewish peccple, and his descendants if they worshipped and remained faithful to God. This covenant was renewed by God with Abraham‘s son, Isaac and Isaac‘s son, Jacob (who was also called Israel, and hence his descendants became known as the children of Israel). God later gave the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mt Sinai, which explained how the Israelites should live. India has two Jewish communities—the Ma1ayalam speaking Cochinis and the Marathi-speaking Bene Israel. Jewish refugees came and settled on the west coast of India nearly two thousand years ago. Their number is negligible, but they have since the very beginning been allowed to live their own lives, and build their synagogues and prayer halls without persecution in India. IDEAS AND TERMS Advaita This doctrine of monisn, —‗No second‘—maintains that the phenomenal universe with its multifariousness and the whole hierarchy of being from the greatest of the gods downwards was not absolutely real, but the secondary emanations of the one ultimate absolute being, the impersonal unchanging entity, Brahman, characterised by the three attributes of being (sat), consciousness. (chit) and bliss (ananda). The quest of man, according to Advaita, is the final realisation 23 of the identity of his soul or inmost self (atma) with Brahman through spiritual training and meditation. The doctrine was first suggested by Vyasa but developed brilliantly by Shankara. Akal Takhat Epitomising the supreme religious authority for the Sikhs, takhats decide issues referred to them in connection with the Panth. The verdicts (hukumnama) of the takhats are binding on the Sikhs. There are four main takhats: The Akaal takhat in Amritsar is held in highest esteem by Sikhs. The other three are the Takhat Keshgarh Saheb at Anandpur in Punjab, Takhat Patna Sahib at Patna, and Takhat Huzur Sahib at Nanded in Maharashtra. Bodhisattva According to Mahayana Buddhists, people do not have to rely on their own efforts to become enlightened; they can be helped by a bodhisattva, a person who has come into this world to guide others to salvation. A bodhisattva is one who strives to become a Buddha by leading a life of virtue and wisdom, works to take all beings to nirvana with him, and may even postpone attaining nirvana in order to relive suffering through acts of love and compassion. The bodhisattvas traditionally well-known are Avalokiteshwara, Amitabha, Vairochana, Manjusri and Sumantabhadra. Maitreya is supposed to be in the Tushita heaven, waiting to come into this world to save humanity in the event of some great peril. Din-I-Ilahi Akbar formulated an order called Din-i-Ilahi (earlier, Tauhit-iIlahi) in 1582. It required belief in one supreme God, and enjoined a code of conduct comprising ten virtues and some principles of social reform. Incorporating elements drawn from all religions, Din-i-Ilahi was based on sul-i-kul or universal harmony, The cult centred around Akbar himself and faded away after his death. Dvaita Madhva in the 13th century originated the philosophy of dualism according to which Brahman, the self and the world are completely distinct. Based on the Upanishads, Madhva‘s theory postulates that the individual soul is created by God and, in the state of highest bliss, draws infinitely close to godhead but it is always aware of its difference from God. Hijrah The Hijrah refers to the flight of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in AD 622 and marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. 24 Lokayata A school of thought associated with Charvaka, Lokayata denied the existence of any soul or pure consciousness, which is admitted by all schools of Hindu thought. Consciousness, it held, was an emergent function of matter mixtures, and hence nothing remained of man after death. The school of materialism denied the infallibility of the Vedas, the doctrine of karma and rebirth. The Mahdi The concept of the Mahdi is a central tenet of Islamic theology. The Mahdi, or rightly guided one, would come at the end of time to spread justice and peace. He will also be called Muhammad and be a descendant of the Prophet in the line of his daughter Fatima (Ali‘s wife). The idea has been popular with grassroots Muslims due to the preaching of several Sufi or mystical trends in Islam. Over the centuries a number of individuals have declared themselves the Mahdi come to regenerate the Muslim world. The ‗Mahdi‘ is not mentioned in the Quran but is mentioned in the Hadith. Mimamsa One out of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, Mimamsa (or Purva Mimamsa) derives its inspiration from the Vedas. Founded by Jaimini around 200 BC, this system believes that the Vedas are revealed and therefore true and accurate; their injunctions must be obeyed. It concerns itself with the verses dealing with rites and ceremonies, hymns and prayers rather than with the theology or the ethics of the Vedas. It propounds that the soul which is eternal and distinct from the body must be active through performing rituals without which knowledge is useless. It does not consider belief in God as necessary. Nihang The Nihang differ essentially from all other Sikh orders in being a militaristic organisation but they are similar in some areas, in that, they are and belong to the Khalsa, created by Guru Gobind Singh. The Niharig wear checkered dresses of electric blue, bangles or bracelets of iron round their wrists (kara), and quoits of steel (chakram) in their conical blue turbans, together with daggers, knives and swords of varying sizes (kirpan), and an iron chain: Banda Bahadur, the famous disciple of Guru Gobind Singh, went from being a Hindu to a Sikh and adapted to this attire. Traditionally known for their bravery and ruthlessness in the battlefield, the Nihang once formed the guerilla squads of the armed forces of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. 25 Nirankari A sect of the Sikhs founded by Bhai Dayas Das in the 1840s, the name Nirankari derives from nirankar (formless), a term used by Guru Nanak with regard to the nature of God. Nyaya One of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, formulated by Gautama in around the beginning of the Christian era, the Nyaya School was essentially a school of logic, maintaining the view that clear thinking was essential for salvation. Nyaya deals with proof and that which is to be proved. It propounds the idea that the soul is eternal and has a parallel existence with God and the world. Sankhya Probably the earliest attempt by Indians at systematic philosophy, Sankhya forms one of the six schools of Hindu philosophical thought. Its foundation is attributed to Kapila. Rejecting rites and sacrifices, Sankhya regards body and soul as real but does not believe in a universal being or God. According to Sankhya, the soul as long as it is associated with the body is subject to passions and desires, and is afflicted by pain. Even after death the soul is caught in the cycle of rebirth with the body. Realisation of the true nature of the body and soul helps one to cast off the body and attain Freedom from pain. Shariah Shariah is the positive law through which the Islamic religion realises the common eternal ideal. Tantricism The cults and sects of Tantricism laid emphasis on the importance of the body, the continuous use of sensual symbolism, and the use of sensual rites. The Buddhist Siddhar, certain Shaiva sects such as Natha Yogis and Kapalikas, certain Vaishnava sects such as Pancharatra and Sahajayana took to Tantricism which involved magical ceremonies. Thirthankara Literally a ‗maker of fords‘, a reference to the role of building crossing points for the spiritual journey over the river of life, a Thirthankara is a Jam prophet or jina who has passed out of the cycle of transmigration and helps others to cross over similarly. Jams believe in twenty-four Thirthankaras. The Kalpasutra recounts their lives. 26 Urs Death anniversaries of Muslim saints are celebrated at their graves by devotees; the days on which they are celebrated are called Urs. Prayers and recitation from the Quran, singing of qawwalis, and offerings of flowers and sheets (chadars) at the tombs, mark these occasions. Uttaramimamsa More commonly known as Vedanta, it is one of the six systems of Hindu philosophy. Based on Badarayana‘s Brahma Sutras this system stressed the significance of the Upanishads. The attempt was to harmonise the Upanishadic teachings into a consistent body of doctrine. The terse aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras were elliptical and ambiguous enough to have given rise to different commentaries and interpretations of which Shankara‘s Advaita, Ramanuja‘s Visishtadvaita and Madhva‘s Dvaita are the most famous. Vaiseshika Originated by Kanada (though some say rishi Kashyapa founded it) around the beginning of the Christian era, Vaiseshika is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy. It is close to the Nyaya School. The school was based on a system of atomism, explaining the cosmic process in which the soul is involved, Like the Sankhyas the Vaiseshikas held that the soul was wholly different from the cosmos, and that its salvation lay in fully realising this difference. The first stage is to realise the atomic character of the universe, that the universe is a complex, endlessly changing pattern of atoms, combining and dissolving according to certain principles. At the end of the cosmic cycle the atoms revert to a state of complete equilibrium. Visishtadvaita In the 12th century AD, Ramanuja gave bhakti a philosophical base by interpreting .Vedanta in a different light from Shankara. He formulated Visishtadvaita (‗Qualifed Monism‘) which transformed the idea of God from an impersonal force to a personal God. The supreme Vishnu, eternal and absolute, had diversified himself at the beginning of time and produced the cosmos; being the work of a real creator, the cosmos could not be ultimately unreal, but shared in God‘s reality. Similarly, the individual soul, created by God as an individual, could not wholly lose its individuality and even in the highest state of bliss was always conscious of itself as being part of God and the recipient of God‘s grace and love. Devotion, according to this school of thought, is of central importance to achieving liberation. 27 Yoga One of the six schools of Hindu philosophy said to have been propounded by the rishi Yajnavalkya, and later systematised by Patanjali, Yoga may be considered a sequel to Sankhya. Unlike Sankhya, however, Yoga believes in the existence of God, who is associated with an absolutely pure mind. Otherwise, all the ideas about psychology and the theory of knowledge found in Patanjali are taken from Sankhya. According to Yoga the human soul should free itself from the bonds of nature, from its own body, from karma and samsara (cycle of rebirth) and attain the realisation of truth and the state of absolute peace of mind (or Yoga). This state of peace can be attained by means of prayer and spiritual exercise. A definite system of moral and religious restraints is the first step towards the ultimate achievement of complete detachment and perfect peace. SOME NOTED PERSONALITIES Andal Andal was the woman poet of the Vaishnava Alvar group of saints of medieval South India, famous for songs and hymns of emotional intensity. Arjan Dev, Guru Fifth in the line of Sikh gurus and youngest son of Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan Dev compiled the Adi Granth. He completed the construction of the holy tank begun by his father at Amritsar, besides getting the Harmandir built. Jahangir ordered his execution in 1606 at Lahore for having supported Prince Khusro who had rebelled against the emperor, his father. Chaitanya Viswambar Misra or Chaitanya (1485-1533) was unique in medieval Vaishnava bhakti history in that he was the initiator of a very broad movement covering Bengal and practically all of east India. His movement involved an organised sect, a theology, and a broad-based popular cult. The theology of the sect was worked out at Vrindavan. According to it, Krishna is considered not merely as an incarnation of Vishnu but as the highest shakti manitest in Radha The devotee‘s aim is to attain through bhakti the supreme state of bliss in which he emotionally identifies with Radha and achieves happy union with Krishna. Chaitanya expressed himself in the sankirtan, a session of hymn singing by a group of devotees. The Chaitanya movement left a lasting impact on Bengali life and literature and inspired later socio-religious reformers. Though no 28 social reformers themselves, the Chaitanyites rejected all distinctions of caste and disregarded the Veda and Vedantists. Chandidas Chandidas (fourteenth century) was a pioneer in Bengali bhakti literature. He holds that the only way to salvation is the love of God. This love must be based on an earthly passion for a particular person, but as this passion needs to be sublimated, the object of this passion should be somebody inaccessible. His Krishna-kirtan, devoted to the love of Krishna and Radha, shows great depth of feeling and profound symbolism. Chishti, Kwajah Muinuddin He brought the Sufi order of Chishti to India. He settled in Ajmer about 1206. Chishti, Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya Under him, Delhi became the real Chisti centre. Chishti, Shaikh Salim Sufi saint who lived in the reign of Akbar, Shaikh Salim Chisti prophesied the birth of three sons to the emperor. Akbar named his eldest son Salim after the Sufi. Fatehpur Sikri was built near the saint‘s dwelling place, Sikri. Dadu Considered an important exponent of the Nirguna School, Dadu, a weaver from Ahmedabad, was a disciple of Kabir. Living in the sixteenth century, he preached love and devotion to God, opposed discrimination on basis of caste, and spoke for Hindu-Muslim unity. Eknath Marathi saint and philosopher of the sixteenth century, Eknath revived the bhakti Vaishnava spirit and tradition in Maharashtra. He was free of caste prejudices. As a scholar he brought out the first reliable edition of Jnanadeva‘s Jnaneshwari. He wrote a commentary on the Ramayana and the eleventh book of the Bhagavata Purana. He was a mystic who showed how one could aspire to the deepest experience of religion within the ordinary framework of life. His songs have become part of the Marathi heritage. 29 Gokulnath A notable religious reformer of medieval India, Gokulnath belonged to the Acharya tradition of the Vallabha sect and was an important figure in the Varta sahitya in Hindi Literature. He wrote the well-known Chaurasi Vaishnavan ki Varta and Do Sau Bawan Vaishnavan ki Varta. Gorakhnath The founder of the Kanphata Yogi sect, Gorakhnath lived in the 12th century. He advocated exercise of certain ascetic practices to gain mastery over matter. Gorakhpur, which was the centre of his teaching, was probably named after him. His cult gained notoriety for fearsome and malignant practices as ritual. Gobind Singh, Guru The tenth and last guru of the Sikhs, Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708), founded the new brotherhood khalsa (the pure) on April 15, 1699. An inner core of the faithful, accepted by baptism, the Khalsa were enjoined to maintain the ‗five Ks‘—kesh, kanga, kachcha, kara and kripan. He fought valiantly with the Mughals to avenge the death of Guru Tegh Bahadur, his father. He was assassinated at Nanded in Maharashtra. Jnanadeva Among the Indo-Aryan languages, bhakti first appeared in Marathi in the 13th century with Jnanesvara (or Jnanadeva). He wrote a Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, more commonly known as Jnaneshwari. His bhakti was due to his connection with the Varkari sect which instituted regular pilgrimages to the Vithoba shrine in Pandharpur. The Jnaneshwari made a pioneering effort by using the vernacular and thus revived the contact with, the masses. It used a form meant for kirtan chanting and drew examples and metaphors from the simple life of the village. Kabir Born a weaver in the 15th century, Kabir was brought up in a Muslim home. He was the renowned disciple of the Vaishnava reformer, Ramananda. For Kabir there is only one way to God—personally experienced bhakti. Man must purify his soul by righteousness and humility, self- discipline and love, and by praise of God in kirtan and in quiet meditation. Kabir spoke against the externalities of religion, scriptures, pilgrimages, superstitions and idols. He also attacked the social injustice of caste. He looked upon humanity as a brotherhood, and all variet4ies of human nature as refractions of the divine. He was heJ in respect by Hindus as well as Muslims, and his songs have been incorporated in the 30 Adi Granth. His poetry written in Western Hindi has a simple colloquial style even though it has profound symbolism. It is poetry of epigrams and short verses. Kabir founded a community, the Kabirpanthi, who consider Bijak, a collection of his verse, as their scripture. Lokacharya Lokacharya lived in the l2th-l3th centuries and propounded the Tengali School of Vaishnavism. He said that God‘s grace is to be sought not only through bhakti and effort but also by accepting that grace. Madhva A brahmin from Karnataka, Madhva in the thirteenth century propounded the dvaita philosophy, opposing Shankara‘s advaita. He founded the Madhva sect at Udipi, his place of birth. He is supposed to have learnt Persian in order to argue and justify his ideas before Muslim theologians. His Sarva-Darsana Sangraha is a philosophical work analysing and explaining systems of Indian philosophy. Mirabai A sixteenth-century Rajput chief‘s daughter, Mira was married to Lakha, Rana of Udaipur (capital of Mewar). Widowed at an early age, she left the court of the Rana to devote herself to the worship of Krishna. She became a disciple of Ravidas. She was a wandering mystic and a poet, composing lyrics in honour of Krishna in Braj bhasha mixed with Rajãsthani. Her verses have been included in the Adi Granth. She considers her relationship with Krishna in terms of a spiritual marriage. She spent her last days in Mathura. Nagarjuna One of India‘s great philosophers originating in Andhra Pradesh, Nagarjuna (c. AD 150) systematised the Madliyamika school of Mahayana Buddhism. Nagarjuna is believed to have been a contemporary of Kanishka. He showed by subtle arguments that all things—the cosmic flux and the consciousness that perceived it—are unreal. The only reality is ‗the void‘ (sunyaia). This great void underlying the universe is, in fact, the primeval Buddha, nirvana. He also wrote Rasaratnakara, Dvadsa Shastra and Sata Shastra. Namdev A contemporary of Jnanesvara, Namdev (1270- 1350) was a tailor who became a great poet of the bhakti marga in Maharashtra. The object of his devotion was Vithoba, form of Vishnu in the temple at Pandharpur. Vithoba was 31 the god of the Varkari Panth, a sect that was averse to asceticism and whose membership cut across the whole caste structure. The names of Namdeva and Jnandesvara are connected with the spread of this sect all over Maharashtra. Namdev tounded a sect and monastery in Gurdasur, Puniab. Nanak, Guru Born at Taiwandi (now called Nankana in Pakistan) in 1469, Nanak was instrumental in the development of Sikhism. He was quite influenced by Kabir, and spoke against caste discrimination, polytheism and priest craft. He tried to bring Hindus and Muslims to ether. He wandered about with his companion, Mardana, who played on a string instrument for Nanak‘s hymns. His disciples were called sakhi. Nanak considered God as without form (nirankar, eternal (akal), and ineffable (alakh), God is immanent in all creation. God communicates his revelations in the form of the sabad (word) uttered by the guru, who perceives a divinely-bestowed harmony, and salvation lies in bringing oneself within the pattern of harmony. The Janam Sakhi gives details of Guru Nanak‘s life. Nand Rishi Muslim Sufi poet, Nuruddin, came to be called Nana Rishi He founded the order of the Rishis and he is the patron saint of Kashmiri Muslims. Rishinama and Nurnama contain his poems. Narsingh Mehta A saint poet of the fifteenth century who sang to Krishna, Narsingh Mehta was a great Gujarati literary figure. His hymns were used by Gandhi at his prayer meetings. Nimbarka A Vaishnava philosopher and mystic of the 11th century, Nimbarka founded the Nimandi sect in the Mathura region. His only extant work is the Dasasloka, but he is known to have given a commentary on Badarayana‘s Brahniasutra and systematically expounded the schools of Vedanta thought. Ramana Maharishi A spiritual experience in 1896 led 20- year-old Venkataramn to abandon home and seek enlightenment. After deep meditation he achieved spiritual understanding at Thiruvannamalai. Henceforth he became known as Ramana Maharish. He died in 1950. Ramananda In his early days Ramananda (1400-1470) probably lived in South India as a follower of Ramanuja‘s Srivaishnava sect. He returned to the 32 north and settled down at Varanasi and established his own sect, the Ramanandis. He looks upon Rama as the supreme God who is to be adored with his shakti, Sita, and whose close companions like Hanuman should also be venerated. He was strongly opposed to caste discrimination and opened his sect to all, irrespective of caste, sex and community as, in God‘s eyes, all are equal. The egalitarian attitude and the exclusive use of the vernacular made the sect different from others. The sect has historical significance for having initiated several other sects and movements in north India. The Kabripanthis and the Sikhs owe much to Ramananda‘s teachings. Ramanuja A Tamil brahmin who flourished about 1100 AD, Ramanuja was born at Sriperumbudur in Tamil Nadu. He gave the rising piety of the times a firm philosophical basis with his idea of bhakuimarg. He interpreted Vedanta in a unique way to produce the system known as Visishtadvaita. He took Vishnu to be the ‗supreme person‘, and founded the Vaishnava sect. He admitted the outcastes too in his sect and encouraged an egalitarian social system encouraging female education. His Sribhasya is an authoritative text for the Vaishnavas. Ramdas The last of the great Maharashtrian hymn makers, Ramdas (160881) was orphaned as a child. After years of wandering and spiritual training, he settled on the bank of River Krishna where he built a temple to Rama whose devotee he was. Ramdas was not only a theologian, but also a reformer concerned with the state of society. Shivaji was his pupil. In Ramdas devotionalism and activism combined. The Dasabodha is a compilation of his writings and sermons produced over several years. Ravidas A disciple f Ramananda, Ravidas came from a leather-worker family and became a great Vaishnava devotee in the fifteenth century. His disciples included Mirabai. His sect is known as Sadnami and the creed prohibits idolatry and enjoins the members to constantly think of God. Ravidas wrote intensely devotional hymns which greatly influenced Hindi literature. Some of these were included in the Guru Granth Sahib. Shankara A brahmin born in Kaladi, Kerala, Shankara became a Sanyasin at an early age. After studying under the philosopher Govindapala, he set out on 33 his own and propounded Advaita philosophy. He is said to have founded four peethas—at Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri and Badrinath. Shankaradeva Shankaradeva was a Vaishnava poet and reformer who brought Vaishnavism to Assam to counter Tantric Shaktism. Shankaradeva‘s poetic compositions include Rukmini Harana Kavya, Damana and Ram Vijaya. He encouraged an egalitarian society and welcomed tribesmen to Hinduism. Surdas A brilliant disciple of Vallabha, Surdas (1483-1563) was a blind musician attached to the temples at Agra and Mathura. His songs are suffused with tender bhakti, and they deal with the state of the lover. His songs are collected in Sursagar. TeghBahadur, Guru He was the ninth Sikh Guru. He laid the foundation of Anandpur in 1665 He was tried and executed by Aurangzeb as an unbeliever. Gurudwara Sjs Ganj Sahib in Delhi marks the place of this execution. His body was taken by a Labana Sikh and cremated at a site where the Gurudwara Rakabganj Sahib in New Delhi now stands. Tukaram Seventeenth-century devotee- of Vithoba who came from a Shudra family, Tukaram composed hymns which are sung to this day in Maharashtra and other places. Tulsidas A spiritual heir of Ramananda, Tulsidas (1532- 1623) is famous for his Ramacharitmanas, a version of the Ramayana in the vernacular. His bhakti is the love of a servant for his loving master; his work is totally free of sensuality. He inspired great devotion to Rama. Vallabha A Telugu born at Varanasi, Vallabha (1479-1531) wielded great influence through his sect in Gujarat and Rajputafla. Surdas was one of his disciples. A devotee of Krishna, he expounded his own doctrine of pure monism. Yajnavalkya Ancient sage and law-giver who presented a code of law in Yajnavalkya Sinriti, Yajnavalkya is also said to have composed the Yajurveda, Satapatha Brahmana and Brihadaranyaka. 34 FESTIVALS AND FAIRS Fairs and festivals are an integral part of Indian life. The diversity of religions and communities ensures a variety of ‗holy‘ days which are celebrated all over the land. Festivals of Hindus Hindu festivals range over the entire year; some are celebrated by almost all Hindu communities while others are of regional significance. In mid-January comes Shankrant marking the change of season when the sun is supposed to move into its northern home and the days get longer and nights, shorter. People usually take a dip in the holy rivers such as Ganga and Yamuna at this time. A day before Shankrant comes Lohri, which is specially celebrated by Punjabis. It is the last day of the month of Paus. The Lohri bonfire is believed to take the people‘s message to the sun to shine brightly and end the chill of winter. The fun is in eating the revdi (a sweet) and popcorn by the bonfire. Coinciding with Shankrant is the Tamli festival of Pongal falling on the first day of the Tamil month of Thai. It is a harvest festival , the chief event being the boiling over of a of pongal—a mixture of rice, dal, jaggery and milk, symbolic of prosperity and abundance. The day before Pongal is celebrated as Bogi dedicated to Lord Indra. The day after is Mattu Pongal dedicated to cows. In January-February, on the fifth day of Magha, Comes Vasant Panchami which is celebrated by Bengalis especially in honour of Saraswati, the goddess of learning. People generally wear yellow clothes on this day. On the fourteenth day of dark fortnight of Magha (Janaury-February) is ce1ebrated Mahashivaratri. It is a day of fasting and prayer dedicated to Lord Shiva. In Phalgun (sometime in March) comes the festival of colours, Holi, It marks the end of winter and beginning of summer and people enthusiastically throw coloured water (or powder) on one another, and exchange good wishes and sweets. One the night before Holi, bonfires are lit to symbolize the destruction of the evil demon Holika. 35 In the month of Chaitra (March-April) Ramanavami is celebrated in temples. Also in this period most of the regional New Year Days are celebrated. Ugadi is the Telugu New Year that usually comes in March. In Punjab the year starts with, the first of Vaisakh, coinciding with the ripening of the rabi: harvest Baisakhi (April 13). At the same time the Nava Varsha‘ of Bengalis begins. The Tamil New ‗Year also begins at this time. ‗The Assamese celebrate their New Year Goru and Rangoli Bihu, as a cattle festival. The people of Kera1again celebrate Vishu with the kani (preparation of an auspicious and omen the preceding night so that it is the first thing one sees on waking up on New Year‘s day). In May the Pooram festival is held at Trichur in Kerala. The highlight of this festival is the parade of decorated elephants. In June-July, Lord Jagannath‘s stately temple chariot goes in procession from the temple at Pun. The Rath Yatra celebrates Krishna‘s journey to Mathura to visit his aunt. The images of his brother, Balarama, and sister, Subhadra, are taken in procession with him. Naga Panchami comes sometime in July-August. It is dedicated to Ananta, the serpent on whose coils Vishnu rests. Snakes are believed to have power over the monsoon rainfall and to keep evil away. On the full-moon day of Shravana comes Raksha Bandhan. Girls tie coloured chors (rakhi) round their brothers wrists. It symbolizes the bond between sisters and brothers. The brothers give gifts to sisters who offer sweets along with the rakhi. On the eighth day of the dark fortnight in the month of Shravana (or in Bhadra) the anniversary of Krishna‘s birth—Janmashtami—is celebrated with prayers and rejoicing. Devotees fast till midnight. Ganesh Chaturthi falls on the fourth day of Shukia Paksha (period of the waxing moon) in the month of Bhadon (AugustSeptember). It is celebrated with particular enthusiasm in Maharashtra. Shrines are erected and a clay idol of Ganesh is installed, all beautifully made and brightly coloured. Every family buys a clay idol. It is worshipped for a specific period before being ceremoniously immersed in a river, tank or the sea. Ganesh is the god of wisdom, the deity who can remove obstacles from anyone‘s path to success. It may be recalled that Bal Gangadhar 36 Tilak popularised this festival on a large scale to invoke nationalistic feelings in the masses during the struggle for freedom. Also in August-September comes Onam, a harvest festival of Kerala. The celebrations lasting ten days begin with a colourful welcome to King Mahabali (the wise and good ruler of ancient Kerala). Beautiful floral patterns are made on the floor, usually with flowers, and girls dance typical items like Kaikottikkali. Onam is specially famous for the Aranmula snake boat races. The earliest record of Onam celebration dates back to AD 861. Dussehra is a festival of ten days celebrated all over India in Aswin (September -October). In the north it celebrates Rama‘s victory over Ravana. The Ramilia is acted out in episodes during the festival and on the tenth Vijayadashami—the effigies of Ravana, Kumbhakarna and Meghnad are burnt to symbolise the victory of good over evil. The Bengalis celebrate the festival as Durga Puja. Gujarat celebrate it as Navaratra (festival of nine nights). In the south it is Navaratri and there is a tradition of displaying dolls images of gods and goddesses on steps and inviting women to each other‘s houses. In Kulu, the festival takes place a little later than elsewhere. But it is a special occasion with images of gods from all over the valley being brought together, as a fair is held to celebrate it. That is why Kulu is called, ‗Valley of the Gods‘. In October-November, that is in Aswin/Kartik, comes popular festival of Diwali (or Deepavali) which falls on a N Moon or Arnavasya. Several legends are associated with festival. One legend is that the lights are lit and there• rejoicing because Rama was returning to Ayodhya after exile. .Bengalis dedicates the festival to Kali, while in the south it commemorates Krishna‘s victory over Narakasura. It is considered, especially in West India, as the day on which Lakshmi, goddess of prosperity, emerged from the Milky Way. Diwali is the New Year for Jains and marks the beginning of the new financial year for some companies. In the south is also considered as the day of the visit of King Bali whose arrogance Vishnu suppressed. It is an occasion when people give one another sweets, and fireworks are exploded in the evening. Kartikai is a festival of lights held on kartik poornirna Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala. It celebrated in honour of the appearance of Shiva at the birth of the universe. 37 The Assamese observe three Bihus or festivals. The Bohag Bihu, the Magh Bihu and the Kati Bihu coincide with the Spring, winter and autumn seasons respectively. The Bohag Bihu or the Spring New Year marks the beginning of agricultural operations. The Magh Bihu is a harvest festival celebrated in winter The Kati Bihu held in October-November involves the worship of the tulsi plant in the house countryard. Festivals of Muslims The festivals and religious days of the Muslims are not, fixed butfal1 about ii days earlier each year. Id-ul-F.itr is a happy and festive occasion. It comes at the end of the Islamic month of Ramadan (or Ramzan). During Ramadan, Muslims keep a dawn-to-dusk fast. The Shias mourn the death of the prophet‘s son-in-law on the 21st arid 22nd of this month. The last ten days of the Ramadan are‘called Lailut a! Kadar—the nights of power; it was during this period that the Quran is believed to have been revealed to Prophet Muhammad. On Id-ul-Fitr, every Muslim must give alms to the poor (fitr means alms), wear clean clothes and join his brethren in Id prayers. Id-uiZuha (also called Id-ul-Azha or Bakr-Id) is another occasion of rejoicing. Hazrat Ibrahim was ordered by Allah to sacrifice the person dearest to him. Ibrahim decided to sacrifice his son ismail at Mina, near Mecca. Just as he was about to apply the sword to his son‘s throat, it was revealed to him that his faith and obedience to Allah were being tested and he could sacrifice a ram in place of his son. Prayers and feasts mark the occasion. Ashura (Muharram) comes on the tenth day of the first Islamic month. Ashura (Muharram) has been a day of fasting for Sunni Muslims since the days of the early Muslim community. It marks two historical events: the day Nuh (Noah) left the Ark, and the day that Moses was saved from the Egyptians by Allah. Shia Muslims in particular use the day to commemorate the martyrdom of Hussein, a grandson of the Prophet, in 680. Though it appears to be a festive occasion with colourful taziahs (a taziah being a model in wood and paper of the tomb of the matyred Hussain) it signifies mourning, and the masked persons in the procession are mourners. Lailat al Qadr, the Night of Power, marks the night in which the Quran was first revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by Allah. Muslims regard this as the most important event in history and the Quran says that this night is better than a thousand months (97:3), and that on this night the angels descend to earth. This is a 38 time that Muslims spend in study and prayer. Some will spend the whole night in prayer or in reciting the Quran. Lailat al Qadr is a good time to ask for forgiveness. Lailat al Qadr is considered to fall on the 27th of Ramadan, though the Prophet Muhammad did not mention when the Night of Power would be, just suggesting it was in the last 10 days of the month. Lailat a!lMiraj commemorates the night journey and ascert of the Prophet Muhammad, and the revelation of Salat. It is celebrated by telling the story of how the Prophet Muhammad was visited by two archangels while he was asleep, who purified his heart and filled him with knowledge and faith. The Prophet travelled from Mecca to Jerusalem in a single night on a strange winged creature called Buraq. From Jerusalem he ascended into heaven, where he met the earlier prophets, and eventually God. During his time in heaven Muhammad was told of the duty of Muslims to recite Salat (ritual prayer) five times a day. Lailat ul Barah (Night of Forgiveness) is the 15th night of Shabaan and rakes place two weeks before Ramadan. It is the time when Muslims seek forgiveness for their sins and believe that on this night one‘s destiny is fixed for the year ahead. On this night, Muslims pray and ask God for forgiveness either at the mosque or at home. Muslims may visit the graves of relatives and the giving to charity is also traditional. Although not a religious requirement, in some parts of the world there are firework displays that mark this night. The wording ‗Lailat ul Barah‘ is Arabic; in Persian and Urdu it is called Shabbe Baraat. Milad un Nabi marks the birthday of the Prophet Muhammad. Muslim parents will tell stories of the Prophet‘s life to their children, Many Muslims, however, do not believe in celebrating birthdays or death anniversaries because there is no historical evidence that the Prophet Muhammad ever did this. Despite this, large numbers of Muslims do commemorate the birth anniversary of the Holy Prophet, which falls on 12th of Rabi-ul-Awwal of the Islamic lunar calendar. Besides these occasions, there are, several shrines where the urs or death anniversaries of saints are held, for example the urs at the tomb of Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti at Ajmer, which attract thousands of pilgrims, Muslim and Hindu. Festivals of Christians With a large number of Christians in the population, it is but natural that all Indians ak familiar with their festivals. Easter is a solemn occasion. It celebrates the return to life of Jesus Christ after his crucifixion. Easter is mostly observed on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the first day of spring in the 39 Northern Hemisphere. Thus the festival can occur on any Sunday in the period from March 22 to April 25. The days associated with the holy week ending in Easter are Palm Sunday which celebrates the story of Jesus‘ triumphal entry into Jerusalem; Maundy Thursday which recalls Jesus‘ last meal, his arrest and imprisonment; Good Friday which observes the death of Jesus on the cross—it is a day of mourning; Holy Saturday which is a day of solemn vigil; and Easter Sunday which celebrates the Resurrection of Jesus. Christians believe Jesus‘ Resurrection means that they, too, receive new life after death. The Easter festival celebrates this belief. Christmas is a festival of joy as it celebrates the birth or nativity of Jesus on December 25, though no one knows the exact date of Christ‘s birth. The Christmas season is marked by goodwill and people exchange gifts and decorates their homes at Christmas time. Sikh Festivals The Sikhs observe the birth anniversaries of their Gurus or Gurpurabs. The birth anniversary of Guru Nanak which comes on Kartik Poomima is celebrated as a festival. The birth anniversary of the tenth and last Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, is also celebrated as a festival. The martydom of some gurus is also observed with piety. Festivals of Buddhists The Buddhists celebrate Buddha Jayanti on Vaisakha Poornirna.. It commemorates the Buddha‘s birth as well as his enlightenment. Parinirvana is a Mahayana Buddhist festival that marks -the death of the Buddha. It is also known as Nirvana Day. Buddhists celebrate the death of the Buddha, because they believe that having attained Enlightenment he achieved freedom from physical existence and its sufferings. There are some other special days of celebration. Dharma(or Dhamma) Day marks the beginning of the Buddha‘s teaching. Soon after his Enlightenment, the -Buddha sought out -his former disciples and shared his experience with them. This event which could be seen as the start of the-Buddhist religion. The first sermon to the Buddha‘s original five disciples is known as ‗The First Turning of the -Wheel of the Dharma (Dharmachakra). Sangha Day is also known as Fourfold Assembly or Magha Puja Day. Sangha Day is a celebration in honour of the Sangha, or the Buddhist community. For some Buddhists Sangha refers only to monks and nuns. -It is a chance for people to reaffirm their 40 commitment to ‗Buddhist practices and traditions. Sangha Day commemorates the spontaneous gathering of 1,250 enlightened monks (arahants) to hear -4he ―Buddha preach at Veluvana Vihara. Here, the Buddha gave his first sermon, or recitation of the Patimokkha (the rules and regulations of the monastic order). The Kathina festival, which originated some 2,500 years ago, celebrates the largest — alms-giving ceremony of the Buddhist year. It occurs at the end of the Vassa, or monsoon, period, in October and November. During this period, normally nomadic ‗Buddhist monks-will have remained in one place for three months, and the Kathina celebration marks the time for them to move on. The festival also celebrates the offerings by lay people of cloth to the monks when they leave. This ceremony is celebrated by the Theravada Buddhists. At the well-known Hemes monastery in Ladakh, there is an annual festival to signify birth of Guru Padmasambhava, the patron deity of the gompa (monastery). Jain Festivals To the Jains Mahavira Jayanthi is a day of celebration for on that day was born Mahavira, the 24th and last of the Trithankaras. Paryushana is another important festival. The word ‗Paryushana‘ means ‗to stay in one place‘, which signifies a time of reflection and repentance for the Jain devotee. Originally this was primarily a monastic practice. This festival consists of eight days of intensive fasting, repentance and puja. Often monks will be invited to give teachings from the Jain scriptures. Diwali has a special significance for Jams, as on this day in 527 BC (according to Svetambara tradition) Mahavira gave his last teachings and attained ultimate liberation. Some very religious Jams follow the example of Mahavira and will fast for the two days at Diwali. Kartik Purnima is considered to be an auspicious time by Jains for pilgrimages to the sacred sites associated with their religion. Parsi Festivals The most important festival for the Parsis is Navroze, or ‗New Day‘ which is held at the time of the spring equinox. It is a joyful celebration of the eternal New Day, when Ahura Mazda‘s kingdom will come on earth. Pateti marks ‗penitence‘ (from patet ‗confession‘, hence also repentance and penitencc). This is actually a day of introspection, and originally occurred on the last day (or on the last 5 days) of the calendar year. However, the last day of Pateti came to fall on the first day of the New Year‘s Day celebrations, and in India came to be celebrated on New 41 Year‘s Day itself. In the Shahenshahi and Kadmi calendars, which do not account for leap years, the New Year‘s Day has drifted ahead by over 200 days. These latter two variants of the calendar, which are only followed by the Zoroastrians of India, celebrate the spring equinox as Jamshed i Nowoz, with New Year‘s Day then being celebrated in July/August as Pateti. A week after Pateti, Zoroastrians celebrate Khordad Sal, the birth of Zarathustra. The chosen date is symbolic as the actual date of Zarathustrá is not known. The feasts to mark the festivals are known as Gahambara. There are six other gahambaras (besides the Navroze one) celebrated by Parsis, and they mark the change of seasons. Festivals of Jews The Jews have their own holy days. Passover is one of the most important religious festivals in the Jewish calendar. Jews celebrate the Feast of Passover (Pesach in Hebrew) to commemorate the liberation f the Children of Israel who were led out of Egypt by Moses. Rash Hashanah is the Jewish New Year festival and commemorates the creation of the world. It lasts 2 days. Rosh Hashanah is also a judgement day, when Jews believe that God balances a person‘s good deeds over the last year against their bad deeds, and decides what the next year will be like for them. God records the judgement in the Book of Life, where he sets out who is going to live, who is going to die, who will have a good time and who will have a bad time during the next year. The book and the judgement are finally sealed on Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur, the most sacred and solemn day of the Jewish year, brings the Days of Repentance to a close. On Yom Kippur, God makes the final decision on what the next year will be like for each person. The special day is marked by Jews in several ways: they abstain from food or drink for 25 hours; they do not wear perfume; they abstain from sex; they don‘t wash; arid they don‘t wear leather shoes. Hanukkah or Chanukah is the Jewish Festival of Lights. It dates back to two centuries before the beginning of Christianity. The festival begins on the 25th day of Kislev and is celebrated for eight days. In the western calendar Hanukkah is celebrated in November or December. The word Hanukkah means rededication and commemorates the Jews‘ struggle for religious freedom. The festival marks the phenomena] victory of a group of Jews called the Maccabees over the Syrian Greeks, the most powerful army of the ancient world. At the end of the three-year war, the Maccabees recaptured Jerusalem and rededicated the temple. Purim commemorates the time when the Jewish people living in Persia 42 were saved from extermination by the courage of a young Jewish woman called Esther. It is customary to hold carnival-like celebrations on Purim, to perform plays and parodies, and to hold beauty contests. Every week religious Jews observe the Sabbath, the Jewish holy day, and keep its laws and customs. The Sabbath begins at nightfall on Friday and lasts until nightfall on Saturday. God commanded the Jewish People to observe the Sabbath and keep it holy as the fourth of the Ten Commandments. The idea of a day of rest comes from the Bible story of the Creation: God rested from creating the universe on the seventh day of that first week, so Jews rest from work on the Sabbath. Jews often call the day Shabbat, which is Hebrew for Sabbath, and which comes from the Hebrew word for rest. Tu B‘Shevat is the Jewish ‗New Year for Trees‘. It is one of the four Jewish new years (Rosh Hashns). On Tu B‘Shevat Jews often eat fruits associated with the Holy Land, especially the ones mentioned in the Torah. Fairs India has several fairs on different occasions. The most famous of these is the Kumbh Mela which is a periodical affair. According to legend, the gods and demons vied for the pot (kumbha) that held the nectar of immortality (amrit). During the fight for possession which lasted 12 days, Vishnu was running with the pot when four drops of the amrit fell to earth. The four places where it fell—Nasik (Maharashtra), Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh), Hardwar and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh)— were thus made sacred. The Kumbh Mela is celebrated at each of these places; it alternates between the four places every three years in January-February. When it is Allahabad‘s turn, it is a grand affair witnessing the largest gathering— the Maha Kumbh Mela, for at Allahabad, is Prayag, the meeting place (sangam) of the Ganga, the Yamuna and the hidden Saraswati. Every year in January-February the Magh Mela attracts large crowds to Prayag. On the banks of the Pushkar Lake near Ajmer (Rajasthan), India‘s greatest cattle and camel fair—the Pushkar Mela—is held on Kartik Poornima (in OctoberNovember). In January the Ganga Sagar Mela is held at Sagar, south of Calcutta, where the river Hooghly joins the sea. Vast numbers of pilgrims bathe in the holy waters. Pushkaram is also a festival held once in twelve years along the Godavari in Andhra Pradesh, especially at Rajamundry and Kovvur. People take a dip in the river and offer worship. 43